An Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Part 2

Hodder Education 2010

! !! ! Thermodynamics worked
examples

Refrigeration
1.
(a) What pressure is required in a freezer compartment evaporator coil
using refrigerant R134a if the temperature is to be maintained at
20C?
(b) What is the enthalpy and entropy when the R134a is:
(i) all liquid?
(ii) all vapour?
(iii) What does the change in entropy between the two states tell you?
(c) Assuming a mass flow rate of R134a of 20g/s, and making use of the
SFEE, what heat transfer rate occurs in the evaporator if the refrigerant
leaves at saturated gas condition (i.e. all vapour, with no superheat) and
enters at saturated liquid condition (i.e. all liquid and no sub-cooling)?

Solution
(a) Refer to Rogers and Mayhews tables of Thermodynamic and Transport
Properties of Fluids, in which there is a page of data for
Tetrafluoroethane CH
2
F-CF
3
. This is refrigerant R134a. At a
temperature of 20C, the saturation pressure, p
s
is 1.3272 bar.
Saturation values
T (C) P
s

(bar)
v
g

(m
3
/kg)
h
f

(kJ/kg)
h
g

(kJ/kg)
s
f
(kJ/kgK)
s
g
(kJ/kgK)
-25 1.0637 0.18146 167.25 383.37 0.8748 1.7457
-20 1.3272 0.14725 173.67 386.44 0.9003 1.7408
-15 1.6393 0.12055 180.16 389.49 0.9256 1.7365
(Section of table taken, Rogers G.F.C. and Mayhew Y.R., 1995, Thermodynamic
and Transport Properties of Fluids. 5
th
edition, Blackwell).
An Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Part 2
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(b) From the table of data above, subscript f implies liquid, and subscript g
implies vapour.
(i) Enthalpy at 20C is 173.67 kJ/kg and entropy is 0.9003 kJ/kgK in
the liquid state.
(ii) Enthalpy is 386.44 kJ/kg and entropy is 1.7408 kJ/kgK in the vapour
state.
(c) The Steady Flow Energy Equation, SFEE, is h m W Q = +
!
! !
, and we
know that in the evaporator there is no work done (no boundary of the
system moves, and there are no mechanical devices in the way), so the
change in enthalpy between the exact saturated states multiplied is the
heat transferred in order to achieve that change in state. Heat
transferred is therefore
0.02 (kg/s) (386.44 173.67) (kJ/kg) = 4.26 kW
i.e. the system gains 4.26 kJ per second in order to evaporate the
refrigerant.

Air conditioning
2. An air conditioning unit draws in 0.5kg/s of atmospheric air at 30C and
specific humidity 0.012.
(a) What is the mass flow rate of water vapour in the air?
(b) Using the formula relating specific humidity to partial pressure of the
water vapour and the atmospheric pressure, and assuming one
atmosphere atmospheric pressure, what is the partial pressure of the
water vapour?
(c) Find the p
g
of water vapour. What is the relative humidity of the
incoming air?
(d) Find the dew point corresponding to the pressure p
g
. Sketch a Tv
diagram showing the process that the water vapour in atmospheric air
must go through in order to form dew. If the air is to be issued at 20C
and 50% humidity, determine the moisture removal rate, and the heat
transferred in the cooler and heater sections.
An Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Part 2
Hodder Education 2010

Solution
(a) = 0.012 =
dryair
r watervapou
m
m
!
!
; but
r watervapou dryair
m m
! !
+ =0.5 kg/s; solve
simultaneously to give water vapour 0.0098 kg/s or 9.8 g/s and dry air
0.4902 kg/s.

(b) Required formula is
s
s
p p
p

=
atmos
622 . 0

where p
s
is the partial pressure of
the water vapour. Knowing that the specific humidity is 0.012, p
s
is from
the formula 0.0189 bar or 1,890 Pa.

(c) p
g
is the saturated vapour pressure of water at 30C, which from the
tables of data of Rogers and Mayhew is 0.04242 bar, or 4242 Pa. Note
this is listed in the tables as p
s
, indicating pressure-saturated, which is
different to the p
s
in the specific humidity formula. Relative humidity is
from the formula
g
s
p
p
= .
In this case 45 . 0
4242
1890
= or 45%.

(d) The dew point occurs when p
s
= p
g
, in which p
g
indicates pressure-
saturated (p
s
in the tables). Note the potential confusion with the
identical notation of p
s
for two different pressures. Inspection of the
tables shows that the temperature corresponding to a saturation
pressure of 1890 Pa is between 16C and 17C.

Vapour power cycles
3. A turbine receives steam at 550C and 200 bar.
(a) Assuming an isentropic expansion through the turbine to a pressure of
40 bar, what is the final temperature?
(b) The turbine actually expands to 40 bar and 330C. What is the
isentropic efficiency of that turbine?

An Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Part 2
Hodder Education 2010
Solution
(a) This is most easily done using the Mollier hs diagram, a part of which
is shown in Figure 2.68. Plot the point at 200 bar and 550C, and draw
a vertical line until the 40 bar line is met, and read the temperature. An
alternative way is to use the Superheated Steam tables of Rogers and
Mayhew, interpolate to find the entropy at the first condition, and then
interpolate at 40 bar to find the temperature at the same entropy. The
temperature according to the hs diagram is approximately 300C.
Using the tables, s
g
at 550C and 200 bar is 6.324 kJ/kgK. At 40 bar this
s
g
lies between saturation at 250.3C and 300C. Interpolating produces
the temperature 293C. A more accurate value from the chart would be
possible with a large-scale chart usually they are A2 size.
(b) At 40 bar (330C) the enthalpy is 3030 kJ/kg.
1 2
1
isen
3030
h h
h

=
Where h
1
is enthalpy at 200 bar, 550C
h
1
= 3390 kJ/kg
and h
2
is the enthalpy after isentropic expansion to 40 bar.
h
2
= 2930 kJ/kg
78 . 0
3390 2930
3390 3030
isen
=

=

4. A power station uses the Rankine cycle between a boiler with feedwater at
200 bar and a condenser which is at a pressure corresponding to the
saturated water vapour at 30C.
(a) What are the pressure and specific enthalpy in the condenser?
(b) What are the temperature and specific enthalpy of the saturated steam?
(c) If the mass flow rate of the water is 100 kg/s, what is the heat input to
the steam in the boiler?
(d) What is the work done in the pump?
(e) The Rankine cycle is modified with a superheat steam pipe circuit prior
to entering the high pressure turbine. The cycle is also modified with
reheat after exit from the HP turbine up to 550C, before exhausting in
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the low pressure turbine at the pressure of the condenser. Given the
isentropic efficiency of the low pressure turbine is 85%, what are:
(i) specific enthalpy at turbine entry?
(ii) specific enthalpy at turbine exit?
(iii) the steam quality at exit?
(f) Knowing the pump work, the work produced by the HP turbine and the
LP turbine work, what is:
(i) specific steam consumption?
(ii) work ratio?

Solution
(a) The pressure in the condenser will be
SAT
corresponding to 30C.
From Rogers and Mayhew tables, this is 0.4242 bar. Specific enthalpy
of water vapour at 30C is (from the tables) h
g
= 2555.7 kJ/kg.
(b) The saturated steam figure from the boiler is at 200bar. Again, from
tables:
T
SAT
= 365.7C
h
g
= 2411 kJ/kg
(c) 100
water
= m
!
kg/s, which is converted from liquid at 30C from the
condenser to saturated vapour at 200 bar in the boiler. The enthalpy
change is the heat transferred. From the SFEE:
h m Q =
!

h
f
at 30C is (from tables) 125.7 kJ/kg.
We have h
g
at 200 bar from (b)
( ) 530 . 228 7 . 125 2411 100 = = Q kW
(d) The pump increases the pressure of the water from 0.04242 bar to 200
bar. We know for an open system, reversible work is
!
+
2
1
.dp v
In this case ( )
5
10 04242 . 0 200 = dp Pa
and v is the specific volume of liquid water at 30C, which from the tables
is
2
10 10044 . 0

=
f
v m
3
/kg
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( )
W 084 . 20
10 04242 . 0 200 10 10044 . 0
5 2
+ =
+ =

w

or 20 kW
(e)
(i) Specific enthalpy of L.P. turbine entry can be calculated from:
1
1
2
1 2
isen
h h
h h

=
where h
2
is the actual exit enthalpy and
1
2
h is the isentropic exit
enthalpy. The entry pressure is 40 bar (given in the initial part of the
question) and 550C. Plotting the process on an hs diagram, we find
the specific enthalpy at L.P. turbine entry is 3560 kJ/kg.

(ii) The isentropic expansion results in h
2
= 2180 kJ/kg, but applying
the isentropic efficiency:
2387
3560 2180
3560
85 . 0
2
2
=

= h
h
kJ/kg
(iii) Corresponding steam quality for 042 . 0 = bar and h = 2387
kJ/kg is 0.93.
(f)
(i) H.P. turbine work:
( )
( )
kW
h h m W
out in HP
36000
3030 3390 100
=
=
=
!

(ii) L.P. turbine work:
( )
( )
kW
h h M W
out in LP
117300
2387 3560 100
=
=
=
!


Work out total: 36 000 + 117 300 = 153 300 kW
S.S.C. = 35 . 2
20 153300
3600 100
=

=
net
steam
W
M
!
!
kg/kWhr

(ii) Work rate:
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r
w
= net work out
gross work out
% 99 . 99
153300
20 153300
=

=

Combustion chemistry
5.
(a) Write the reaction equation for the stoichiometric combustion of butane
in oxygen.
(b) If the mass of butane consumed is 20g, how many moles of butane is
this?
(c) For this 20g of butane, what mass of O
2
is consumed in the reaction?
(d) How many moles of oxygen is this?
(e) What are the masses of the gases in the products?

Solution

(a) Butune is C
4
H
10

reaction equation is:
O 5H 4CO O 6 H C
2 2 2 2
1
10 4
+ +
(b) To find the molecular mass of butane, add up the mass of the
constituents:
48 12 4 = g of C per mol
10 1 10 = g of H per mol
58
~
= m g per mol.
20 g is 345 . 0
58
20
= mol
(c) Mass of O
2
consumed for 20 g C
4
H
10
is from the reaction equation.
There are 6 mols of O
2
per mol of C
4
H
10.

For 0.345 mol of C
4
H
10
there is 0.345

6 = 2.24 mol O
2
An Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Part 2
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32
~
2
=
O
m g/mol
mass is 2.24 32 = 7.17 g of O
2
(d) See (c) (2.24 mols)
(e) CO
2
mass will be 0.345 4 (12 + 32) = 60.7 g
H
2
O mass will be 0.345 5 (2 1 + 16) = 31 g

6.
(a) Write the stoichiometric reaction equation for butane in air.
(b) What is the air to fuel ratio by volume and by mass?
(c) What are the proportions by mass and by volume of the product gases?
(d) Determine how much air is required for the stoichiometric combustion of
propane burning in air. Determine the AFR by mass and by volume.
(e) The propane is burned with 30% excess air. Determine the volume and
mass fractions of reactants and products.

Solution
(a) For butane in air, the reaction equation is:
C
4
H
10
+ 6 O
2
+ 6 3.76 N
2
! 4CO
2
+ 5H
2
O 6 3.76 N
2
(b) AFR
vol
=
( )
9 . 30
1
76 . 3 6 6
2
1
2
1
=
+

AFR
mass
=
( )
4 . 15
58
28 76 . 3 6 32 6
2
1
2
1
=
+

An Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Part 2
Hodder Education 2010

(c)

i
n
n
n
i

i
m
~

i
m
m
m
i

CO
2
4 0.12 44 176 0.19
H
2
O 5 0.15 18 90 0.09
N
2
24.44 0.73 28 684 0.72

"
44 . 33

"
950


(d) Propane C
3
H
8
C
3
H
8
+ 5O
2
+ 3.76 5N
2
! 3CO
2
+ 4H
2
O + 3.76 5N
2
AFR
mass
4 . 62
8 3
28 5 76 . 3 32 5
=
+
+
=

AFR
vol 8 . 23
1
5 76 . 3 5
=
+
=
(e) C
3
H
8
+ 5 1.3 (O
2
+ 3.76N
2
)
! 3CO
2
+ 4H
2
O + 0.3 5O
2
+ 5 1.3 3.76N
2
Reactants


i
n
n
n
i

i
m
~

i
m
m
m
i

C
3
H
8
1 0.03 44 44 0.05
O
2
6.5 0.20 32 208 0.22
N
2
24.44 0.77 28 684 0.73

"
94 . 31

"
936


An Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Part 2
Hodder Education 2010
Products

i
n
n
n
i

i
m
~

i
m
i

m
m
i

CO
2
3 0.09 44 132 0.14
H
2
O 4 0.12 18 72 0.08
O
2
1.5 0.05 32 48 0.05
N
2
24.44 0.74 28 684 0.73

"
94 . 32

"
936


Heat transfer
7.
(a) What is the thermal resistance of a brick wall (k=1.5W/mK), 10cm thick,
on a room wall of height 2.3m and width 3.1m?
(b) Calculate the thermal resistance of the wall given that it has three
layers: brick, insulation, brick. Each layer is 10cm thick, k=1.2 W/mK for
the inner brick, 0.5W/mK for the insulation and 2 W/mK for the outer
brick.
(c) Given that the convective heat transfer to the walls inner surface is 9
W/m
2
K, and on the outer wall is 95 W/m
2
K, find the thermal resistance
for the inside and outside convective conditions, and hence for the
overall wall.
(d) What is the heat transfer if the inner air is at 18C and the outer air is at
1C?
(e) Sketch the temperature profile through the wall.
(f) The ground at night has air blowing over it at 2C, with a heat transfer
coefficient of 20 W/m
2
K. It also sees the night sky, which is at -55C.
The view factor is 1 and the emissivity of the ground is 0.9. Given the
ground has a temperature of 10C at a depth of 3m and conductivity of
2 W/m
2
, calculate the surface temperature of the ground.

An Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Part 2
Hodder Education 2010
Solution
(a) R
TH
is related to Ohms law analogy
TH
R
T
Q

=
For conduction T
x
KA
Q

=
Where x = thickness and A is cross section area
In this case
A = 2.3 3.1 = 7.13m
2
K = 1.5 W/mK
x = 0.1 m
R
TH
= 0094 . 0
13 . 7 5 . 1
1 . 0
=

kA
x
k/W
This appears to be low because the cross section area is very large i.e. a
lot of heat transfer surface area.
(b) A = 7.13m
2
as before.
Insulation layer:
R
TH
= 028 . 0
13 . 7 5 . 0
1 . 0
=

k/W

Inner brick:
R
TH
= 012 . 0
13 . 7 2 . 1
1 . 0
=

k/W

Outer brick:
R
TH
= 007 . 0
13 . 7 2
1 . 0
=

k/W

Total R
TH
= 0.028 + 0.012 + 0.07
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= 0.047 k/W

(c) Inner h = 9 W/m
2
K
Outer h = 95 W/m
2
K
For convective heat transfer, Newtons Law of cooling
Q = hA T
R
TH
=
hA
1

For inner wall, R
TH 016 . 0
13 . 7 9
1
=

=
k/W
For outer wall, R
TH 001 . 0
13 . 7 95
1
=

=
k/W
Adding to these terms the conductive terms from before:
Total R
TH
= 0.016 + 0.001 + 0.047
= 0.064 k/W
(d) 265
064 . 0
1 18
=

=
TH
R
T
Q W
Sky 55C

(e)
2C h = 20 W/m
2
K

3m k = 2 W/mK
T = 10C
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(f) Draw R
TH
network

Heat loss by ground = heat to air and sky
( ) ( ) ( )
4 4
218 275 283
s s s
T AF T hA T
x
kA
+ =

Either factorise the radiative element of the equation, or guess and repeat
until L.H.S. = R.H.S.

Guess and repeat:
L.H.S R.H.S.
Guess T
s
= 0C 6.7 40 + 168 = 128
colder T
s
= 3C 8.7 100+ 155 = 55

colder T
s
= 4C 9.3 120 + 151 = 31

colder T
s
= 7C 11.7 180 + 140 = +40

Too cold.
A graph shows that it is just less than 4C
An Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Part 2
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Combustion energy
8. Calculate the energy release by combusting 10g of butane (C
4
H
10
) given
the enthalpy of formation of liquid butane at standard conditions is
6 . 147 kJ/mol. Assume the products contain water as vapour.

Solution
0
~
f
h liquid butane = 147.6 kJ/mol
Reaction equation: ( ) kg/kmol 58
~
10 4
=
H C
m
2 2 2 2 2 2
1
10 4
24.4N O H 5 CO 4 N 4 . 24 O 6 H C + + + +
Put in formation enthalpies:
0 241830 5 393520 4 0 0 10 6 . 147
3
+ + + +
0
~
h is 393 520 4 241 830 5 + 147600 = 2 635 630 kJ/kmol
For 10g it is 454 2635
58
10
= kJ

9. Butane is burned by a stove with 100% excess air at 25C to heat up a
pan of water. If the combusted gases escape at 800K, how much heat is
extracted from the flame per kmol of fuel?

Solution
Reaction equation:
2 2 2
1
2 2 2 2 2
1
10 4
N 24 . 2 2 O 6 O H 5 CO 4 N 4 . 24 2 O 6 2 H C + + + + +
Combustion energy equation N:
( ) ( )
0 0 0
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
h n h h n h h n W Q
T
R
T
P
+ + = +
" "

0
h is zero for all gases.
:
~
800K
h CO
2
22815 kJ/kmol
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H
2
O
vap
17991 kJ/kmol
O
2
15841kJ/kmol
N
2
15046kJ/kmol
(from Rogers and Mayhew tables)
Since reactants start at 25C, they start at zero enthalpy, since this is the
reference temperature.
2635630 1 8 . 48 15046 6 15841 5 17991 4 22815
2
1
0
+ + + + = / + W Q
1617204 = Q kJ per mol of fuel

10. What mass of butane is required to heat up 400g of water from 25C to
boiling point?

Solution
Enthalpy change of the water is
( ) ( )
J 125680
10 8 . 104 10 419 4 . 0
3 3
C 25 C 100
=
= " " h h m

From part 2, the mass of butane required in this particular case is
kg 0045 . 0
1617204000
58
125680
=
=
m
m

or 4.5g

Heat exchangers

11.
(a) A heat exchanger operates with an oil with c
p
of 1.67 kJ/kgK and
density 910 kg/m
3
, and water with c
p
of 4.2 kJ/kgK and density 1000
kg/m
3
. The oil volume flow rate is 3158 l/h and the water flow rate is
2000 l/h. What is the capacity rate of the oil and of the water?
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(b) The water enters at 50C and leaves at 70C and the oil enters at
120C and leaves at 85C. The heat exchanger is of the shell and tube
type with counter-current flow. What is the logarithmic mean
temperature difference?
(c) What is the surface area of the heat transfer surface within the heat
exchanger if it has an overall heat transfer coefficient of 1100 W/m
2
K?
If this is done with a tube having diameter 12mm, what is the length of
tube in the exchanger?

Solution
(a) C
oil
= kW/K 33 . 1 67 . 1 91 . 0
3600
3158
oil
oil
= =
p
c m
!

C
water
= kW/K 33 . 2 2 . 4 1
3600
2000
water
water
= =
p
C M
!

(b)
#
$
%
&
'
(

=
h
a
b a
M
T
T
n
T T
T
#

(where a and b are the opposite ends of the heat exchanger)
K or C 7 . 41
36 . 0
15
50
35
50 35
C 50 120 70
C 35 85 50
"
"
"
#
=

=
+
=
= =
= =
n
T
T
T
M
b
a

(Negative indicates direction of heat transfer)
(c) U = 1100 W/m
2
K
water water
T C T UA Q
M
= =
2
3
m 02 . 1
7 . 41 100 . 1
20 10 33 . 2
=

= A
For the pipe
m 27
02 . 1 012 . 0
=
= = =
L
L dL A


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12. A compact heat exchanger is constructed with a cross-flow matrix
arrangement with unmixed streams for cooling oil in an air stream. The oil
enters at 70C and is required to leave at 30C. The oil density is
700kg/m
3
. The flow rate of oil is 5 litres per minute and it has a specific
heat capacity c = 1.7 kJ/kgK at 10C and 2.5 kJ/kgK at 100C.
(a) What is a suitable average specific heat capacity of the oil over the
working range?
(b) What is the rate of heat transfer?

Solution
(Note that there is an error in Figure 2.62c the horizontal axis labels are a
factor of 10 out, and should be 1, 2, 3, 4 etc rather than 0.2, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 etc.)
(a) Use interpolation of the given data to find c
p
at the average temperature
of the oil.
kJ/kgK 06 . 2
7 . 1 5 . 2
7 . 1
10 100
10 50
50
2
30 70
avg
avg
avg
=

=
+
=
p
p
C
C
C T
"


(b)
( )
kW 8 . 4
30 70 21 . 7
oil oil
=
=
= T C Q

0.12kW/K
kw/K
60
21 . 7
60
06 . 2
7 . 0 5
oil avg
oil oil
=
=
=
=
p
C M C
!


13. A compact heat exchanger has oil exchanging heat with water and is used
to cool engine oil. The oil mass flow rate is 50 g/s and c
p
= 1800 J/kgK.
The water mass flow rate is 60 g/s. Given that the ingoing oil is at 130C
and the ingoing water is at 15C:
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(a) What are C
min
and C
max
for this situation?
(b) What is the maximum potential heat transfer in this situation, q
max
?
(c) What is the NTU if the area is 0.5 m
2
and the overall heat transfer
coefficient is 800 W/m
2
K?
(d) What is the effectiveness, , and hence the actual heat transfer?
Solution
(a)
W/K 252
W/K 90
W/K 252 4200 06 . 0
W/K 90 1800 05 . 0
water max
oil min
water
oil
= =
= =
= =
= =
C C
C C
C
C

(b)
( ) W 10350 15 130 90
max min max
= =
= T C q
!

(c) 44 . 4
90
5 . 0 800
NTU
min
=

= =
C
UA

(d) From Figure 2.62c, the value of when NTU = 4.44 and
35 . 0
252
90
max
min
= =
C
C
is 0.96
W 9936
10350 96 . 0
96 . 0
max
=
=
= =
q
q
q


Compressors

14. A two-stage reciprocating air compressor, running at four cycles per
second, delivers air at 18 barg from atmospheric air at 1.03 bar at 11C.
The dimensions of the first stage are 100 mm diameter and 100 mm
stroke, with a clearance length of 5mm. Taking the polytropic index as
1.25 for compression and expansion processes:

(a) What is the swept volume and clearance volume of the first stage?
An Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Part 2
Hodder Education 2010
(b) What is the intermediate pressure for minimum work?
(c) What is the expansion of the clearance volume in the first stage?
(d) What is the volumetric efficiency and hence the mass flow rate of air?


Solution
1.25 n
284K or C 11
03 . 1
atmos
atmos
=
=
=
"
T


(a)
3 5
2 2
clearance
3 4
2 2
swept
m 10 9 . 3 005 . 0
4
1 . 0
4
m 10 85 . 7 1 . 0
4
1 . 0
4

=

=

=
=

=

=
c
L
d
V
L
d
V

(b) We know that the minimum work for the two-stage compressor happens
when the work done in each stage is the same, which corresponds to
the intermediate pressure being:
( )
bar 4.43 or Pa 10 43 . 4
10 03 . 1 18 10 03 . 1
5
5 5
atmos
=
+ =
=
Hi i

(c) Expansion at the clearance volume occurs between the intermediate
pressure, 4.43 bar, and atmospheric pressure, 1.03 bar.

An Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Part 2
Hodder Education 2010



The clearance volume expands in a polytropic process:
( ) ( )
( )
3 4
25 . 1
25 . 1
5
2
25 . 1
2
25 . 1
5
2 2 1 1
m 10 25 . 1
10 9 . 3
03 . 1
43 . 4
03 . 1 10 9 . 3 43 . 4

=
=
=
=
V
V
V V
n n

So expansion is
3 5 5 4
m 10 6 . 8 10 9 . 3 10 25 . 1

=

(d)
swept
induced
vol
V
V
=
3 4
5 4
clear expansion, swept induced
m 10 99 . 6
10 6 . 8 10 85 . 7

=
=
= V V V

89 . 0
85 . 7
99 . 6
vol
= =
V
clearance

End of
clearance vol
expansion
Reservoir
draws in
x distance in cylinder
End of V
swept
!