Mathematical Foundations 2: Unit 3/Chapter 2

18
Introduction

A power series in x is a series of the form

a a x a x a x
r
r
0 1 2
2
+ + + + + ... ... ,

where the coefficients a a a a
r 0 1 2
, , ,..., ... are constants.

The possibility of representing a given function of x by a power series, which may be
used to approximate the value of the function for a range of values of x, will be
investigated.

Example 1 Consider the power series 1
1
2
1
3
2 3
+ + + + x x x
! !
... for which the general term
is
( )
u
r
x r
r
r
=

1
1
1 2 3
1
!
, , ,... , .

Evaluate the sum of the first n terms, , when 0.5
n
S x = :

n u
n
S
n

1 1 1
2 0.5 1.5
3 0.125 1.625
4 0.020833333 1.645833333
5 0.0026041666 1.6484375
6 0.00026041666 1.648697917
7 0.000021701388 1.648719617
8 0.0000015500 1.648721167

Observations
As n increases u
n
appears to be approaching zero, and S
n
appears to be
approaching some fixed number. On this evidence, when x = 05 . the
series appears to be convergent.

In fact to 4 decimal place accuracy it appears that ( ) S
n
05 16487 . . = , as
S S S
6 7 8
16487 , , ,.. . = to 4 decimal place accuracy.

Comparing the graphs of

( ) S x x
1
1 = + ,
( ) S x x x
2
1
2
2
1 = + +
!
,
( ) S x x x x
3
1
2
2
1
3
3
1 = + + +
! !
and
( ) S x x x x x
4
1
2
2
1
3
3
1
4
4
1 = + + + +
! ! !


Mathematical Foundations 2: Unit 3/Chapter 2
19
with the graph of e
x
(see Appendix 1) suggests that, as n increases the
graph of S
n
gets closer to the graph of e
x
. The closest agreement is
obtained for values of x close to x = 0 .

Since e
0 5
16487
.
. = , and S
n
(0.5)1.6487, it appears that this power
series could be used to represent e
x
.

The graphs suggest that the series converges to e
x
, and theoretically it
could be used to evaluate e
x
for any value of x

It remains to consider how the above power series representing e
x
is derived.

A similar consideration of the power series x x x x + +
1
2
2
1
3
3
1
4
4
... , indicates that
the series appears to converge to ( ) log
e
x 1+ , but only when < < + 1 1 x . (For the
relevant graphs see Appendix 2.)

2.1 Maclaurins Series

A Maclaurins Series uses information about a function and its derivatives at x = 0 to
represent the function by a power series close to x = 0 .

Example 1 Assume e
x
may be represented by the power series a a x a x a x
0 1 2
2
3
3
+ + + +...

i.e. e a a x a x a x x
x
= + + + =
0 1 2
2
3
3
0 +... close to

Then:


0
0 0
1 e a a = =

Differentiating:
2 3
1 2 3 4
0
1 1
2 3 4 ...
i.e. 1
x
e a a x a x a x
e a a
= + + + +
= =


and again:
2
2 3 4
0
1
2 2 2
2 3 2 4 3 ...
i.e. 2
x
e a a x a x
e a a
= + + +
= =


and again:
e a a x
e a a
x
= + +
= =

3 2 4 3 2
3 2
3 4
0
3 3
1
3 2
...
i.e.


Repeating this process enables as many coefficients as required to be
determined.

Mathematical Foundations 2: Unit 3/Chapter 2
20
Based on the above information the first four terms in the power series for e
x

are:

2 3 2 3
1 1 1 1
2 3 2 2! 3!
1 1 ... 1 ... x x x x x x

+ + + + = + + + +

For a general function, ( ) f x , the Maclaurins Series is given by:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) f f x f x f x
r
f x
r r
0 0
1
2
0
1
3
0
1
0
2 3
+ + + + + +
! !
...
!
...

where
( )
( ) ( ) { }
0 evaluated at 0
r
r
r
d
f f x x
dx
=

To determine the Maclaurins series for a given function ( ) f x , up to and including
the term in x
n
, determine the first n derivatives of ( ) f x and evaluate them at x = 0.
The coefficients of the Maclaurins series for ( ) f x may then be found.

The following examples illustrate this procedure.

Example 2 Determine the Maclaurins series for sin x , up to and including the term
involving x
5
, and deduce the general term.

Solution Here ( ) f x x = sin ( ) = = f 0 0 0 sin

( ) = f x x cos ( ) = = f 0 0 1 cos

( ) = f x x sin ( ) = = f 0 0 0 sin


( )
( ) f x x
4
= cos
( )
( ) = = f
4
0 0 1 cos


( )
( ) ( ) f x x x
5
= = sin sin
( )
( ) = = f
5
0 0 0 sin

Note:
( )
( ) ( ) f x f x
5
= , therefore the cycle 01 0 1 , , , is just repeated!

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) = = = f f f
6 7 8
0 1 0 0 0 1 , , , etc .
Also the coefficient of
5
x involves
( )
( ) f
5
0 , therefore derivatives of
( ) f x of order higher than 5 are not really required, although they can
be used to deduce the general term.

Thus:
( )
2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1
2! 3! 4! 5!
3 5
1 1
3! 5!
sin 0 1 0 1 0 1 ...
...
x x x x x x
x x x
= + + + + + +
= +


Mathematical Foundations 2: Unit 3/Chapter 2
21
Observe that the terms alternate in sign and involve only odd powers of
x. It can be shown that this series converges for all values of x.

Example 3 Determine the Maclaurins series for
1
1 2 + x
, up to and including the
term involving x
3
, and deduce the general term.

Solution The coefficient of x
3
involves ( ) f x , therefore derivatives of order up to and
including 3 are required:

Here ( ) ( ) f x
x
x =
+
= +
1
1 2
1 2
1
( ) 0 1 f =


( ) ( ) { }
( )
= + +
= +

f x x
d
dx
x
x
1 1 2 1 2
2 1 2
2
2
( ) 0 2 f =


( ) ( ) { }
( )
= + +
= +

f x x
d
dx
x
x
2 2 1 2 1 2
8 1 2
3
3
( ) 0 8 f =


( ) ( ) { }
( )
= + +
= +

f x x
d
dx
x
x
3 8 1 2 1 2
48 1 2
4
4
( ) 0 48 f =

Thus:
( )
2 3
2 3
1 8 48
1 2 ...
1 2 2! 3!
1 2 4 8 ...
x x x
x
x x x

= + + + +
+
= + +


It can be proved that the power series for
1
1 2x +
only converges when
1
2
. x <

Thus, the Maclaurins series may be used to approximate
1
1 2 + x
only when x
lies between +
1
2
1
2
and .
The interval < < +
1
2
1
2
x is called the interval of convergence of the
power series.

Example 4 Determine the Maclaurins series for xe
x
up to and including the term
involving x
3
.

Mathematical Foundations 2: Unit 3/Chapter 2
22
Solution As in Example 3, derivatives of order up to and including 3 are required:

Here ( ) f x xe
x
=

( ) 0 0 f =


( ) { } { }
( ) ( )
= +
= + =


f x
d
dx
x e x
d
dx
e
e x e x e
x x
x x x
1
( ) 0 1 f =


( ) { } ( ) { }
( ) ( )
( )
= +
= +
=

f x
d
dx
x e x
d
dx
e
e x e
x e
x x
x x
x
1 1
1 1
2
( ) 0 2 f =


( ) { } ( ) { }
( ) ( )
( )
= +
= +
=

f x
d
dx
x e x
d
dx
e
e x e
x e
x x
x x
x
2 2
1 2
3
( ) 0 3 f =

Thus:
2 3 2 3
1
2
2 3
0 1 ... ...
2! 3!
x
xe x x x x x x

= + + + + = + +

Mathematical Foundations 2: Unit 3/Chapter 2
23
Exercises 2.1

1 Determine the Maclaurin series for cos 2 , x up to and including the term involving
6
. x

2 Determine the Maclaurin series for ( ) ln 1 2 , x up to and including the term involving
4
. x

3 Determine the first four non-zero terms in the power series for 1 3 . x +

4 Determine the Maclaurin series for sin , x x up to and including the term involving
6
. x

Mathematical Foundations 2: Unit 3/Chapter 2
24
2.2 Standard Maclaurins Series

A list of standard power series, i.e. Maclaurins series for some standard functions, is given in
the Facts and Formulas leaflet. The interval of convergence is stated alongside each power
series.

Standard power series may be used to determine the powers series for functions which
involve combinations of standard functions, within the common interval of
convergence.

Example 1 Determine the power series for e x
x
sin , up to and including the term
involving x
5
.

Solution Using standard power series:


e x x x x x
x x x x
x
= + + + + + +
= +
1
1
2
2
1
3
3
1
4
4
1
5
5
1
3
3
1
5
5
! ! ! !
! !
...
sin ...
, and


where only terms up to and including x
5
have been considered.

Therefore, retaining only those terms which contribute:


( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 4 5 3 5
1 1 1 1 1 1
2! 3! 4! 5! 3! 5!
3 5 3 2 3
1 1 1 1 1
3! 5! 3! 2! 3!
3 4
1 1
3! 4!
3 5 2 4 3 5 4 5
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
6 120 6 2 12 6 24
2 3 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
6 2 6 6 120 12 24
sin 1 ... ...
1
...
...
x
e x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x
x x x x
x x x x x x x x x
x x x x
= + + + + + + +
= + + +
+ + +
= + + + + + +
= + + + + + + +
5
2 3 5
1 1
3 30
...
...
x
x x x x
+
= + + +


The power series for e
x
and sinx are both convergent for all values of x,
therefore the power series for e
x
sinx is also convergent for all values of x.
Mathematical Foundations 2: Unit 3/Chapter 2
25
Exercises 2.2

1 Using standard power series from the Facts and Formulas leaflet write down power
series for 1 x + and sin , x up to and including the term involving
4
. x

Hence, determine the power series for 1 sin , x x + up to and including the term
involving
4
. x

2 Using standard power series from the Facts and Formulas leaflet write down power
series for ( )
1
1 x

+ and ,
x
e up to and including the term involving
4
. x

Hence, determine the power series for ,
1
x
e
x +
up to and including the term involving
4
. x

3 Using standard power series from the Facts and Formulas leaflet write down power
series for ( )
1
2 x

+ and ( ) ln 1 2 , x up to and including the term involving
4
. x

Hence, determine the power series for
( ) ln 1 2
,
2
x
x

+
up to and including the term
involving
4
. x

Mathematical Foundations 2: Unit 3/Chapter 2
26
2.3 Approximations using Power Series

The following examples indicate how power series may be used to obtain approximations.

Example 1 Using the power series for 1+ x obtain the value of 105 . to 4
decimal place accuracy.

Solution ( ) ( ) 105 1 0 05 1 1
1
2
1
2
. . = + + = + , and x x

Therefore, the power series for ( ) 1 005
1
2
+ = x x with . will give an
approximation to 105 . , provided a sufficient number of terms to give 4
decimal place accuracy are taken into account.

Note: In order to obtain an answer accurate to 4 decimal places it is necessary
to carry out intermediate calculations to at least 6 decimal places; this
will ensure that the 4th rounded decimal place is accurate.

Using the power series for ( ) 1
n
x + with n =
1
2
:


( )
1
2
3 3 5 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 3 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1
2
2 3 4
1 1 1 1
2 8 16 128
1 1 ...
2! 3! 4!
1 ...
x x x x x
x x x x

+ = + + + + +
= + + +


Setting x = 005 . :


2 3 4
1 1 1 1
2 8 16 128
1.05 1 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 ...
1 0.025 0.0003125 0.0000078125
+terms which do not contribute to 4dp accuracy
1.024695312 1.0247 to 4 decimal place accuracy
= + + +
= + +
=



Example 2 Evaluate


x xdx cos
0
1

to 3 decimal place accuracy.

Solution This definite integral cannot be evaluated exactly using standard integration
techniques. However, an approximate answer may be obtained by
approximating the integrand by a power series.

Using the standard power series for cos x :

cos ...
! ! ! !
x x x x x = + + 1
1
2
2
1
4
4
1
6
6
1
8
8


Mathematical Foundations 2: Unit 3/Chapter 2
27
Therefore:

x x x x x x x x x cos cos ...
! ! ! !
= = + +
1
2
1
2
5
2
9
2
13
2
17
2 1
2
1
4
1
6
1
8


and:


[ ]

0
1
0
1
x xdx x x x x x dx
x x x x x
cos
...
...
! ! ! !
! ! ! !
! ! ! !

= + +
= + +
= + +
1
2
3
2
9
2
13
2
17
2
3
2
7
2
11
2
15
2
19
2
1
2
1
4
1
6
1
8
2
3
1
2
2
7
1
4
2
11
1
6
2
15
1
8
2
19
0
1
2
3
1
2
2
7
1
4
2
11
1
6
2
15
1
8
2
19

0.66666 0.14285 0.01190 0.00018 0.00000
0.53553 0.536 to 3 decimal place accuracy.
= + +
=


Mathematical Foundations 2: Unit 3/Chapter 2
28
Exercises 2.3

1 Use standard power series to show that if powers of x greater than the third are
neglected, then

( )
3
1 1 19
1 2 sin3 ln 1 2 .
3 2 6
x
x x x e x

+ +

2 Use the power series for ( ) ln 1 2x to obtain ln 0.98 accurate to 5 decimal places.

Check your answer using your calculator.

3 By first expressing the integrand as a power series (using standard power series)
obtain approximations to each of the following integrals, accurate to 3 decimal places:

(i)
1
2
3
0
1 x dx +

(ii)
1
2
1
sin x
dx
x

Mathematical Foundations 2: Unit 3/Chapter 2
29

2.4 Taylors Series

Taylors series are a generalization of Maclaurins series, in that they use information about a
function and its derivatives at any point to obtain a power series which approximates the
function close to that point..

The Taylors series which approximates the function ( ) f x close to x a = is:

( ) ( )( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) f a f a x a
f a
x a
f a
x a
f a
r
x a
r
r
+ +

+

+ + +
2 3
2 3
! !
...
!
...

where
( )
( ) ( ) { }
evaluated at .
r
r
r
d
f a f x x a
dx
= =


Setting a = 0 in the Taylors series gives the Maclaurins series.

Setting x a h = + gives an alternative form of the Taylors series which is often used:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
2 3
... ...
2! 3! !
r
r
h h h
f a h f a hf a f a f a f a
r
+ = + + + + + +

Example 1 Determine the Taylors series for log
e
x x about = 3 up to and including the
term involving ( ) x 3
5
.

Given that log .
e
3 1098612 = determine log .
e
31 to 4 decimal place accuracy.

Solution The coefficient of ( ) x 3
5
involves
( )
( ) f
5
3 therefore derivatives of order up
to and including 5 are required.

Here ( ) f x x
e
= log ( ) 3 log 3
e
f =

( ) = f x
x
1
( )
1
3
3
f =

( ) = f x
x
1
2
( )
2
1
3
3
f =

( ) = f x
x
2
3
( )
3
2
3
3
f =


( )
( ) f x
x
4
4
6
=
( )
( )
4
4
6
3
3
f =

Mathematical Foundations 2: Unit 3/Chapter 2
30

( )
( ) f x
x
5
5
24
=
( )
( )
5
5
24
3
3
f =

Thus:


( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
2
3 4
3 4
5
5
2 3 4
1 1 1 1
3 18 81 324
5
1
1215
1 1 1
log log 3 3 3
3 3 2!
2 1 6 1
3 3
3 3! 3 4!
24 1
3 ...
3 5!
log 3 3 3 3 3
3 ...
e e
e
x x x
x x
x
x x x x
x

= + +



+ +


+ +
= + +
+ +


Setting 3.1: x =


2 3 4
1 1 1 1
3 18 162 324
5
1
1215
log 3.1 log 3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
0.1 ...
1.098612 0.033333 0.000556 0.000006 0.0000003 ...
1.431395 1.4314 to 4 decimal place accuracy
e e
= + +
+ +
= + + +
=


Mathematical Foundations 2: Unit 3/Chapter 2
31
Exercises 2.4

1 Determine the first 6 terms in the Taylors series for e
x
about x = 2 .

Use this series to approximate the value of e
2 1 .
accurate to 4 decimal places,
given that e
2
7 389056 = . .
2 Determine the first 4 terms in the Taylors series for
2
1+ x
about x = 2.