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Florence M. Paisey
Dr. Donald Latham
Preliminary Preparation: Theory
July 2014
Building Digital Archives: Realistic Social Constructions
Scientific, social, and humanistic theories largely proceed from a
disciplines dominant ontological and epistemological perspectives. This paper
emphasizes the importance of epistemological clarity in relation to theory and
two theories that provide principles for research in understanding the acceptance
of digital humanities and digital resources by humanities scholars. The Social
Construction of Technology as well as Foucaults notion of discursive
communities offer conceptual frames to understand digital resource use as well
as information behavior, organization, and knowledge production.
Digital humanities approaches knowledge production in both the
humanities and social sciences with unconventional theory and methods. It
brings quantitative project and application driven technologies to both
humanities and social sciences, often in a cross disciplinary way. Digital scholars
work with an abundance of empirical material using modern automated analysis
methods...across a number of disciplines (Evans and Rees 23).
Digital technologies enable scholars to ask new questions and extend
interpretive potentialities. Automated means of analyzing massive textual data
sets enable distant reading. Other digital tools afford conceptual mapping and
graphing across disciplines and within socio-cultural contexts over centuries
(Moretti 18). As a result, genuinely new modes of inquiry...such as building,
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modeling, simulating, sampling or experimenting emphasize topics and
interpretation through numerical, machine generated data (Liu Academic 19;
Meaning 414).
This emphasis implies a positivist epistemology and challenges the long
standing epistemological, ontological, theoretical, and methodological
underpinnings of humanities and recent social science research, bringing tension
to some, enthusiasm to others. Texts or data analyzed through automated
processing and quantitative emphasis stand in stark contrast to traditional
humanist concerns with qualitative data concerned with individuals, expressivity,
uniqueness, and ambiguity. Alan Liu believes the humanistic interpretive
tradition and search for meaning accounts for the humanist tension over
realigned epistemological approaches. How does the humanist move from
numbers to meanings? What meanings and what kind of knowledge can be
adduced from quantifiable aspects of culture? (Liu Academic 19; Liu Meaning
411).
Manoff states that scholars are raising questions about what counts as
knowledge and what are appropriate objects of study in specific disciplines (14).
She observes that there is growing confusion among librarians, the archival
community, and disciplinary scholars about the concept of the archive. As Manoff
points out, the notion of the archive reflects the development of theories about
the nature of the disciplines and about what constitutes their legitimate objects of
study (11). Are archives repositories and collections of artifacts and
manuscripts? Are they repositories of published materials and other cultural
objects? If electronic, are they simply anything that exists as a digital
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assemblage? Are they a discrete collection of related electronic documents a
thematic text?
Drucker typifies the philosophical tension in the humanities, observing
that digital humanists have crossed their epistemic boundaries by adopting
digital tools blindly without due consideration for their epistemological biases
(Humanities 1). She cites Google maps, timelines, topic mapping, and other
digital representations as realist observer independent abstractions, describing
a priori conditions, and that this empiricist approach conflicts with interpretative
epistemologies of humanistic inquiry and knowledge production.
And yet, Drucker appreciates the techniques, insights, and understandings
that data mining and large corpus processing bring to the humanities
(Humanities 8). The challenge she presents is rethinking digital tools for
visualization on basic principles of the humanities (Humanities 7). Her issue is
well-taken textual elements, specifically graphical elements, produce meaning
(Drucker Graphical 275).
How can GIS tools, topic mapping, literary maps, and graphs serve as
tools, particularly for subtle, graphic expressivity? (Drucker Graphical 271;
Reuschel 2). Bodenhamer, Corrigan, and Harris recognize the epistemological
implications for humanists, particularly with GIS tools, but they point out that
humanities scholarship entails moving beyond traditional disciplinary and
methodological boundaries and scholarly comfort zones. They believe the true
potential of GIS and spatial humanities emerges from an interdisciplinary nexus
(168).
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McCarty states that digital tools belong in the humanities, asserting that
they help scholars ask better questions (1224). He reviews the role of computing
in the humanities, beginning with Busas Index Thomisticus, and criticizes the
traditional model of humanities scholarship for its failure to describe serious
intellectual work in humanities computing (1227). Unsworth identifies several
sophisticated digital archives and emphasizes the activities that digital
information, particularly networked digital information, bring to higher level
scholarly activity across disciplines, over time, and independent of theoretical
orientation (1).
Clearly, regardless of ones academic discipline or epistemic culture,
prevailing intellectual assumptions or epistemologies describe the nature of
knowledge, the forms it takes, and how one acquires it (Corbetta 12). Given that
digital tools cross disciplinary boundaries and digital archives contain materials
representative of all disciplines, clarification of the role epistemology plays in
theory, research, and practice is essential in developing robust understandings of
epistemic cultures, particularly in humanistic subjects. Budd recognizes that LIS
is a practical profession and probes the role epistemology plays in the field as well
as the purpose a philosophical investigation on knowledge serves
(Phenomenology 7).
Hjorland asserts that ones epistemological roots or claims whether
positivist, empiricist, rationalist, structuralist, post-structuralist, or realist bear
deeply on information science and on research questions one asks, particularly
regarding information behavior, collection development, knowledge
organization, and, ultimately, the criteria on which one determines available
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information resources as well as their description (Arguments 497; Empiricism
140-145). While LIS is admittedly a practical field, practical problems are
resolved on the basis of theoretical and epistemological assumptions (Talja,
Tuominen, Savolainen 79). Hjorland emphasizes the need for LIS scholars to
consider epistemological problems or how knowledge is understood and
acquired (LIS and Philosophy 5).
In general a scholars view of what constitutes knowledge generates his or
her theoretical orientation and LIS practices. Budd states:
All this [epistemology] may seem so specialized as to be useless to
us in LIS. On the contrary, we in LIS must be concerned with
knowledge, both in the critical examination of our profession and in
the daily workings of those who ask questions, seek information,
and read (Knowledge 204).
What one acknowledges as knowledge will directly affect the conceptions and
the purpose of a library, uses of information, the organization of information for
use, and the behaviors of users (Budd Knowledge 7).
Epistemology explores the nature of knowledge, the different kinds of
knowledge, and those conventions associated with domains, disciplines, or set[s]
of principles and procedures (Bruner 2). Hansson states that LIS is on the
border between social sciences and humanities, so perspectives on epistemology
and interpretative methodology are important (Hermeneutics 102). LIS
professionals study information seeking, classify and organize knowledge, index
and represent it, provide document retrieval, and build information collections
across all domains or disciplinary boundaries physically and virtually. As such,
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ones perspective on knowledge and its discovery directly impinges on the
foundation of information science, theoretical development, and LIS practices.
Hjorland points out that anti-realist, anti-essentialist epistemologies
currently dominate discourse and theoretical orientations in the field of
information science. The anti-realist epistemology maintains that reality exists
only as ideas, concepts, and social constructions (Arguments 489). As such,
individuals are inextricably bound within their perceptual, experiential, and
informational range and this range will vary with contextual factors socio-
cultural norms, historical trends, and socio-cognitive factors. The possibility of a
mind-independent reality does not exist. Burr emphasizes that with anti-realism
we construct our own versions of reality between us and that there can be no
given, determined nature to the world or people (5-6).
Hjorland opposes this anti-realist foundation and expresses his
frustration, stating, It is shocking that one has to argue for a mind independent
reality (Arguments 489). With specific reference to information organization
and description, he argues that what they [users] know about resources and
potentialities is very different from the objective possibilities of resources.
Hjorland states, A given document may be relevant to a given purpose whether
or not the user believes this to be so (Arguments 497). From this perspective,
information systems and collections should relate to objective, realist knowledge
claims, rather than subjective, anti-realist, or constructionist epistemologies. If
not, according to Hjorland, one risks eliminating significant information sources
and descriptors due to user biases and limitations. Barretts study of humanists
information behavior emphasizes the broad range of documents these scholars
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need. Such resources include printed books, specific editions, primary sources,
images, film, sound recordings, newspapers, dissertations, maps, museum
artifacts, databases, and historical contextual materials (327).
When it comes to the nature of knowing epistemology most of us agree
that certain objects and entities exist regardless of whether or not we can observe
them, perceive them, or have direct knowledge of them (Hjorland Arguments
488). The Pacific Ocean exists regardless of ones experience with it. Atoms are
elements that are invisible, but make up matter and energy. Oxygen is unseen but
necessary for human and animal respiration. Yet, anti-realist epistemologies
reject this notion, claiming, truth is found only within community (Gergen and
Gergen 7). In other words, if a community agrees that the sun revolves around
the earth, this is reality and this becomes the knowledge base for a particular
community.
Unlike positivist, empiricist, or rationalist views, critical realist
perspectives do not deny that socio-cultural and subjective reality or knowledge
exists. It accepts both an independent reality and a socially negotiated reality
events that we can experience and describe, and the hidden, but nonetheless
real, mechanisms behind them. This conception views reality as hierarchically
ordered where a lower level creates conditions for, but does not determine, the
higher level (Wikgren 17).
Bhaskar, a leading exponent of critical realism, envisions reality as
multilayered. It exists independently of what we think of it (intransitive) and how
we think of it (transitive). Knowledge forms include the physical, social, and
conceptual with variant epistemological and ontological characteristics.
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According to Bhaskar, conflating the epistemological and ontological is to
commit the epistemic fallacy (Scientific Realism 50). Bhaskar and Lawson state:
...reality is constituted not only by experiences and the course of
actual events, but also by structures, powers, mechanisms, and
tendencies by aspects of reality that underpin, generate or
facilitate the actual phenomena that we may experience
(Introduction 31).
With regard to Bhaskars concept of CR, Budd claims:
Society, in critical realism, is not an object separate from people,
but neither do people at a point in time make society. It [society]
both preexists the individuals who live right now and is
shaped by those individuals (Bhaskars CR 36).
Within the perspective of critical realism, an individual experiences a
hierarchically ordered socio-cultural reality and constructs meanings. However,
this perceived reality is always underpinned by a mind independent reality and
hidden causal mechanisms. Wikgren states:
Critical realists recognize the reality of the natural world as well as
the events and discourses of the social world...In other words, CR
distinguishes between a reality independent of what we think of it
(the intransitive dimension) and our thinking of it (the transitive
dimension) (16).
Critical realism offers a philosophical basis for numerous disciplines,
topics, and social theories. In information science Wikgren relates CR to a
foundation for analysis of information needs, seeking, and use (15). In terms of
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CR, a meta-theory of information seeking should center on socially and
linguistically negotiated production of knowledge (16). Models of information
seeking and use that critical realism could frame include Kuhlthaus Information
Search Model (ISM) and Dervins sense-making theory.
Critical realisms perspective on information behavior emphasizes an
individuals immediate information need, phenomenological experience, and the
wider, objective, realist possibilities relating to that need. The research process
is a continuous expansion of knowledge involving generation, application, and
refutation of theories (Mir and Watson 2013). Critical realism recognizes that
ones knowledge is limited, but with continuous research an individual
progressively builds toward a formalization of reality. Constructivism, closely
related to critical realism, emphasizes the way in which knowledge is actively
built up by the individual mind to serve the organization of internal and external
reality (Talja, Tuominen, Savolainen 81). Critical realism would acknowledge
the veracity of this statement while also recognizing an external, underlying
reality that is open and that individuals continuously serve in knowledge
production.
Critical realisms acknowledgement of a reality independent of what we
think of it and our thinking of it relates to Hjorlands argument that a users
knowledge of a subject differs from the objective possibilities of resources
(Arguments 497). From this perspective, information systems and collections
should relate to objective, realist knowledge claims, rather than subjective, anti-
realist, or constructionist epistemologies. If not, according to Hjorland, one risks
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eliminating significant information sources and descriptors due to user biases
and limitations.
Yet, how does one develop a digital archive, a thematic collection, based on
objective, realist knowledge claims? (Palmer Thematic 349). First, in keeping
with the critical realist epistemology, it is important to establish that digital
archives involve a suite of information resources including multimedia, graphing,
and spatial technologies and that these technologies are tools; they are social
constructions that we have actively brought about as aids in discovering hidden
structural contingencies that give rise to observable events. In terms of their
reality, we can concur with Heidegger. He states, the essence [reality] of
technology is by no means anything technological (35). The reality relates to an
uncovering or revealing [of truth] (Heidegger 36-37).
The Social Construction of Technology (SCOT) offers a model of
technological development by focusing on meanings given to them
[technologies] by relevant social groups (Pinch and Bijker Directions 46). These
relevant social groups assign meaning to an artifact or tool and shape it according
to the solutions to problems that a technology may solve. In terms of Bhaskars
epistemological and ontological perspective, individuals and groups
stakeholders interpret and ascribe meanings to technology, thereby shaping it
through an interactive discourse among relevant stakeholders. In other words,
stakeholders experience, describe, and embed meanings in an artifact as social
beings and as part of a socio-political world. The meanings and interpretations
that stakeholders embed in technologies form developmental paths that
eventually lead to a technologys stabilization (Kline and Pinch 113).
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Technologies, their development, and stabilization come about through
the experience and meanings stakeholders ascribe to them. Epistemological
variations on SCOT include a constructivist emphasis as with Bijker and Pinch
and Callons, Latours and Laws wider realist view that treats both human actors
and natural phenomena as networks (Bijker et al. Directions 5). Whether the
emphasis is constructivist or realist, within SCOT technologies develop as a social
or socio-political negotiation. Each relevant group is characterized by variables
and each group holds a stake power in a particular technology (Bijker &
Pinch 404).
In this sense, critical realism offers a compatible epistemological basis for
SCOT. Wikgren states:
Critical realism maintains that people cannot be reduced to society
or society to people; social structures, cultural systems, and
human agents each possess their own emergent properties which
have to be taken into account when analyzing social phenomena.
Both critical realism and specific versions of SCOT include the independence of
the physical world, individual experience, and the consequent networks. In
addition to stakeholders, interpretive flexibility, and stabilization, SCOT views
controversy and closure as key stages in forging the development path for all
technologies.
Stakeholders in digital archives vary from general users to subject-specific
and multidisciplinary scholars. Each groups information needs and behavior
differ. Scholarly cultures seek information differently from general users.
Humanities scholars seek information differently from scientific scholars. Their
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research path like Bates berry picking is often non-linear and their interests
or stake in a digital archive will depend on its relevance to their study, the sites
documentation, usability, and functionality (Warwick 3). The First World War
Poetry Digital Archive is an excellent example of such a resource
(oucs.ox.ac.uk/ww1lit/). This resource, based on realist possibilities enables
literary and interdisciplinary scholars to explore broadly across a wide array of
materials working through collected texts from unfamiliar areas to build their
knowledge base (Palmer and Neumann 107).
While Hjorland questions the worth of user studies, Warwick claims that
research developers should study users, not the resource, using mixed methods
(4). In terms of SCOT, one would study a cohesive stakeholders group prior to
building a technology, tool, or digital archive. Users needs, problems, and
surmised solutions will shape the concept of the technology and its facets in
this case a digital archive and, to the extent that the site satisfies users
information needs and behavior, the archive will form a developmental path,
eventually stabilizing until its usefulness is outgrown. At this point, the archive
may respond to stakeholders interests, and re-form.
Michel Foucaults post-structuralist concept of discursive formation
relates well to the organization or open, hyper-textual functionality of a robust
digital archive. The digital archive Civil War Washington is an example of an
open, complex collection of Civil War documents including primary source
materials, images, multimedia, journals, and current writing (Lawrence et al.)
Foucaults notion of the discursive community does not address digital or
information technologies explicitly. Rather, the emphasis is on knowledge
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production as texts relate to other texts and within sociopolitical contexts. In
addition, discourses are open; they form part of a broader network of power
relations often crossing disciplinary boundaries (Olsson Foucault 68).
Foucault believes patterns and formations between texts constitute knowledge
production, and he maintains that individuals construct knowledge through
discursive formation or the way a person organizes texts in a collection with
respect to each other (Radford and Radford 70).
While Foucault falls within some constructionist claims he may also be
viewed as a critical realist. Foucault does not deny the existence of a mind
independent reality; knowledge claims are realist they are open and recognize
progressive development of thought as knowledge production. Foucault believes
specific statements, materials, texts, or documents form regularity or a
rhetorical network within a particular context or conditions of their historical
appearance (Foucault 48). This interdisciplinary narrative is reminiscent of
Hjorlands domain analysis where knowledge domains are discourse
communities (Hjorland and Albrechtsen 400; Hjorland 422).
Foucaults discursive communities involve the user, his or her information
behavior within a sociopolitical context. The focus is on knowledge production
rather than technological development. Bikjer and Pinchs SCOT focuses on the
user and technology. Foucaults concept of discursive communities and SCOT can
form a strong alliance in the conception and development of digital resources,
archives, and their functionality.
The applications of both Foucaults concepts and SCOTs form an
extensive list much too long for the scope of this discussion. Morettis
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groundbreaking, quantitative study of book history tracing the rise and fall of the
novel and its structures over three centuries necessitated an open, realist
epistemology, an understanding of the in-depth subject expertise, users
information needs, discursive communities, and the development of digital tools.
His notion of the archive, its organization, and description is "radically" different
from conventional concepts. Morettis resource organization, like SCOTs,
emphasizes a group's or community's "shared engagement with a text" as well as
a "set of interpretations." One text may have different "identities" for different
discourse communities. A study of the Christian Bible would exemplify variant
groups and their engagement with a text. The Christian Bible has been written,
interpreted, and described by many discourse communities within the context of
time and space (Olsson 66).
SCOTs purpose aims to explain how technological objects develop and
stabilize. Foucault focuses on the narratives and discursive practices across
subjects. These communities are a complex network of relationships between
individuals, texts, ideas, and institutions with each node impacting to varying
degrees on other nodes and on the dynamics of the discourse as a whole (Olsson
65). Digital archives can offer an expanse of texts, each open through hyper-
textual functionality, so users can discover variant, meaningful narratives.
Foucaults conception of discursive communities anticipated networked
information.
In short, critical realism provides the epistemological and ontological
foundation that underpins SCOT and Foucaults notion of discursive
communities. Both theories offer a system of assumptions, principles, and
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relationships posited to explain a specified set of phenomena (Tennis 104).
Epistemology defines the nature of knowledge what it is and how to get it. Its
assumptions form a foundation for theory and methods, clarifying the nature of
knowledge, epistemic cultures, and furthering knowledge production.




















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Questions:
1. What role and significance does epistemology play in LIS theory and practice.
2. What are the fundamental distinctions between realist and anti-realist
epistemologies? Identify and explain three LIS theories that represent each
group.
3. Are critical realism and the Social Construction of Technology compatible
epistemological and theoretical foundations? Define each and discuss and their
relationship.
4. What is Foucaults concept of discursive formation and how does this theory
apply to and strengthen the construction of digital archives?
















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