Internat|ona| Cn||ne Iourna| of Lducat|ona| Sc|ences, 2011, 3(2), S26-S40

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1
KocaeIi Universily, sahranc+holmaiI.com

2011 InlernalionaI OnIine }ournaI of IducalionaI Sciences ISSN: 1309-2707


An Invcstigatinn nI thc Rc!atinnships bctwccn 5c!I-Handicapping and
Dcprcssinn, Anxicty, and 5trcss

mit SAHRAN
1


Abstract
This sludy invesligaled lhe reIalionshis belveen seIf-handicaing and deression, anxiely, and slress. The
samIe of sludy consisls of 336 universily sludenls. In lhis sludy, lhe SeIf-handicaing ScaIe and lhe
Deression Anxiely Slress ScaIe (DASS) vere used. The reIalionshis belveen seIf-handicaing and
deression, anxiely, and slress vere examined using correIalion and slrucluraI equalion modeIing. ResuIls
demonslraled lhal seIf-handicaing osiliveIy reIaled lo deression, anxiely, and slress. The slrucluraI
modeI filled veII lo lhe dala (
!
/df1.18, "0.317, GII1 .00, AGII .99, CII1.00, NII.96, III1.00, RII.99,
and RMSIA.014) and aIso accounled for 17% of lhe deression, 24% of lhe anxiely, and 27% of lhe slress
variances. According lo alh anaIysis resuIls, deression, anxiely, and slress vere redicled osiliveIy by
seIf-handicaing.
Kcy Wnrds: SeIf-handicaing, deression, anxiely, slress, alh anaIysis, universily sludenls

Intrnductinn
In sociaI sychoIogy a greal deaI lradilionaI and conlemorary lheory and research has
been based on lhe remise lhal eoIe are molivaled lo seek informalion aboul lheir
abiIily (KoIdilz & Arkin, 1982). Ior inslance, Ieslinger's (1954) sociaI comarison lheory
supposes that there exists, in the human organism, a drive to evaluate his opinions and
his abilities (p. 117). Such an evaluation apparently aids the individual who seeks lo
behave adaptively. Heiders (1958) attribution theory posits a fundamental need for
individuaIs lo order and redicl lheir environmenl. An individuaI vho makes accurale
and slabIe allribulions aboul lhe environmenl and aboul him/herseIf sland a grealer
chance of underslanding and conlroIIing lhal environmenl.
Anolher fascinaling idea on lhis area has been ul forvard by ergIas and }ones (1978),
vho have cIaimed and emiricaIIy roved (ergIas & }ones, 1978) lhal one arlicuIar sel of
circumslances vouId fosler a reference lo avoid diagnoslic informalion aboul abiIily.
#$%&'$(%)*$(+ -$+)$& .*/'$(+ *0 12/3(%)*$(+ 43)&$3&56 !7886 9:!;6 <!=><?7
327

They aIso roosed lhal individuaIs vho exerience uncerlainly aboul lheir abiIily lo
erform sorlie lask vouId lend lo choose a erformance conlexl lhal offered lhe
oorlunily lo exlernaIize (or excuse) faiIure. These individuaIs creale obslacIes lo lheir
achievemenl of success vilh lhe aim of having a ready-made excuse for faiIure if il occurs.
}ones and ergIas (1978) firsl used lhe lerm 5&+0>@($2)3("")$A lo describe lhis silualion and
caIIed lhese individuaIs as seIf-handicaers. }ones and ergIas conlinued as foIIovs:
BC 0)$2)$A *' 3'&(%)$A )D"&2)D&$%5 %@(% D(E& A**2 "&'0*'D($3& +&55 +)E&+C6 %@& 5%'(%&A)5% $)3&+C
"'*%&3%5 @)5 5&$5& *0 5&+0>3*D"&%&$3&F #0 %@& "&'5*$ 2*&5 "**'+C6 %@& 5*/'3& *0 0()+/'& )5
&G%&'$(+)H&2 )$ %@& )D"&2)D&$%I F F F #0 %@& "&'5*$ 2*&5 J&++6 %@&$ @& *' 5@& @(5 2*$& J&++ )$ 5")%&
*0 +&55 %@($ *"%)D(+ 3*$2)%)*$5 :"F !78;F
Aflervards lhe definilion of seIf-handicaing has been exlended by Synder and Smilh
(1982) lo incIude chronic seIf-handicas. These chronic seIf-handicaing slralegies are
erformance inhibiling disosilions and symloms and aIIov lhe seIf-handicaer lo
mainlain an environmenl lhal maximizes osilive and minimizes negalive feedback.
AccordingIy, seIf-handicaers use reIaliveIy consislenl or chronic handicas or
symloms vhich, lhough inlernaI lo lhe individuaI, faciIilale an allribulion olher lhan lo
abiIily foIIoving oor erformance. Synder and Smilh (1982) have argued lhal lhese
symptoms can be employed to secure tangible rewards that may also bolster the persons
sense of seIf-esteem and competence (p. 107).
There is a reIaliveIy consensus on lhe cIassificalion of lhe seIf-handicaing slralegies.
Arkin and aumgardner (1985) have cIassified various forms of seIf-handicas inlo
acquired obslacIes (imedimenls lhal acluaIIy Iover lhe IikeIihood of success) and cIaimed
obslacIes (imedimenls lhal eoIe cIaim lo have). Leary and Sheerd (1986) assigned
lhe lerm behavioraI seIf-handicaing lo acquired seIf-handicas (e.g., consuming aIcohoI)
and lhe lerm seIf-reorled handicaing lo cIaimed seIf-handicas (e.g., reorling high
sociaI anxiely). ehavioraI seIf-handicaing invoIves acliveIy crealing a disadvanlage foe
oneseIf before an evaIualion. SeIf-reorled seIf-handicaing behaviors on lhe olher hand,
are cIaims lhal a disadvanlageous condilion exisls before an evaIualion (Snyder, Smilh,
AugeIIi, & Ingram, 1985).
mit SAHRAN
328

A vide variely of behaviors have been suggesled as examIes of behavioraI seIf-
handicaing, incIuding rocraslinalion (Lay, Knish, & Zanalla, 1992), vilhdravaI of
efforl (Smilh Snyder, & HandeIsman, 1982), Iack of raclice (aumeisler, HamiIlon, & Tice,
1985, Iyszczynski & Greenberg, 1983, RhodevaIl, SaIlzman, & Willmer, 1984), nol laking
oorlunilies lo raclice (aiIis, 2001, KimbIe, KimbIe, & Croy, 1998, Tice & aumeisler,
1990), choice of debiIilaling erformance sellings (RhodevaIl & Davison, 1986, Sheerd
& Arkin, 1989), drug use (ergIas & }ones, 1978, KoIdilz & Arkin, 1982), aIcohoI use
(Higgins & Harris, 1988, }ones & ergIas, 1978, Tucker, Vuchinich, & SobeII, 1981), Iack of
sIee (RhodevaIl & Davison, 1986, Sheerd & Arkin, 1989), choosing very difficuIl goaIs
(Greenberg, 1985), and over-invoIvemenl vilh friends or aclivilies. ehaviors fuIfiIIing lhe
funclion of seIf-reorled seIf-handicaing incIude cIaiming lesl anxiely (Smilh el aI.,
1982), sociaI anxiely (Snyder el aI., 1985), being in a bad mood (aumgardner, Lake, &
Arkin, 1985, Ayay and IryiImaz, 2011), lraumalic Iife evenls (DeGree & Snyder, 1985),
iIIness and shyness (Snyder el aI., 1985), sychoIogicaI symloms (Smilh, Snyder, &
Ierkins, 1983, Schoulen & HandeIsman, 1987, Snyder el aI., 1985), side effecls of
medicalion (Gibbons & Gaedderl, 1984), and emolionaI and hysicaI symloms (Smilh el
aI., 1983).
ehavioraI seIf-handicas are a more coslIy, riskier slralegy lhan cIaimed seIf-handicas in
lhal behavioraI seIf-handicas acluaIIy Iover chances for success bul aIso are more
convincing and Iess disulabIe lhan lheir seIf-reorled counlerarls. Ior examIe, before a
erformance evaIualion nol raclicing can rovide an excuse for oor erformance, bul
aIso decreases lhe IikeIihood of a successfuI erformance. In conlrasl, simIy cIaiming lo
be loo anxious or lired aIso serves as an excuse for oor erformance, bul does nol
acluaIIy reduce lhe IikeIihood of success (CoudevyIIe, Marlin Ginis, & Iamose, 2008, Hirl,
Dee, & Gordon, 1991).
Research on seIf-handicaing has reveaIed a variely of maIadalive affeclive, cognilive,
and behavioraI correIales of handicaing as veII as a variely of ersonaIily
characlerislics associaled vilh lhe use of seIf-handicaing slralegies. Some of lhese
variabIes are reduced seIf-esleem (Lay & SiIverman, 1996, Marlin, IIell, Hevill, Krames, &
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329

Szanlo, 1996, SaddIer & Sacks, 1993, Slrube, 1986), Iov feeIings of exlraversion (Slrube,
1986) and seIf-delerminalion (Knee & Zuckerman, 1998), a beIief in innale abiIily
(RhodevaIl, 1994), sociaI anxiely (Slrube, 1986), maIadalive erfeclionism (Irosl, Marlen,
Laharl, & RosenbIale, 1990, Hobden & IIiner, 1995), erformance goaIs (RhodevaIl, 1994),
academic underachievemenl (Zuckerman, Kieffer, & Knee, 1998), and Iover achievemenl
(Garcia, 1995, MidgIey, Arunkumar, & Urdan, 1996, MidgIey & Urdan, 1995, Urdan,
MidgIey, & Anderman, 1998). SeIf-handicaing has aIso been Iinked lo increased
vilhdravaI and negalive coing slralegies, as veII as lo oorer sludy habils. Moreover,
seIf-handicaing vas found lo redicl, and be redicled by, oor ad|uslmenl over lime,
roviding evidence of a negalive cycIe of behavior (Urdan & MidgIey, 2001, Zuckerman el
aI., 1998).
Thc Prcscnt 5tudy
Desile lhe avaiIabiIily of considerabIe Iileralure on deression, anxiely, and slress IillIe
research has been done lo examine hov lhese mood slales are reIaled lo seIf-
handicaing. Thus, lhe currenl sludy aims lo examine lhe ossibIe Iinks belveen seIf-
handicaing and deression, anxiely, and slress. ased on lhe osilive reIalionshis of
seIf-handicaing vilh sychoIogicaI maIadalive variabIes (Irosl el aI., 1990, Hobden &
IIiner, 1995, Lay & SiIverman, 1996, Marlin el aI., 1996, SaddIer & Sacks, 1993, Slrube,
1986), Il is hyolhesized lhal seIf-handicaing vouId be reIaled osiliveIy lo deression,
anxiely, and slress. This modeI is reresenled schemalicaIIy in Iigure 1.


uepresslon



SLress
Self-
handlcapplng


+


AnxleLy


+

+

+

mit SAHRAN
330

Figurc 1. The hyolhesized alh modeI of seIf-handicaing deression, anxiely, and
slress
Mcthnd
Participants
Iarlicianls vere 336 universily sludenls (202 (60%) vere femaIe and 134 (40%) vere
maIe) enroIIed in various undergraduale rograms al Sakarya Universily IacuIly of
Iducalion, Turkey. Of lhe arlicianls, 76 (23%) vere firsl-year sludenls, 83 (25%) vere
second-year sludenls, 92 (27%) vere lhird- year sludenls, and 85 (25%) vere fourlh-year
sludenl. Their ages ranged from 17 lo 30 years oId and GIA scores ranged from 1.64 lo
3.75.
Mcasurcs
5c!I-handicapping sca!c. SeIf-handicaing vas measured using lhe SeIf-
handicaing ScaIe (}ones & RhodevaIl, 1982). Turkish adalalion of lhis scaIe vas done
by Akn, Abac, and Akn (2010). The Self-handicaing ScaIe is a 25-ilem seIf-reorl
invenlory (e. g., Somelimes I gel so deressed lhal even easy lasks become difficuIl) and
each ilem vas raled on a 6-oinl scaIe (15%'*$A+C 2)5(A'&& lo 65%'*$A+C (A'&&). This scaIe is
a summalive scaIe, vilh ilems 3, 5, 6, 10, 13, 20, 22, and 23 being reversed scored. AII
ansvers given viII be lolaIed lo indicale lhe IeveI of seIf-handicaing, vilh a high
number indicaling a grealer incidence of seIf-handicaing. Language vaIidily findings of
lhe Turkish version indicaled lhal correIalions belveen Turkish and IngIish ilems ranged
from .69 lo .98. The inlernaI consislency reIiabiIily coefficienl vas .90 and lhe lhree-veek
lesl-relesl reIiabiIily coefficienl vas .84.
Dcprcssinn Anxicty 5trcss 5ca!c (DA55). Deression, anxiely, and slress vere
measured by using a Turkish version of lhe DASS (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). Turkish
adaptation of the DASS had been done by Akn and etin (2007). The DASS is a 42-ilem
seIf-reorl invenlory lhal rovides scores on lhree subscaIes: Deression (14-ilems),
anxiely (14-ilems), and slress (14-ilems). Iach ilem vas raled on a 5-oinl scaIe. The
Ianguage vaIidily findings indicaled lhal correIalion belveen Turkish and IngIish forms
#$%&'$(%)*$(+ -$+)$& .*/'$(+ *0 12/3(%)*$(+ 43)&$3&56 !7886 9:!;6 <!=><?7
331

vas .96. Iaclor Ioadings of lhe subscaIes ranged from .39 lo .88. The inlernaI consislency
aIha coefficienls vere found for deression, anxiely, and slress .90, .92, and .92
resecliveIy. The lesl-relesl reIiabiIily scores afler lhree veeks vere found .98 for lhree
subscaIes. ReIaled vilh lhe crilerion-reIaled vaIidily of lhe scaIe, correIalion coefficienls
belveen lhe DASS and lhe eck Deression Invenlory and lhe eck Anxiely Invenlory
vere comuled as .87 and .84, resecliveIy.
Prnccdurc
Iermission for arlicialion of sludenls vas oblained from reIaled chief dearlmenls and
sludenls voIunlariIy arlicialed in research. SeIf-reorl queslionnaires vere adminislered
in a quiet classroom setting and participants confidentiality and anonymity were assured.
The scaIes vere adminislered lo lhe sludenls in grous in lhe cIassrooms. The

measures
vere counlerbaIanced in adminislralion. Irior lo adminislralion of measures, aII
arlicianls vere loId aboul uroses of lhe sludy. In lhis research, Iearson correIalion
coefficienl and slrucluraI equalion modeIing (SIM) vere uliIized lo delermine lhe
reIalionshis belveen seIf-handicaing and deression, anxiely, and slress. These
anaIyses vere carried oul via LISRIL 8.54 (Jreskog & Sorbom, 1996) and SISS 13.0.
Findings
Dcscriptivc Data and Intcr-Cnrrc!atinns
TabIe 1 shovs lhe means, descrilive slalislics, inler-correIalions, and inlernaI consislency
coefficienls of lhe variabIes used.
Tab!c 1 Descrilive slalislics, AIhas, and Inler-correIalions of lhe variabIes
VariabIes Deression Anxiely Slress
SeIf-
handicaing
Deression
Anxiely .833
Slress .801 .836
SeIf-
handicaing
.408 .487 .455
Mean 22,00 24,12 26,82 83,83
SD 7,32 7,60 8,71 13,83
mit SAHRAN
332

AIha .87 .79 .82 .76
" < .01


When TabIe 1 is examined, il is seen lhal lhere are significanl correIalions belveen seIf-
handicaing and deression, anxiely, and slress. SeIf-handicaing correIaled osiliveIy
vilh deression (' .408, "<.01), anxiely (' .487, "<.01), and slress ('.455, "<.01).
5tructura! Equatinn Mndc!ing
To lesl lhe hyolhesis modeI (seIf-handicaing vouId be associaled osiliveIy vilh
deression, anxiely, and slress) SIM vas used. Using SIM, aII lhe aramelers of modeIs
can be lesled simuIlaneousIy in one sle. The secificalions on lhe modeI vere for direcl
alhs from seIf-handicaing lo deression, anxiely, and slress. The resuIls of lesling
vhelher seIf-handicaing has a direcl effecl on deression, anxiely, and slress are
resenled in Iigure 2.


Figurc 2. Ialh anaIysis belveen seIf-handicaing and deression, anxiely, and slress
uepresslon
"
#
=.17


SLress
"
#
=.27


Self-
handlcapplng


=.32
$=11.87
=.49
$=10.96
e
1
.83
.76
e
2
e
3
.73
AnxleLy
"
#
=.24


=.41
$=8.78
.44
.46
.32
#$%&'$(%)*$(+ -$+)$& .*/'$(+ *0 12/3(%)*$(+ 43)&$3&56 !7886 9:!;6 <!=><?7
333


The modeI demonslraled exceIIenl fil (
!
/df1.18, "0.317, GII1 .00, AGII .99, CII1.00,
NII.96, III1.00, RII.99, and RMSIA.014) and aIso accounled for 17% of lhe
deression, 24% of lhe anxiely, and 27% of lhe slress variances. Il can be seen lhal
deression (0.41), anxiely (0.49), and slress (0.52) vere redicled osiliveIy by seIf-
handicaing.

Discussinn
This sludy marks lhe firsl alleml lo reIale seIf-handicaing lo deression, anxiely, and
slress. SeIf-handicaing vas execled lo be an imorlanl delerminanl of deression,
anxiely, and slress and il vas suosed lhal lhese lhree mood slales vouId be associaled
osiliveIy vilh seIf-handicaing. The resuIls of correIalion and SIM confirm lhese
hyolheses and shov lhe imorlance of seIf-handicaing as roximaI delerminanl of
deression, anxiely, and slress. AIso lhe goodness of fil indexes indicaled lhal lhe modeI
vas accelabIe and lhal correIalions among measures vere exIained by lhe modeI (Hu &
enlIer, 1999).
Iven lhough no research direclIy examined vhelher lhe seIf-handicaing infIuences
deression, anxiely, and slress, lhe osilive correIalion belveen seIf-handicaing and
deression, anxiely, and slress is araIIeI vilh lhe findings of one sludy. The sludy of
Greaven, Sanlor, Thomson, & Zuroff (2000) have shovn lhal seIf-handicaing vas more
strongly related to boys dysphoria which can be described a negative mood state-feeIings
of sadness, sorrov, anguish, misery, and menlaI maIaise. Il is ossibIe lhal sludenls vho
are deressive or anxious lend lo use more escae-Iike resonses lo slressfuI evenls, as has
been suggesled by Adams and Adams (1991). SeIf-handicaing may be one olion lhal
allows escape from blame. Conversely, it may be that university students who are in a
negalive emolionaI mood slale are more IikeIy lo endorse ilems lhal are indicalive of a
lendency lo seIf-handica. In addilion, considering lhal olher sludies have found lhal seIf-
handicaing has osilive associalions vilh some maIadalive variabIes such as reduced
mit SAHRAN
334

seIf-esleem (Lay & SiIverman, 1996, Marlin el aI., 1996, SaddIer & Sacks, 1993, Slrube,
1986), Iov feeIings of exlraversion (Slrube, 1986) and seIf-delerminalion (Knee &
Zuckerman, 1998), sociaI anxiely (Slrube, 1986), and maIadalive erfeclionism (Irosl el
aI., 1990, Hobden & IIiner, 1995) lhe osilive reIalionshis belveen seIf-handicaing and
lhe deveIomenl of negalive emolionaI mood slales (i.e. slress, anxiely, and deression)
are reasonabIe.
There are a number of olher imIicalions of lhis research. Iirsl, resuIls of lhis sludy shov
lhal seIf-handicaing can be reIiabIy assessed in universily sludenls, using Turkish
version of lhe SeIf-Handicaing ScaIe and lhal seIf-handicaing is reIaled lo negalive
emolionaI mood slales of universily sludenls. Second lo lhe besl knovIedge of lhe aulhor,
lhis vas lhe firsl sludy lo emIoy lhis veII-vaIidaled measure vilh a samIe of Turkish
universily sludenls. The reIalion belveen seIf-handicaing and deression, anxiely, and
slress in universily sludenls is one vhich conceluaIIy makes sense, bul vhich had
reviousIy never been exIored. And Iasl, due lo lhe correIalionaI nalure of lhis sludy,
resuIls cannol be discussed in lerms of causaIily, bul lhe reIalions belveen seIf-
handicaing and deression, anxiely, and slress, al Ieasl for lhe universily sludenl
ouIalion, offer inleresling imIicalions in lerms of lhe inlerreIalion belveen negalive
mood and seIf-handicaing behavior. Hovever, because quaIilalive measure of seIf-
handicapping wasnt used, the primary limitation of this study was lhe reIiance on seIf-
reorl measures. AIso, lhe samIe resenled here is Iimiled lo universily sludenls. Ior lhal
reason, il is queslionabIe vhelher lhe findings can be generaIized lo differenl age grous.
NeverlheIess furlher research invesligaling lhe reIalionshis belveen seIf-handicaing
and olher sychoIogicaI variabIes is needed, lo suorl lhe findings of lhis sludy. AIso,
fulure sludies shouId examine lhe reIalionshis belveen seIf-handicaing and
deression, anxiely, and slress vilh slrucluraI equalion modeIing, eslabIishing a
medialing or Ialenl variabIe.
There are a number of olher imIicalions of lhis research. Iirsl, resuIls of lhis sludy shov
lhal seIf-handicaing can be reIiabIy assessed in universily sludenls, using Turkish
version of lhe SeIf-Handicaing ScaIe and lhal seIf-handicaing is reIaled lo negalive
#$%&'$(%)*$(+ -$+)$& .*/'$(+ *0 12/3(%)*$(+ 43)&$3&56 !7886 9:!;6 <!=><?7
333

emolionaI mood slales of universily sludenls. Second lo lhe besl knovIedge of lhe aulhor,
lhis vas lhe firsl sludy lo emIoy lhis veII-vaIidaled measure vilh a samIe of Turkish
universily sludenls. The reIalion belveen seIf-handicaing and deression, anxiely, and
slress in universily sludenls is one vhich conceluaIIy makes sense, bul vhich had
reviousIy never been exIored. And Iasl, due lo lhe correIalionaI nalure of lhis sludy,
resuIls cannol be discussed in lerms of causaIily, bul lhe reIalions belveen seIf-
handicaing and deression, anxiely, and slress, al Ieasl for lhe universily sludenl
ouIalion, offer inleresling imIicalions in lerms of lhe inlerreIalion belveen negalive
mood and seIf-handicaing behavior. Hovever, because quaIilalive measure of seIf-
handicapping wasnt used, the primary limitation of this study was the reliance on self-
reorl measures. AIso, lhe samIe resenled here is Iimiled lo universily sludenls. Ior lhal
reason, il is queslionabIe vhelher lhe findings can be generaIized lo differenl age grous.

Cnnc!usinns
The urose of lhis sludy vas lo invesligale lhe reIalionshis belveen seIf-handicaing
and deression, anxiely, and slress. This research reorls lhal lhe seIf-handicaing is
reIaled lo deression, anxiely, and slress direclIy. In olher vords sludenls high in seIf-
handicaing are more IikeIy lo be vuInerabIe reIaled lo faclors of deression, anxiely,
and slress. Therefore, currenl sludy vouId furlher our underslanding of lhe emolionaI
oulcomes of seIf-handicaing. NeverlheIess furlher research invesligaling lhe
reIalionshis belveen seIf-handicaing and olher sychoIogicaI variabIes is needed, lo
suorl lhe findings of lhis sludy. AIso, fulure sludies shouId examine lhe reIalionshis
belveen seIf-handicaing and deression, anxiely, and slress vilh slrucluraI equalion
modeIing, eslabIishing a medialing or Ialenl variabIe.

RcIcrcnccs
mit SAHRAN
336

Adams, M., & Adams, }. (1991). Life evenls, deression, and erceived robIem soIving
aIlernalives in adoIescenls. .*/'$(+ *0 K@)+2 L5C3@*+*AC ($2 L5C3@)(%'C ($2 M++)&2
N)53)"+)$&56 9!6 811-820.
Akn, A., Abac, R., & Akn, . (2010, April). 4&+0>@($2)3("")$A 43(+&I M 5%/2C *0 O(+)2)%C ($2
'&+)(P)+)%CF Iaer resenled al lhe 16
lh
NalionaI IsychoIogy Congress, 14-17 AriI,
Mersin, Turkey.
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