General Biology General Biology

Chapter 40: Basic Principles of Animal Chapter 40: Basic Principles of Animal
Form and Function

Dr. Liang-Yo Yang
Department of Physiology epa t e t o ys o ogy
Taipei Medical University
Campus phone: 3176
Office hour: 2:00 ~ 3:00 p.m. Mon and Wed
9 F United Medical Building 9 F, United Medical Building

You will learn the following concepts:
1. Distinguish among the following sets of terms:
collagenous, elastic, and reticular fibers;
regulator and conformer; positive and
negative feedback; basal and standard
metabolic rates; torpor, hibernation, estivation, ; p , , ,
and daily torpor
2 Relate structure with function and identify 2. Relate structure with function and identify
diagrams of the following animal tissues:
epithelial connective tissue (six types) epithelial, connective tissue (six types),
muscle tissue (three types), and nervous
ti tissue
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3. Compare and contrast the nervous and
endocrine systems endocrine systems
4. Define thermoregulation and explain how g p
endotherms and ectotherms manage their
heat budgets
5. Describe how a countercurrent heat
exchanger may function to retain heat within exchanger may function to retain heat within
an animal body
6 D fi bi ti d bi th i 6. Define bioenergetics and biosynthesis
7. Define metabolic rate and explain how it can 7. Define metabolic rate and explain how it can
be determined for animals
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Overview: Diverse Forms Common Overview: Diverse Forms, Common
Challenges
Anatomy is the study of the biological form of an
organism organism
Physiology is the study of the biological
f ti i f functions an organism performs
The comparative study of animals reveals that
form and function are closely correlated
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Figure 40.1
Albatross
Concept 40 1: Animal form and function Concept 40.1: Animal form and function
are correlated at all levels of organization
Size and shape affect the way an animal interacts
with its environment with its environment
Many different animal body plans have evolved
d d t i d b th and are determined by the genome
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Evolution of Animal Size and Shape Evolution of Animal Size and Shape
Physical laws constrain strength diffusion Physical laws constrain strength, diffusion,
movement, and heat exchange
As animals increase in size their skeletons must As animals increase in size, their skeletons must
be proportionately larger to support their mass
E l ti fl t diff t Evolutionary convergence reflects different
species adaptations to a similar environmental
h ll challenge
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Figure 40.2
Seal
Penguin
Tuna
Exchange with the Environment Exchange with the Environment
Materials such as nutrients waste products and Materials such as nutrients, waste products, and
gases must be exchanged across the cell
membranes of animal cells
Rate of exchange is proportional to a cells
surface area while amount of exchange material g
is proportional to a cells volume
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A single-celled protist living in water has a A single celled protist living in water has a
sufficient surface area of plasma membrane to
service its entire volume of cytoplasm service its entire volume of cytoplasm
Multicellular organisms with a saclike body plan
have body walls that are only two cells thick have body walls that are only two cells thick,
facilitating diffusion of materials
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Figure 40.3
Mouth
Gastrovascular
it
Mouth
Exchange
Exchange
cavity
g
Exchange
0.1 mm
Exchange
1 mm
(b) Two layers of cells (a) Single cell
In flat animals such as tapeworms the distance In flat animals such as tapeworms, the distance
between cells and the environment is minimized
More complex organisms have highly folded More complex organisms have highly folded
internal surfaces for exchanging materials
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External environment
Food
CO
2
O
2
Figure 40.4
Mouth
Animal
body
O
2
0

m
Respiratory
system
Lung tissue (SEM)
2
5
0
Cells
Interstitial
fluid Circulatory Nutrients
Digestive
system
Heart
fluid Circulatory
system
Nutrients
Excretory
system m
m
system
Blood vessels in
kidney (SEM)
Lining of small
intestine (SEM)
Anus
1
0
0

m
U b b d
5
0

m
M t b li t d t
y ( )
Unabsorbed
matter (feces)
Metabolic waste products
(nitrogenous waste)
In vertebrates the space between cells is filled In vertebrates, the space between cells is filled
with interstitial fluid, which allows for the
movement of material into and out of cells movement of material into and out of cells
A complex body plan helps an animal living in a
variable environment to maintain a relatively variable environment to maintain a relatively
stable internal environment
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Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans
Most animals are composed of specialized cells
Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans
Most animals are composed of specialized cells
organized into tissues that have different
functions functions
Tissues make up organs, which together make
up organ systems up organ systems
Some organs, such as the pancreas, belong to
th t more than one organ system
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Table 40.1
Exploring Structure and Function in
ff ff
Exploring Structure and Function in
Animal Tissues
Different tissues have different structures that are
suited to their functions
Tissues are classified into four main categories:
epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous
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Epithelial Tissue Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body
and lines the organs and cavities within the body and lines the organs and cavities within the body
It contains cells that are closely joined
The shape of epithelial cells may be cuboidal (like
dice), columnar (like bricks on end), or squamous
(like floor tiles)
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The arrangement of epithelial cells may be simple The arrangement of epithelial cells may be simple
(single cell layer), stratified (multiple tiers of cells),
or pseudostratified (a single layer of cells of or pseudostratified (a single layer of cells of
varying length)
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Stratified squamous
Epithelial Tissue
Figure 40.5aa
Stratified squamous
epithelium
Cuboidal Simple columnar Simple squamous
Pseudostratified
columnar Cuboidal
epithelium
Simple columnar
epithelium
Simple squamous
epithelium
columnar
epithelium
Connective Tissue Connective Tissue
Connective tissue mainly binds and supports
other tissues other tissues
It contains sparsely packed cells scattered
th h t t ll l t i throughout an extracellular matrix
The matrix consists of fibers in a liquid, jellylike,
or solid foundation
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There are three types of connective tissue fiber, yp ,
all made of protein:
Collagenous fibers provide strength and Collagenous fibers provide strength and
flexibility
Elastic fibers stretch and snap back to their Elastic fibers stretch and snap back to their
original length
Reticular fibers join connective tissue to Reticular fibers join connective tissue to
adjacent tissues
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Connective tissue contains cells including Connective tissue contains cells, including
Fibroblasts that secrete the protein of
extracellular fibers extracellular fibers
Macrophages that are involved in the
i t immune system
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In vertebrates the fibers and foundation combine In vertebrates, the fibers and foundation combine
to form six major types of connective tissue:
Loose connective tissue binds epithelia to Loose connective tissue binds epithelia to
underlying tissues and holds organs in place
C til i t d fl ibl t Cartilage is a strong and flexible support
material
Fibrous connective tissue is found in
tendons, which attach muscles to bones,
and ligaments, which connect bones at joints
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Adipose tissue stores fat for insulation Adipose tissue stores fat for insulation
and fuel
Blood is composed of blood cells and cell Blood is composed of blood cells and cell
fragments in blood plasma
B i i li d d f th Bone is mineralized and forms the
skeleton
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Figure 40.5ba
Connective Tissue
Blood
Plasma
Collagenous fiber
Loose connective tissue
White
blood cells
5

m
0

m
5
5
Red blood cells
Cartilage
Fibrous connective tissue
Elastic fiber
1
2
0
Chondrocytes

m
Chondroitin sulfate
1
0
0

Adipose tissue
Bone
Nuclei
3
0

m
Adipose tissue
Fat droplets
Bone
Central
canal
1
5
0

m
Osteon
7
0
0

m
Muscle Tissue Muscle Tissue
Muscle tissue consists of long cells called
muscle fibers which contract in response to muscle fibers, which contract in response to
nerve signals
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It is divided in the vertebrate body into three types: It is divided in the vertebrate body into three types:
Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, is
responsible for voluntary movement responsible for voluntary movement
Smooth muscle is responsible for involuntary
body activities
Cardiac muscle is responsible for contraction Cardiac muscle is responsible for contraction
of the heart
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The skeleton supporting most vertebrates is
made of bone a mineralized connective made of bone, a mineralized connective
tissue.
Osteoblasts deposit a matrix of collagen.
Then, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions , , g , p p
combine and harden within the matrix into the
mineral hydroxyapatite. y y p
The combination of hard mineral and flexible
collagen makes bone harder than cartilage without collagen makes bone harder than cartilage without
being brittle.
The microscopic structure of hard mammalian The microscopic structure of hard mammalian
bones consists of repeating units called osteons.
(Osteon)
Haversian
Osteoclast
Figure 40.5ca
Muscle Tissue Muscle Tissue
Skeletal muscle
Nuclei
Muscle
fiber
Sarcomere
100 m
Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle
Nucleus Muscle fibers
25 Nucleus Intercalated disk 50 m
Nucleus Muscle fibers
25 m Nucleus Intercalated disk 50 m
Ojima et al., 2007, JBC 282: 14493-14504
Smooth Muscle Anatomy
Smooth Muscle Contraction Smooth Muscle Contraction
Diagonal organization of actin/myosin
(gets wider and shorter) (gets wider and shorter)
Figure 13.27b
Fig. 40-5m
Nucleus Intercalated
disk
C di l
50 m
Cardiac muscle
Structure of Gap Junctions
Hexagonal
~300,000X 300,000X
7 5 nm 7.5 nm
long
1.5 to 2 nm diameter
Highly conserved
1.5 to 2 nm diameter
Highly conserved
Four hydrophobic domains with a
high degree of similarity among different tissues
Nervous Tissue Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue senses stimuli and transmits
signals throughout the animal signals throughout the animal
Nervous tissue contains
Neurons, or nerve cells, that transmit nerve
impulses
Glial cells, or glia, that help nourish, insulate,
and replenish neurons p
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Figure 40.5da
Nervous Tissue
Neurons Glia Glia
15 m
Neuron:
Dendrites
Cell body Cell body
Axon
Axons of
neurons
(Fluorescent LM)
4
0

m
Blood
vessel
(Confocal LM)
Coordination and Control Coordination and Control
Control and coordination within a body depend on Control and coordination within a body depend on
the endocrine system and the nervous system
The endocrine system transmits chemical signals The endocrine system transmits chemical signals
called hormones to receptive cells throughout
the body via blood the body via blood
A hormone may affect one or more regions
throughout the body throughout the body
Hormones are relatively slow acting, but can
have long lasting effects have long-lasting effects
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Figure 40.6
The nervous system transmits information The nervous system transmits information
between specific locations
The information conveyed depends on a signals The information conveyed depends on a signal s
pathway, not the type of signal
N i l t i i i f t Nerve signal transmission is very fast
Nerve impulses can be received by neurons,
muscle cells, endocrine cells, and exocrine cells
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Concept 40 2: Feedback control maintains Concept 40.2: Feedback control maintains
the internal environment in many animals
Animals manage their internal environment by
regulating or conforming to the external regulating or conforming to the external
environment
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Regulating and Conforming
A regulator uses internal control mechanisms to
Regulating and Conforming
A regulator uses internal control mechanisms to
moderate internal change in the face of external,
environmental fluctuation environmental fluctuation
A conformer allows its internal condition to vary
with certain external changes with certain external changes
Animals may regulate some environmental
i bl hil f i t th variables while conforming to others
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Figure 40.7
Homeostasis Homeostasis
Organisms use homeostasis to maintain a Organisms use homeostasis to maintain a
steady state or internal balance regardless of
external environment external environment
In humans, body temperature, blood pH, and
glucose concentration are each maintained at a glucose concentration are each maintained at a
constant level
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Mechanisms of Homeostasis
Mechanisms of homeostasis moderate changes
Mechanisms of Homeostasis
Mechanisms of homeostasis moderate changes
in the internal environment
For a given variable fluctuations above or below For a given variable, fluctuations above or below
a set point serve as a stimulus; these are
detected by a sensor and trigger a response detected by a sensor and trigger a response
The response returns the variable to the set point
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A i ti N ti F db k
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Animation: Negative Feedback
Right-click slide / select Play
A i ti P iti F db k
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Animation: Positive Feedback
Right-click slide / select Play
Figure 40.8
Feedback Control in Homeostasis Feedback Control in Homeostasis
The dynamic equilibrium of homeostasis is The dynamic equilibrium of homeostasis is
maintained by negative feedback, which helps to
return a variable to a normal range return a variable to a normal range
Most homeostatic control systems function by
negative feedback where buildup of the end negative feedback, where buildup of the end
product shuts the system off
P iti f db k lifi ti l d d Positive feedback amplifies a stimulus and does
not usually contribute to homeostasis in animals
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Alterations in Homeostasis Alterations in Homeostasis
Set points and normal ranges can change with Set points and normal ranges can change with
age or show cyclic variation
In animals and plants a circadian rhythm In animals and plants, a circadian rhythm
governs physiological changes that occur roughly
every 24 hours every 24 hours
Homeostasis can adjust to changes in external
environment, a process called acclimatization
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Figure 40.9
Concept 40 3: Homeostatic processes for Concept 40.3: Homeostatic processes for
thermoregulation involve form, function,
and behavior
Thermoregulation is the process by which
animals maintain an internal temperature within a
l bl tolerable range
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Endothermy and Ectothermy
Endothermic animals generate heat by
Endothermy and Ectothermy
Endothermic animals generate heat by
metabolism; birds and mammals are endotherms
Ectothermic animals gain heat from external Ectothermic animals gain heat from external
sources; ectotherms include most invertebrates,
fishes amphibians and nonavian reptiles fishes, amphibians, and nonavian reptiles
In general, ectotherms tolerate greater variation
in internal temperature, while endotherms are
active at a greater range of external temperatures
Endothermy is more energetically expensive than
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y g y p
ectothermy
Figure 40.10
Variation in Body Temperature Variation in Body Temperature
The body temperature of a poikilotherm varies The body temperature of a poikilotherm varies
with its environment
The body temperature of a homeotherm is The body temperature of a homeotherm is
relatively constant
Th l ti hi b t h t d b d The relationship between heat source and body
temperature is not fixed (that is, not all
ikil th t th ) poikilotherms are ectotherms)
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Balancing Heat Loss and Gain Balancing Heat Loss and Gain
Organisms exchange heat by four physical Organisms exchange heat by four physical
processes: radiation, evaporation, convection,
and conduction and conduction
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Modes of Heat Exchange
O i h h t b f h i l Organisms exchange heat by four physical
processes
Radiation is the emission of electromagnetic
waves by all objects warmer than absolute
zero. Radiation can transfer heat between
objects that are not in direct contact, as when
Evaporation is the removal of heat from the surface of a
liquid that is losing some of its molecules as gas.
Evaporation of water from a lizards moist surfaces that
j ,
a lizard absorbs heat radiating from the sun.
are exposed to the environment has a strong cooling effect.
Convection is the transfer of heat by the Conduction is the direct transfer of thermal motion (heat)
b t l l f bj t i di t t t ith h movement of air or liquid past a surface,
as when a breeze contributes to heat loss
from a lizards dry skin, or blood moves
heat from the body core to the extremities.
between molecules of objects in direct contact with each
other, as when a lizard sits on a hot rock.
Figure 40.13
Heat regulation in mammals often involves the Heat regulation in mammals often involves the
integumentary system: skin, hair, and nails
Five adaptations help animals thermoregulate: Five adaptations help animals thermoregulate:
Insulation
Ci l t d t ti Circulatory adaptations
Cooling by evaporative heat loss
Behavioral responses
Adjusting metabolic heat production j g p
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Insulation Insulation
Insulation is a major thermoregulatory adaptation Insulation is a major thermoregulatory adaptation
in mammals and birds
Skin feathers fur and blubber reduce heat flow Skin, feathers, fur, and blubber reduce heat flow
between an animal and its environment
I l ti i i ll i t t i i Insulation is especially important in marine
mammals such as whales and walruses
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Circulatory Adaptations
Regulation of blood flow near the body surface
Circulatory Adaptations
Regulation of blood flow near the body surface
significantly affects thermoregulation
Many endotherms and some ectotherms can alter Many endotherms and some ectotherms can alter
the amount of blood flowing between the body
core and the skin core and the skin
In vasodilation, blood flow in the skin increases,
f ilit ti h t l facilitating heat loss
In vasoconstriction, blood flow in the skin
decreases, lowering heat loss
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The arrangement of blood vessels in many The arrangement of blood vessels in many
marine mammals and birds allows for
countercurrent exchange countercurrent exchange
Countercurrent heat exchangers transfer heat
between fluids flowing in opposite directions and between fluids flowing in opposite directions and
reduce heat loss
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Figure 40.12
Some bony fishes and sharks also use Some bony fishes and sharks also use
countercurrent heat exchanges
Many endothermic insects have countercurrent Many endothermic insects have countercurrent
heat exchangers that help maintain a high
temperature in the thorax temperature in the thorax
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Cooling by Evaporative Heat Loss Cooling by Evaporative Heat Loss
Many types of animals lose heat through Many types of animals lose heat through
evaporation of water from their skin
Panting increases the cooling effect in birds and Panting increases the cooling effect in birds and
many mammals
S ti b thi i t th ki h l i t Sweating or bathing moistens the skin, helping to
cool an animal down
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Behavioral Responses
Both endotherms and ectotherms use behavioral
Behavioral Responses
Both endotherms and ectotherms use behavioral
responses to control body temperature
Some terrestrial invertebrates have postures that Some terrestrial invertebrates have postures that
minimize or maximize absorption of solar heat
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Figure 40.13
Adjusting Metabolic Heat Production Adjusting Metabolic Heat Production
Thermogenesis is the adjustment of metabolic Thermogenesis is the adjustment of metabolic
heat production to maintain body temperature
Thermogenesis is increased by muscle activity Thermogenesis is increased by muscle activity
such as moving or shivering
N hi i th i t k l h Nonshivering thermogenesis takes place when
hormones cause mitochondria to increase their
t b li ti it metabolic activity
Some ectotherms can also shiver to increase
body temperature
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Figure 40.14
Figure 40.15
Acclimatization in Thermoregulation
Birds and mammals can vary their insulation to
Acclimatization in Thermoregulation
Birds and mammals can vary their insulation to
acclimatize to seasonal temperature changes
When temperatures are subzero some When temperatures are subzero, some
ectotherms produce antifreeze compounds to
prevent ice formation in their cells prevent ice formation in their cells
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Physiological Thermostats and Fever Physiological Thermostats and Fever
Thermoregulation is controlled by a region of Thermoregulation is controlled by a region of
the brain called the hypothalamus
The hypothalamus triggers heat loss or heat The hypothalamus triggers heat loss or heat
generating mechanisms
F i th lt f h t th t i t Fever is the result of a change to the set point
for a biological thermostat
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Figure 40.16
Concept 40 4: Energy requirements are Concept 40.4: Energy requirements are
related to animal size, activity, and
environment
f Bioenergetics is the overall flow and
transformation of energy in an animal
It determines how much food an animal needs
and it relates to an animals size, activity, and
environment
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Energy Allocation and Use Energy Allocation and Use
Animals harvest chemical energy from food Animals harvest chemical energy from food
Energy-containing molecules from food are
usually used to make ATP which powers cellular usually used to make ATP, which powers cellular
work
After the needs of staying alive are met After the needs of staying alive are met,
remaining food molecules can be used in
biosynthesis biosynthesis
Biosynthesis includes body growth and repair,
synthesis of storage material such as fat and synthesis of storage material such as fat, and
production of gametes
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Figure 40.17
Quantifying Energy Use
Metabolic rate is the amount of energy an
Quantifying Energy Use
Metabolic rate is the amount of energy an
animal uses in a unit of time
Metabolic rate can be determined by Metabolic rate can be determined by
An animals heat loss
Th t f d b The amount of oxygen consumed or carbon
dioxide produced
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Figure 40.18
MinimumMetabolic Rate and Minimum Metabolic Rate and
Thermoregulation
Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the metabolic
rate of an endotherm at rest at a comfortable rate of an endotherm at rest at a comfortable
temperature
Standard metabolic rate (SMR) is the metabolic Standard metabolic rate (SMR) is the metabolic
rate of an ectotherm at rest at a specific
temperature temperature
Both rates assume a nongrowing, fasting, and
nonstressed animal nonstressed animal
Ectotherms have much lower metabolic rates
th d th f bl i than endotherms of a comparable size
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Influences on Metabolic Rate
Metabolic rates are affected by many factors
Influences on Metabolic Rate
Metabolic rates are affected by many factors
besides whether an animal is an endotherm or
ectotherm ectotherm
Two of these factors are size and activity
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Size and Metabolic Rate Size and Metabolic Rate
Metabolic rate is proportional to body mass to the Metabolic rate is proportional to body mass to the
power of three quarters (m
3/4
)
Smaller animals have higher metabolic rates per Smaller animals have higher metabolic rates per
gram than larger animals
Th hi h t b li t f ll i l The higher metabolic rate of smaller animals
leads to a higher oxygen delivery rate, breathing
t h t t d t ( l ti ) bl d rate, heart rate, and greater (relative) blood
volume, compared with a larger animal
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Figure 40.19
Activity and Metabolic Rate
Activity greatly affects metabolic rate for
Activity and Metabolic Rate
Activity greatly affects metabolic rate for
endotherms and ectotherms
In general the maximum metabolic rate an In general, the maximum metabolic rate an
animal can sustain is inversely related to the
duration of the activity duration of the activity
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Energy Budgets
Different species use energy and materials in
Energy Budgets
Different species use energy and materials in
food in different ways, depending on their
environment environment
Use of energy is partitioned to BMR (or SMR),
activity thermoregulation growth and activity, thermoregulation, growth, and
reproduction
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Figure 40.20
Torpor and Energy Conservation Torpor and Energy Conservation
Torpor is a physiological state in which activity is Torpor is a physiological state in which activity is
low and metabolism decreases
Torpor enables animals to save energy while Torpor enables animals to save energy while
avoiding difficult and dangerous conditions
Hib ti i l t t th t i Hibernation is long-term torpor that is an
adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity
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Fig. 40-21
Additional metabolismthat would be
A t l
e)
200
Additional metabolism that would be
necessary to stay active in winter
Actual
metabolism
t
a
b
o
l
i
c

r
a
t
e
a
l

p
e
r

d
a
y
)
100
200
Arousals
M
e
t
(
k
c
a
0
Body
temperature
C
)25
35
30
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(

C
15
10
20
Outside
Burrow
T
e
m
p
5
0
5
temperature
Burrow
temperature
June August October December February April
15
10
5
g y p
Figure 40.21
Summer torpor called estivation enables Summer torpor, called estivation, enables
animals to survive long periods of high
temperatures and scarce water temperatures and scarce water
Daily torpor is exhibited by many small mammals
and birds and seems adapted to feeding patterns and birds and seems adapted to feeding patterns
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Figure 40.UN01