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Introduction
We have studied interactions and forces between objects. Now we will focus on the objects
themselves. Objects are made of matter. Matter is the stuff that we touch, see, smell, lift.
We have seen in a previous course that matter comes in bits called the molecules which are
made of smaller structures, called atoms that are formed by three different sub atomic
particles namely, the protons, neutrons and electrons.
Matter has three general properties: extension (occupies a place in space that cannot be
occupied by other mass at the same time), inertia (will never change its movement be it in
speed or direction), and gravitation (pieces of matter attract themselves to form lumps,
planets and finally stars)
horizontal), then ... an object in motion would continue in motion in an effort to reach the
original height.
Suppose that there are two seemingly identical bricks at rest on a table. However, one brick
consists of mortar and the other brick consists of Styrofoam. Without lifting the bricks, how
could you tell which brick was the Styrofoam brick? You could give the bricks an identical
push in an effort to change their state of motion. The brick which offers less resistance is
the brick with less inertia – and therefore the brick with less mass (i.e., the Styrofoam
brick).
The behaviour of all objects can be described by saying that
objects tend to "keep on doing what they're doing" (unless
acted upon by an unbalanced force). If at rest, they will
continue in this same state of rest. If in motion with an
eastward velocity of 5 m/s, they will continue in this same
state of motion (5 m/s, East). The state of motion of an object
is maintained as long as the object is not acted upon by an unbalanced force. All objects
resist changes in their state of motion – they tend to "keep on doing what they're doing."
Have you ever experienced inertia (resisting changes in your state of motion) in an
automobile while it is braking to a stop? The force of the
road on the locked wheels provides the unbalanced force to
change the car's state of motion, yet there is no unbalanced
force to change your own state of motion. Thus, you
continue in motion, sliding forward along the seat. A
person in motion tends to stay in motion with the same
speed and in the same direction ... unless acted upon by the
unbalanced force of a seat belt. Yes, seat belts are used to
provide safety for passengers whose motion is governed by Newton's laws. The seat belt
provides the unbalanced force which brings you from a state of motion to a state of rest.
Perhaps you could speculate what would occur when no seat belt is used.
The mass of an object is just a property of its own: it depends on how many particles it has,
the mass of each of the particles and how tightly these particles are packed
Isaac Newton built on Galileo's thoughts about motion. Newton's first law of motion
declares that a force is not needed to keep an object in motion. Slide a book across a table
and watch it slide to a stop. The book in motion on the table top does not come to rest
because of the absence of a force; rather it is the
presence of a force – the force of friction – which
brings the book to a halt. In the absence of a frictional
force, the book would continue in motion with the same
speed and in the same direction – forever! (Or at least
to the end of the table’s top.) A force is not required to
keep a moving book in motion; in actuality, it is a force
which brings the book to rest.
Newton’s First Law of Movement is stated as follows
“An object at rest tends to stay at rest and an object in motion tends to stay in motion
with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced
force and vice versa.”
If we consider that to be at rest is just moving with v = 0 m / s and that velocity is a vector,
so that unchanged direction is implicit in the term “constant velocity” we can shorten the
statement to:
Universal Gravitation
• The paths of the planets about the sun are elliptical in shape, with the centre of the
sun being located at one focus. (The Law of Ellipses)
• An imaginary line drawn from the centre of the sun to the centre of the planet will
sweep out equal areas in equal intervals of time. (The Law of Equal Areas)
• The ratio of the squares of the periods of any two planets is equal to the ratio of the
cubes of their average distances from the sun. (The Law of Harmonies)
While Kepler's laws provided a suitable framework for understanding the motion and paths
of planets about the sun, there was no accepted explanation for why such paths existed. The
cause for how the planets moved as they did was never stated. Kepler could only suggest
that there was some sort of interaction between the sun and the planets which provided the
driving force for the planet's motion. To Kepler, the planets were somehow "magnetically"
driven by the sun to orbit in their elliptical trajectories. There was however no interaction
between the planets themselves.
Newton was troubled by the lack of explanation for the planet's orbits. To Newton, there
must be some cause for such elliptical motion. Even more troubling was the circular motion
of the moon about the earth. Newton knew that there must be some sort of force which
governed the heavens; for the motion of the moon in a circular path and of the planets in an
elliptical path required that there be an inward component of force. Circular and elliptical
motion was clearly departures from the inertial paths (straight-line) of objects; and as such,
these celestial motions required a cause in the form of an unbalanced force. The nature of
such a force - its cause and its origin - bothered Newton for some time and was the fuel for
much mental pondering. And according to legend, a breakthrough came at age 24 in an
apple orchard in England. Newton never wrote of such an event, yet it is often claimed that
the notion of gravity as the cause of all heavenly motion was instigated when he was struck
in the head by an apple while lying under a tree in an orchard in England. Whether it is a
myth or a reality, the fact is certain that it was Newton's ability to relate the cause for
heavenly motion (the orbit of the moon about the earth) to the cause for Earthly motion (the
fall of an apple to the Earth) which led him to his notion of universal gravitation.
5
Isaac Newton compared the force the moon to the force on objects on earth. Believing that
the same kind of forces was responsible for each, Newton was able to draw an
important conclusion about the dependence of gravity upon distance. This
comparison led him to conclude that the force of gravitational attraction between the
Earth and other objects is inversely proportional to the distance separating the
earth's centre from the object's centre. But distance is not the only variable affecting
the magnitude of a gravitational force.
Newton knew that the force which pulls the apple down (gravity) must be dependent upon
the mass of the apple. Big apples are heavier, more difficult to lift. And since the force
acting on the apple downward is equal and opposite to the force acting on the earth upward
(Newton's third law), that force must also depend upon the mass of the earth. So for
Newton, the force of gravity acting between the earth and any other object is directly
proportional to the mass of the earth, directly proportional to the mass of the object, and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance which separates the centres of the earth
and the object.
But Newton's law of universal gravitation extends gravity beyond earth. Newton's law of
universal gravitation is about the universality of gravity. All objects attract each other with
a force of gravitational attraction. This force of gravitational attraction is directly dependent
upon the masses of both objects and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
which separates their centres. Newton's conclusion about the magnitude of gravitational
forces is summarized symbolically as
Since the gravitational force is directly proportional to the mass of both interacting objects,
more massive objects will attract each other with a greater gravitational force. Hence, as the
mass of either object increases, the force of gravitational attraction between them also
increases. If the mass of one of the objects is doubled, then the force of gravity between
them is doubled; if the mass of one of the objects is tripled, then the force of gravity
between them is tripled; if the mass of both of the objects is doubled, then the force of
gravity between them is quadrupled; and so on.
Since gravitational force is inversely proportional to the separation distance between the
two interacting objects, more separation distance will result in weaker gravitational forces.
So as two objects are separated from each other, the force of gravitational attraction
between them also decreases. If the separation distance between two objects is doubled
(increased by a factor of 2), then the force of gravitational attraction is decreased by a
factor of 4 (2 raised to the second power). If the separation distance between any two
objects is tripled (increased by a factor of 3), then the force of gravitational attraction is
decreased by a factor of 9 (3 raised to the second power).
6
The constant of proportionality (G) in the above equation is known as the universal
gravitation constant. The precise value of G was determined experimentally by Henry
Cavendish in the century after Newton's death.
Gravitational interactions do not simply exist between the earth and other objects; and not
simply between the sun and other planets; gravitational interactions exist between all
objects with an intensity which is directly proportional to the product of their masses. So as
you sit in your seat in the physics classroom, you are gravitationally attracted to your lab
partner, to the desk you are working at, and even to your physics book. Newton's
revolutionary idea was that gravity is universal - ALL objects attract in proportion to
the product of their masses. Of course, most gravitational forces are too minimal to be
noticed. Gravitational forces only are recognizable as the masses of the objects become
large.
Today, Newton's law of universal gravitation is a widely accepted theory. It guides the
efforts of scientists in their study of planetary orbits. Knowing that all objects exert
gravitational influences on each other, the small perturbations in a planet's elliptical motion
can be easily explained. Newton's comparison of the acceleration of the apple to that of the
moon led to a surprisingly simple conclusion about the nature of gravity which is woven
into the entire universe.
relationship between the angle of rotation and the amount of torsional force. A diagram of
the apparatus is shown below.
Cavendish then brought two large lead spheres near the smaller spheres attached to the rod.
Since all masses attract, the large spheres exerted a gravitational force upon the smaller
spheres and twisted the rod a measurable amount. Once the torsional force balanced the
gravitational force, the rod and spheres came to rest and Cavendish was able to determine
the gravitational force of attraction between the masses. By measuring m1, m2, d and Fgrav,
the value of G could be determined. Cavendish's measurements resulted in an
experimentally determined value of 6.75 x 10-11 N m2/kg2. Today, the currently accepted
value is 6.67259 x 10-11 N m2/kg2.
The value of G is an extremely small numerical value. Its smallness accounts for the fact
that the force of gravitational attraction is only appreciable for objects with large mass.
While two students will indeed exert gravitational forces upon each other, these forces are
too small to be noticeable. Yet if one of the students is replaced with a planet, then the
gravitational force between the other student and the planet becomes noticeable.
If object 1 is the Earth and object 2 is any object at its surface, d will be the radius of the
Earth. We can rearrange the previous equation slightly.
The first factor on the right side depends on the mass of the earth and its radius and not on
any property of the second object. This factor measures the gravitational field of the Earth
at that specific point: it is called gravity and is represented by g.
It can be calculated (do it as an exercise) and is 9,8 N / kg. For practical purposes it is many
times rounded up to 10 N / kg. Thus the equation above will get simplified to
Fgrav = m . g
The force of gravity is the force with which the earth, moon, or other massive body attracts
an object towards itself. By definition, this is the weight of the object. All objects upon
earth experience a force of gravity which is directed "downward" towards the centre of the
earth. The force of gravity on an object on earth is always equal to the weight of the object.
The weight (Fgrav) of an object is calculated ass its mass times the local gravity
Fgrav = m . g where:
Thus, the Earth pulls an object that has a 1kg mass with a force of 9,8 (10) N
The table below shows some values of g at various distances from Earth's centre
The same equation used to determine the value of g on earth can also be used to determine
gravity on the surface of other planets. The value of g on any other planet can be calculated
from the mass of the planet and the radius of the planet.
Using this equation, the following acceleration of gravity values can be calculated for the
various planets.
9
The force of gravity is a source of much confusion to many students of physics. The mass
of an object refers to the amount of matter that is contained by the object; the weight of an
object is the force of gravity acting upon that object. Mass is related to "how much stuff is
there" and weight is related to the pull of the Earth (or any other planet) upon that stuff.
The mass of an object (measured in kg) will be the same no matter where in the universe
this object is located. Mass is never altered by location, the pull of gravity, speed or even
the existence of other forces. For example, a 2-kg object will have a mass of 2 kg whether it
is located on Earth, on the moon, or on Jupiter; its mass will be 2 kg whether it is moving
or not (at least for purposes of this study); and its mass will be 2 kg whether it is being
pushed or not.
On the other hand, the weight of an object (measured in newtons) will vary according to
where in the universe the object is. Weight depends upon
which planet is exerting the force and the distance the object is
from the planet. Weight, being equivalent to the force of
gravity, is dependent upon the value of g. On Earth's surface, g is
9.8 N / kg (often approximated to 10 N / kg). On the moon's
surface, g is 1.7 N / kg. Go to another planet, and there will be
another g value. In addition, the g value is inversely
proportional to the distance from the centre of the planet.
Always be cautious of the distinction between mass and weight. It is the source of much
confusion for many students of physics.
10
1- Dr Krazykoff focuses his telescope night after night on a very narrow region in the
sky. He observes a star that circles slowly but he doesn’t see any other star or
celestial object nearby. Proudly, he communicates the scientific community that he
has very probably discovered a “black hole”. Why is he assuming this?
2- Gravity on the Moon is about 1/6 of the Earth’s gravity. Find the weight of a block
on the Moon if its mass is 144 Kg. Suppose a force meter has an elastic limit of 250
N: could you use it to weigh it on the Earth? And what about using it on the Moon?
3- Tracy’s car weighs 9000 N. It is travelling along a straight path at 120 km / hr. The
motor makes a 300 N force on the car. Find the friction force that the pavement and
the air are making on Tracy’s car.
4- Peter is standing on the Earth. He holds with his finger a spring balance with a stone
hanging from it. The spring balance reads 50 N.
a- Calculate the stone’s mass.
b- If Peter were standing in the Moon: what would have been your answer?
c- If Peter goes (with the force meter and the hanging stone) to Planet X and
the force meter reads 42 N. What is the value of gravity at X?
5- James is Peter’s friend and he has carried out the three experiments of problem 4
(on Earth, Moon and Melmac) but he has used a two beam balance and a set of
brass weights instead of a force meter. What were James’ results?
6- Which is bigger, the gravitational pull of the Earth on the Moon or of the Moon on
the Earth? Write the equation showing how these pulls can be calculated knowing
the masses of both bodies and the distance between their centres.
8- Write the expression of Newton’s law of gravitation between the Earth and man
standing on the ground. Draw a circle around the parts of the equation that
correspond to gravity.
9- Mars’ radius is ½ of the Earth’s radius and gravity at its surface is just 4 N /kg.
Estimate Mars’ mass and density compared to the Earth’s
10- If the Earth’s radius is about 6.380 km (6,4 x 106 m), γ is 6,67 x 10-11 and gravity is
considered to be 9,8 N / kg estimate:
a- Our planet’s mass
b- Its density
11
11- The two-block system in the diagram is falling at a constant speed (10 cm/s).
Calculate the friction force (Ff). (Suppose there are no extra friction forces acting on
the pulley)
Ff v = 10 cm / s
pulley
X
m =2 kg
12- After point X in the previous diagram the table is lubricated. What do you think will
happen to the blocks?
13- Calculate the force of gravity between the following familiar objects.