Topic 11

Advanced manufacturing
techniques















































11.1 Joining


11.1.1 Describe friction welding.

Friction welding is a completely
mechanical solid phase process in which
heat generated by friction is used to
create the ideal conditions for a high
integrity welded joint between similar or
dissimilar metals. You can see an
example of friction welding at:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cAXZYGZ8Yrg


11.1.2 Explain how two metal parts are welded using friction

Diagrams should include two parts, one revolving, and the
other fixed.
By rotating a piece of metal against another which is fixed,
heat is generated by the friction between the 2 components.
The friction will generate enough heat to render each metal
end molten. Pressure is constantly applied to the rotating
piece via the fixed metal component, the 2 pieces fuse
together and the process is complete.

11.1.3 Describe plastic welding.
Consider hot air and friction welding techniques.

Hot air welding is a plastic welding technique which is similar to
gas welding of metals, though the specific techniques are
different. A specially designed heat gun (hot air welder)
produces a jet of hot air that softens the parts to be joined, as
well as a plastic filler rod. Hot air/gas welding is a common
fabrication technique for manufacturing smaller items such as
chemical tanks, water tanks (black, grey, fresh & ballast), heat
exchangers, and plumbing fittings. The materials being welded
and the welding rod must be of the same or very similar plastic.
Welding PVC to acrylic is an exception to this rule.

11.1.4 Explain how two plastic parts are welded together.

Only thermoplastics that do
not burn or decompose when
heated to their softening
temperature can be welded.








11.1.5 Define permanent joining techniques.
Basically a permanent joint is one that is intended to last the life time of a product where
as a temporary joint is one which is intended to hold the item together but is removable
easily at any stage without causing too much damage to the main product.

11.1.6 List a range of permanent joining techniques.

Consider pop-rivets, brazing, welding and adhesives.

11.1.7 Discuss how permanent joining techniques lead to planned obsolescence and
environmental issues.

Permanent joins do not allow for the disassembly and easy maintenance of products.

11.1.8 Define adhesive.

Glue or adhesive is a compound that adheres or bonds two items together. Adhesives
may come from either natural or synthetic sources. Some modern adhesives are
extremely strong, and are becoming increasingly important in modern construction and
industry.

11.1.9 Identify a range of adhesives suitable for joining metals, woods and plastics.

Polyvinyl acetate (PVA or PVAc) is a rubbery synthetic polymer. It is
prepared by polymerization of vinyl acetate monomer, also
referred to as VAM. As an emulsion in water, PVA is sold as an
adhesive for porous materials, particularly wood, paper, and cloth.
It is the most commonly used wood glue, both as "white glue" and
the yellow "carpenter's glue." PVA is widely used in bookbinding
and book arts due to its flexibility, and because it is non-acidic,
unlike many other polymers. PVA is a common copolymer with
more expensive acrylics, used extensively in paper, paint and
industrial coatings, referred to as vinyl acrylics. It can also be used
to protect cheese from fungi and humidity


Epoxy resin
This is an expensive but versatile adhesive that will bond any
clean dry materials. Equal amount of adhesive and
hardener are mixed to start the chemical hardening process.
Hardening begins immediately, but full strength is achieved
after 1 or 2 days.
In chemistry, epoxy or polyepoxide is a thermosetting
epoxide polymer that cures (polymerizes and crosslinks)
when mixed with a catalyzing agent or hardener. Most
common epoxy resins are
produced from a reaction
between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A.

Contact adhesive
Contact adhesives as the name suggests stick on contact.
They are used extensively for glueing large sheet materials
such as thin laminates to kitchen worktop. Both surfaces
must be coated with a thin layer of the adhesive. It is then
left to dry for approximately 15 minutes. As soon as the two coated surfaces are brought
into contact there can be no repositioning. Contact adhesives can be used to stick
dissimilar materials.

Cascamite

Cascamite is much stronger than PVA and is a waterproof,
synthetic resin adhesive for use on general joinery -
especially outside woodwork and boat building. It is
supplied as a powder to be mixed with water.
To use, push the two pieces together, rubbing the surfaces
from side to side. This will ensure that air is not trapped and
that the glue has been spread evenly. Use cramps such as G
Cramps to lock the two pieces together. Leave for twenty
four hours before removing the cramps.


Tensol cement
Plastics can be joined using a range of modern glues. Perhaps the best
glue is Tensol Cement which joins plastics such as Acrylic together
permanently. The glue is applied to the surfaces to be glued and they are
pressed together. They should be clamped for 24 hours and this gives a
permanent joint.

Superglue (cyanoacrylate).

Super glue is another adhesive that joins plastics together, very
quickly. Great care must be taken when using this type of glue
as it will just as easily glue fingers together. For this reason super
glue is not used in schools.


11.1.10 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using adhesive bonding in
products.

Advantages: Disadvantages:

No finishing required Not as strong as metals
Improved fatigue resistance Increasing the service temperature
decreases the bond strength
Dissimilar materials can be joined Needs to be clamped while setting
The bond is permanent Bonded structures are difficult to dismantle
for repair
Adhesives seal and join at the same time Need to prepare the surfaces
On Loading there is more uniform stress
distribution
Health and safety aspects
Local stress concentrations are avoided Long bonding times
Large areas can be bonded
Small areas can be bonded accurately
Adhesives prevent catalytic corrosion
Reduced weight
Stronger and stiffer products can be
designed.
11.2 Moulding

11.2.1 Define sprue, flash, parison, die, draft angle and injection moulding.

A sprue is the passage through which molten material is introduced into
a mold. During casting or molding, the material in the sprue will solidify
and need to be removed from the finished part.

Flash

Flashing of a part can occur for several reasonsfrom variations in the
process or material to tooling trouble. Flash appears on the part's edge
along the parting line of the mold or anyplace where the mold has
metal meeting metal to form a boundary of the part.
Parison
Blow molding of plastic containers. (Counterclockwise from top) A molten polymer is
extruded into a hollow,
tube-shaped parison. A split
mold is closed around the
parison, which is expanded
against the sides of the
mold by a stream of air.
Once the plastic has
solidified, the mold is
opened and the shaped
bottle released.



Die

A die is a specialized tool used in manufacturing
industries to cut, shape and form a wide variety of
products and components. Like molds and templates,
dies are generally customized and uniquely matched
to the product they are used
to create. Products made
with dies range from simple
paper clips to complex
pieces used in advanced
technology.

Draft angle
A draft angle describes the amount of taper for molded or cast
parts perpendicular to the parting line.Consider the fabrication of a hollow plastic box,
without lid. Once the plastic has hardened around the mold, the
mold must be removed. As the plastic hardens, it may contract
slightly. By tapering the sides of the mold by an appropriate "draft
angle", the mold will be easier to remove.If the mold is to be
removed from the top, the box should taper in towards the
bottom, such that measuring the bottom internal dimension will yield a smaller length and
width than measuring the top from which the mold is extracted.
Injection moulding

11.2.2 Explain how an injection-moulded product is made.
Diagrams must include the hopper, hydraulics, heaters, screw, sprue and mould.
Stage 1: Granulated or powdered thermoplastic plastic is fed from a hopper into the
Injection Moulding machine.

Stage 2: The Injection Moulding machine consists of a hollow steel barrel, containing a
rotating screw (Archemidial Screw). The screw carries the plastic along the barrel to the
mould.

Heaters surround the barrel melt the plastic as it travels along the barrel.

Stage 3: The screw is forced back as the melted plastic collects at the end of the barrel.
Once enough plastic has collected a hydraulic ram pushes the screw forward injecting
the plastic through a sprue into a mould cavity. The mould is warmed before injecting
and the plastic is injected quickly to prevent it from hardening before the mould is full.
Stage 4: Pressure is maintained for a short time (dwell time) to prevent the material
creeping back during setting (hardening). This prevents shrinkage and hollows, therefore
giving a better quality product. The moulding is left to cool before removing (ejected)
from the mould. The moulding takes on the shape of the mould cavity.
The image below shows an an Injection Moulding machine.

11.2.3 Outline the advantages of injection moulding.
Consider initial capital investment, tooling, accuracy, quality control and quantity of
product.
Initial Capital Investment : Injection moulds themselves can be surprisingly expensive,
sometimes upward of US$100,000. If the desired part quantity, however, is great
enough, the mould cost becomes relatively insignificant, and the resulting plastic
parts are very reasonably priced.
Tooling: The choice of material to build a mould is primarily one of economics.
Steel moulds generally cost more to construct, but their longer lifespan will offset the
higher initial cost over a higher number of parts made before wearing out. Pre-
hardened steel moulds are less wear resistant and are used for lower volume
requirements or larger components.
Hardened steel moulds are heat treated after machining. These are by far the
superior in terms of wear resistance and lifespan.
Aluminium moulds c an c ost substantially less, and when designed and
mac hined with modern computerised equipment, can be economical for moulding
tens or even hundreds of thousands of parts.
Beryllium copper is used in areas of the mould which require fast heat removal or
areas that see the most shear heat generated.
Accuracy: The moulds can be manufactured by either CNC machining or by
using Electrical Discharge Machining processes. Establishing the correct
tolerances with respect to the product function is of economic importance. The
designer should be aware that dimensions with tight tolerances have a big
influence on the costs of both product and mould. Even slightly over specifying
tolerances may adversely influence tool costs, injection molding conditions,
and cycle time. It is recommended to indicate only critical dimensions with
tolerances on a drawing.
Quality control: If the product has been designed using CAD and the mould has been
made using CAM the product can be virtually tested using an analytical computer
software program
Quantity: The quantity of pieces from the injection moulder will depend on the
number of cavities per die, the cycle time and the amount needed by the
manufacturer. Injection moulders can run 24/ 7 with very little human interface. It is
advisable for a moulder to produce mass pieces as start up costs are high.

11.2.4 Discuss how standardized bottle caps have constrained bottle design, but have
cut costs for manufacturers.

Bottle caps can be classed as standardized parts. Bottle tops
are injection moulded, while bottles are normally made by blow
moulding. It is financially beneficial for a blow moulding
company to use off-the-shelf bottle tops instead of purchasing
an injection moulding machine and new tooling. The
advantage of using standard components is that it speeds up
manufacturing and costs as the same units can be used around
the world.

11.2.5 Describe how a blow-moulded product is made.
The dia gra m shows Blow mo uld ing o f p la stic
containers. A molten polymer is extruded into a hollow, tube-
shaped parison. A sp lit mo ld is c lo se d around the parison,
which is expanded against the sides of the mold by a stream of air through the
air inlet. Once the plastic has solidified, the mould is opened and the shaped bottle
released.

11.2.6 Explain how a rotational-moulded product is made.

Diagrams must include the mould, filling the mould, heater chamber, rotation and
cooling chamber.
Rotational moulding is a versatile process for creating many kinds of mostly hollow plastic
parts. The phrase is often shortened to rotomoulding.
The process was developed in the 1940s but in early years was used little because it was
a slow process restricted to a small number of plastics. Over the past two decades,
improvements in process control and developments with plastic powders have resulted
in a significant increase in usage.

Diagrams must include the extruder, parison, the mould and air inlet.

11.2.7 Explain how a compression -moulded product is
made.
Compression molding is a method of molding in which
the molding material, generally preheated, is first placed
in an open, heated mold cavity. The mold is closed with
a top force or plug member, pressure is applied to force
the material into contact with all mold areas, and heat
and pressure are maintained until the molding material
has cured. The process employs thermosetting resins in a
partially cured stage, either in the form of granules, putty-
like masses, or preforms.

Diagrams must include the mould, pre-form, hydraulic press, finished part and flash
material.
Flash
Material











11.2.8 Discuss why some products have to be made using compression moulding.
Consider the heat the product must withstand, quantity and type of product to be made.
Refer to thermosets.
Compression and Transfer
Molding is accomplished by
placing a pre-weighed
amount of material in a
matched metal mold and
closing the mold. The heat and
pressure cause the material to
liquify and flow into the voids in
the tool where it chemically
reacts and hardens into the
final shape. Very large shapes
can be molded in compression
presses.

11.2.9 Describe how a vacuum-formed product is
made.
Diagrams must include the vacuum chamber, former,
platen, heater, air in and out.

Vacuum forming, commonly known as vacuforming, is
a simplified version of thermoforming, whereby a
sheet of plastic is heated to a forming temperature,
stretched onto or into a single-surface mold, and held
against the mold by applying vacuum between the
mold surface and the sheet.
The vacuum forming process can be used to make
most product packaging, speaker casings and even
car dashboards.
Normally, draft angles must be present in the design
on the mold (a recommended minimum of 3),
otherwise release of the formed plastic and the mold
is very difficult.


11.2.10 Identify manufacturing methods suitable for
thermoplastics and thermosets.

Thermoplastics: vacuum forming, blow moulding,
injection moulding and rotational moulding.

Thermosetting plastic: compression moulding.






11.3 Casting

Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is
(usually) poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of
the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solid casting
is then ejected or broken out to complete the process. Casting
may be used to form hot liquid metals or various materials that
cold set after mixing of components (such as epoxy, concrete,
plaster and clay).

11.3.1 Describe lost wax casting.
Lost-wax casting is the process by which a bronze is cast from an
artist's sculpture; in industrial uses the modern process is called
investment casting. An ancient practice, It is more appropriate
to use the term "lost mould" rather than "lost wax" since the
technique employs other materials besides wax,
such as tallow, resin, tar,

and even textile. Because
the mould is destroyed to unveil the cast item,
11.3.2 Describe how lost wax cast products are
made.

Consider preparation of the master pattern;
injection of wax to create copy; creation of a wax
tree to make a wide range of small parts from the
same metal; covering wax with ceramic or plaster
of Paris; removal of wax; and the addition of the
final chosen material.

11.3.3 Explain how a range of products are made
using lost wax casting.
J ewellery, dental implants, hip replacements and
wind instrument keys.

http://www.expertvillage.com/video/515_lost-wax-
casting.htm
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gVe3VeQfyzw

11.3.4 Describe high-pressure die casting.
Die casting is mainly used for low-melting
alloys. Molten metal is forced into a mould
under high pressure.

High pressure die casting is a manufacturing
process in which molten metal (aluminum) is
injected with a die casting machine under
force using considerable pressure into a
steel mold or die to form products. Because
of the excellent dimensional accuracy and
the smooth surfaces, most high pressure die
castings require no machining except the
removal of flash around the edge and
possible drilling and tapping holes. High
pressure die casting production is fast and
inexpensive relative to other casting processes.

11.3.5 Describe how high-pressure die cast products are made.
Draw a diagram to include holding furnace, injector, gooseneck and die.

11.3.6 Explain how a range of products are made using high-pressure die casting.
Consider hip replacements, disk drive chassis and carburettors.

11.3.7 Outline two advantages and two disadvantages of high-pressure die casting.

Advantages: high accuracy, good surface finish, thin walls, and high rate of production.

Disadvantages: high plant costs, high tooling costs, cannot be used for a wide range of
alloys, and limitations on maximum size that can be cast.

11.4 Forming

Thermo set composites and contact moulding

11.4.1 Describe the process of spray-up.

Spray-up is carried out on an open mould,
where both the resin and reinforcements are
sprayed directly onto the mould. The resin
and glass may be applied separately or
simultaneously chopped in a combined
stream from a chopper gun. Workers roll out
the spray-up to compact the laminate. Wood,
foam or other core material may then be
added, and a secondary spray-up layer
embeds the core between the laminates
(sandwich construction). The part is then
cured, cooled and removed from the
reusable mould.
Spray-Up is a faster process and is less labour
intensive than hand lay-up. Several drawbacks include possibility of more air entrapment
and a difficulty in controlling thickness and resin-to-glass ratios.


11.4.2 Identify products that could be made using spray-up processes.
For example, pleasure boats and swimming pools.

11.4.3 Describe the process of hand lay-up.
In hand lay-up processing, fibreglass continuous
strand mat and/or other fabrics such as woven
roping are manually placed in the mould. Each
ply is sprayed with catalysed resin and the resin is
worked into the fibre with brushes and rollers to
wet-out and compact the laminate.

11.4.4 Identify products that could be made using
hand lay-up processes.
Products of varying sizes that do not need a high
accuracy finish, for example, prototypes.
Hand Lay-Up is well suited for low volume
production of product. This method can be used
for both both corrosion barrier and the structural portion.

11.4.5 Describe the process of
filament winding.

This process is primarily used for
hollow, generally circular or
oval-sectioned, components,
such as pipes and tanks. Fibre
tows are passed through a
resin bath before being wound
on to a mandrel in a variety of
orientations, controlled by the
fibre feeding mechanism, and
rate of rotation of the mandrel.
Filament winding machine
design varies with part
geometry. Filament winding is
an excellent process for
fabricating round equipment
such as
11.4.6 Identify products that could be made using filament
winding processes.
For example,
fishing rods and rowing oars.

11.4.7 Describe the process of vacuum bagging.

This process is basically an extension of the wet lay-up process where pressure is applied
to the laminate once laid-up in order to improve its consolidation. This is achieved by
sealing a plastic film over the
wet laid-up laminate and onto the
tool. The air under the bag is
extracted by a vacuum pump, and
thus up to one atmosphere of
pressure can be applied to the
laminate to consolidate it.

































More details about Vacuum bagging can be found at:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mgBSMmqzSJ M


11.4.8 Outline the benefits of using vacuum bagging when using composite layup
techniques.

Large products are possible
Top quality products through the use of pre-pregs
Clean production method
Low moulding costs.
Prepregs are specially formulated resin matrix systems, that are reinforced with man-
made fibers such as carbon, glass and aramid. When cured at elevated temperatures,
the themoset resin undergoes a chemical reaction that transforms the prepreg into a
solid structural material that is highly durable, temperature resistant, exceptionally stiff
and lightweight. Initially developed for the aerospace industry, prepregs are now used in
a wide range of applications - from golf clubs to satellite arrays, and from wind turbine
rotor blades to life-saving Formula 1 monocoques. Prepregs are supplied to customers in
roll form, to be stored frozen and defrosted before use. When cured at elevated
temperatures and under pressure, prepregs form molded components that are
extremely strong and stiff. A broad range of formulated resins are used to impregnate
the woven and unidirectional reinforcements.


11.4.9 Identify products that can be made using vacuum bagging processes.
For example,
laminated curved furniture.
Model aircraft wings
Guitar cases http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nZeQHSgpVwM
Surf boards

Further information can be found at:
www.epoxi.com
www.resininfusion.com

Advantages of Contact Moulding techniques:
The use of reinforcing fibres results in high strength
Other performance additives, such as flame retardants can be incorporated
Versatile in terms of size
and shape
Allows thick sections to
be produced


11.4.10 Explain how a curved
shape is produced in timber
using lamination.
Thin layers of ply or veneers are
laid onto a former, then glued
and clamped. To eliminate
spring-back on tight curves, a
fast drying adhesive should be
used. Thicker timber can be
steamed and shaped over a
former. Some spring-back is likely
to occur, but it is possible to
reduce this by combining
lamination and steaming.






11.4.11 Discuss how lamination can be used
to strengthen material.
The structure of a timber is such that all fibres
run along its length. Laminating more than
one timber together but with fibres running
at right angles increases the strength in all
directions.
Engineered timber
Engineered timber is a generic term used to
describe a wide range of wood-based
products that have been engineered to
provide enhanced performance characteristics. This improves their suitability for
particular end uses, especially in demanding structural situations, but may also be
designed to improve other characteristics such as durability. Usually these products are
composites that combine wood or wood fibre with adhesives and possibly other
materials. Some reasons for engineering solid timber into such composites include:

to overcome the dimensional limitations of sawn timber

to improve performance; structural properties and stability

to transform the natural orthotropic product into one with more homogenous
properties

to optimise the use of a valuable resource and minimise waste.
Engineered timber can take several forms:
Board materials such as oriented strand board (OSB), medium density
fibreboard (MDF), plywood etc. are available for a wide range of
structural, decorative and utility uses.
Structural timber composites produced in large sections for use as beams, columns and
other structural components. Products include glued laminated timber (glulam), parallel
strand lumber (PSL) and laminated veneered lumber (LVL).

Timber I-joists comprise a timber flange, typically solid
timber or LVL (laminated veneer lumber) and a panel
product web, usually OSB (oriented strand board).
They offer a number of benefits over traditional sawn
joists, including low weight, no moisture movement
and greatly reduced risk of squeaks.

Structural Composite Lumber (SCL):
Structural composite lumber (SCL), which includes laminated veneer lumber (LVL),
laminated strand lumber (LSL) and oriented strand lumber (OSL), is a family of
engineered wood products created by layering dried and graded wood veneers or
flakes with waterproof adhesive into blocks of material known as billets. Cured in a
controlled process, SCL is typically available in various thicknesses and widths and is
easily worked in the field using conventional construction tools.
Strong, Reliable and Consistent
In SCL billets, the grain of each layer of veneer or flakes runs primarily in the same
direction. The resulting products out-perform conventional lumber when either face- or
edge-loaded. SCL is a solid, highly predictable and uniform engineered wood product
that is sawn to consistent sizes and is virtually free from warping and splitting.
Making the Best Use of Resources
One important benefit of SCL is that the veneering, flaking and gluing process enables
large timbers to be made from relatively small trees of many species, thereby providing
for efficient utilization of wood fiber resources.
11.4.12 Describe how LVL differs from plywood. Consider material cross-section and grain
direction.

http://www.wooduniversity.org/

11.4.13 Discuss how forming techniques have enabled designers to be more flexible in
the way they approach the design process.

Material choice, environment and cost factors can be more widely addressed


Topic 2 Language review

Key word Have
heard of it
Can use in a
sentence
Can
define
Can give a clear
example to explain
1 Friction welding
2 Plastic welding
3 Permanent joining
4 Adhesive
5 Sprue
6 Flash
7 Parison
8 Die
9 Draft angle
10 Injection moulding
11 Blow moulding
12 Rotational moulding
13 Compression moulding
14 Vacuum forming
15 Thermoplastic
16 Thermosetting plastic
17 Lost wax casting
18 High pressure die casting
19 Spay-up
20 Composite Lay-up
21 Filament winding
22 Vacuum bagging
23 Lamination
24 LVL