UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL EXPERIMENTAL

FRANCISCO DE MIRANDA
REA DE EDUCACIN
PROGRAMA DE EDUCACIN- MENCIN INGLS
APPLIED LINGUISTICS
Teaching and Learning
Prof. Julio Reyes
Teaching and learning. Basic conditions for teaching and
learning English according to:
Behaviorist, cognitive and constructivist
perspectives.

Stephen Krashens hypothesis for second language acquisition:
Distinction between acquisition and learning, input,
monitor, affective filter and natural order hypotheses.
Swains output hypothesis and Longs interaction
hypothesis.
Teaching and Learning
Prof. Julio Reyes
To help somebody learn something by giving information about it.
Oxford Dictionary
Teaching
Learning
To gain knowledge or skill by studying, from experience, from being
taught, etc.
Oxford Dictionary
Prof. Julio Reyes
Behaviorism
Behaviorism was the dominant learning theory in the first half of the 20th Century.
It is an approach to psychology and learning that emphasizes observable
measurable behaviour.
It focuses only on objectively observable behaviours and discounts mental
activities.
It defines learning as a more or less permanent change in behavior.
Prof. Julio Reyes
Behaviorism
Role
of
Teacher
Is active in providing stimuli and
prompting the correct response,
reinforcement, drilling. Views errors
as not enough conditioning. Without
repetition and proper conditioning,
students will make mistakes.
Learner
Is viewed as a receiver;
passively adapting to their
environment.
Memory
Is not specifically addressed.
Practicing habits maintains a
learner's readiness to respond,
disuse results in "forgetting" over
time.
Environment
It is the most critical factor,
meaning the arrangement of
stimuli and consequences
within the environment. The
instruction focuses on
conditioning the learner's
behaviour.
Prof. Julio Reyes
Behaviorism
Prof. Julio Reyes
Two of the most famous experiments on behaviorism:
The "Dog Salivation Experiment" by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov.
The "Skinner Box" experiment with pigeons by B.F. Skinner.
Cognitivism
Is a theory which attempts to answer how and why people learn by attributing the process to
cognitive activity. The cognitivists quarrel with the behaviorists was that their focus on
observable behavior did not account for what was going on in the mind.
Learning is a change in individuals' mental structures enabling them to show changes in
behavior.
It focuses on the thought process behind the behavior; what is in the learner's head coupled
with the behavior.
Knowledge is the organization of a set of mental structures and problem-solving processes that
the learner manipulates and restructures in response to new information and experience.
Prof. Julio Reyes
Cognitivism
Role
of
Teacher
Assists the learner's application of the
proper learning strategies. View errors
as unsuccessful attempts to
understand, order and act upon their
environment in ways that make sense
to them.
Learner
Is viewed as an active
member in the learning
process.
Memory
Some concepts in first
grade need to be
memorized and practiced.
Environment
The environment supports
the internal processes of
learning.
Prof. Julio Reyes
Constructivism
Is a theory in which each individual has a unique concept of things based on
personal experience. These concepts are extremely subjective and very personal.
Learning is interactive, building on what the student already knows. It happens
when the experiences grow.
It focuses on teacher student interaction. Students background knowledge.
Focuses on higher order cognitive skills of analysis, reflection, and synthesis
Knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever changing with our experiences.
Prof. Julio Reyes
Constructivism
Role
of
Teacher
Is interactive, a facilitator, guide,
gives cognitive support, open minded,
assesses the learner individually.

Learner
Takes responsibility for his
own learning. Creates his
own meaning. Learns new
ways to learn.
Memory
Importance in past
experience rather than
memory.
Environment
Emphasizes on collaboration
and exchange of ideas, in
order to promote social and
communication skills.
Prof. Julio Reyes
Prof. Julio Reyes
Prof. Julio Reyes
Stephen Krashens hypothesis for second language acquisition:
Distinction between acquisition and learning, input,
monitor, affective filter and natural order hypotheses.
Swains output hypothesis and Longs interaction
hypothesis.
Contributors to behaviorism, cognitivism, & constructivism.
Pros and cons of these theories.
What types of learning are best explained by these theories?
How should learning be evaluated?
Shaping, Chaining, Discrimination learning, Fading, Modelling,
Reinforcement, Stimulus, Conditioning, Repetition (Drilling), Transfer,
(Cognitive) Scaffolding, Zone of Proximal Development.
Prof. Julio Reyes
Krashens Hypothesis for SLA
Stephen Krashens hypothesis for second language acquisition:
Distinction between acquisition and learning, input,
monitor, affective filter and natural order hypotheses.
Swains output hypothesis and Longs interaction
hypothesis.
Prof. Julio Reyes
Distinction between Acquisition and Learning Hypothesis
According to Krashen there are two independent
systems of second language performance:
'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'
Prof. Julio Reyes
The acquired system or acquisition

It is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when
they acquire their first language (informally).
It requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which
speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act.
Distinction between Acquisition and Learning Hypothesis
The learned system or learning

It is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in
conscious knowledge 'about' the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules.
According to Krashen 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition'.
Prof. Julio Reyes
Distinction between Acquisition and Learning Hypothesis
Prof. Julio Reyes
Distinction between Acquisition and Learning Hypothesis
Today we are
going to
acquire the
Enhlish
Language.
Prof. Julio Reyes
Input Hypothesis
This hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'.
The learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives
second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic
competence; that is, comprehensible for him/her (comprehensible imput).
Learner
Teacher
Stage i
i + 1
Prof. Julio Reyes
Learner
Teacher
Stage i
i + 1
Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of
linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests
that natural communicative input is the key to designing
a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will
receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her
current stage of linguistic competence.
Input Hypothesis
Prof. Julio Reyes
Monitor Hypothesis
The Monitor hypothesis posits that acquisition and learning are used in very specific ways.
Normally, acquisition "initiates" our utterances in a second language and is responsible for
our fluency; while learning has only one function, and that is as a Monitor, or editor.

Learning comes into play only to make changes in the form of our utterance, after is has
been "produced" by the acquired system. This can happen before we speak or write, or after
(self-correction).

The Monitor hypothesis implies that formal rules, or conscious learning, play only a limited
role in second language performance.
Prof. Julio Reyes
Second language performers can use conscious rules (monitor
themselves) only when three conditions are met. These conditions are
necessary and not sufficient, that is, a performer may not fully utilize his
conscious grammar even when all three conditions are met:

(i) Time (to think about and use conscious rules effectively).
(ii) Focus on form (to think about correctness ).
(iii) Know the rule (learn the rules).

Monitor Hypothesis
Prof. Julio Reyes
Monitor Hypothesis
Individual variation in Monitor use

Some of the individual variation we see in adult second language
acquisition and performance can be accounted for in terms of
differential use of the conscious Monitor.

Studies of case histories suggest that there may be three types of
performer (Krashen,1978):

(i) Monitor Over-users.
(ii) Monitor Under-users.
(iii) The Optimal Monitor user.
Prof. Julio Reyes
Monitor Hypothesis
(i) Monitor Over-users

People who attempt to Monitor all the time.

Performers who are constantly checking their output with their
conscious knowledge of the second language.

As a result, such performers may speak hesitantly, often self-correct in
the middle of utterances, and are so concerned with correctness that
they cannot speak with any real fluency.
Prof. Julio Reyes
Monitor Hypothesis
(ii) Monitor Under-users
These are performers who have not learned, or if they have learned,
prefer not to use their conscious knowledge, even when conditions allow it.

Underusers are typically uninfluenced by error correction, can self-
correct only by using a "feel" for correctness (e.g. "it sounds right"), and rely
completely on the acquired system.
Prof. Julio Reyes
Monitor Hypothesis
(iii) The Optimal Monitor user
Performers who use the Monitor when it is appropriate and when it does not
interfere with communication.

Many optimal users will not use grammar in ordinary conversation, where it might
interfere. (Some very skilled performers, such as some professional linguists and
language teachers, might be able to get away with using considerable amounts of
conscious knowledge in conversation)

In writing, and in planned speech, however, when there is time, optimal users will
typically make whatever corrections they can to raise the accuracy of their output.
Prof. Julio Reyes
Affective Filter Hypothesis
This hypothesis stablished that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but
non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variables include: motivation,
self-confidence and anxiety.

Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image,
and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language
acquisition.

Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to 'raise' the
affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from
being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language
acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its
own, for acquisition to take place.
Prof. Julio Reyes
Natural Order Hypothesis
Krashen however points out that the implication of the natural order hypothesis is not that
a language program syllabus should be based on the order found in the studies. In fact, he
rejects grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition.
The Natural Order hypothesis suggested that the acquisition of grammatical
structures follows a 'natural order' which is predictable. For a given language, some
grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late.
This order seemed to be independent of the learners' age, L1 background, conditions of
exposure, and although the agreement between individual acquirers was not always 100%
in the studies, there were statistically significant similarities that reinforced the existence of
a Natural Order of language acquisition.
Prof. Julio Reyes
Natural Order Hypothesis
Prof. Julio Reyes
Swain claims that "sometimes, under some conditions, output facilitates second
language learning in ways that are different form, or enhance, those of input" (Swain and
Lapkin, 1995, p. 371).
Swains Output Hypothesis
Swains claims that one way for a language learner to acquire or learn a new
language is for them to produce language that makes sense.
The comprehensible output (CO) hypothesis states that we acquire language
when we attempt to transmit a message but fail and have to try again. Eventually, we
arrive at the right form of our utterance, our conversational partner finally
understands, and we acquire the new form we have produced.
Prof. Julio Reyes
Longs Interaction Hypothesis
This hypothesis states that the development of language proficiency is
promoted by face-to-face interaction and communication.

There are two forms of the Interaction Hypothesis:
The strong form: is the position that the interaction itself contributes
to language development.
The weak form: is the position that interaction is simply the way that
learners find learning opportunities, whether or not they make
productive use of them.
Prof. Julio Reyes
Longs Interaction Hypothesis
Similarly to Krashen's input hypothesis, the interaction hypothesis claims that comprehensible
input is important for language learning.

The effectiveness of comprehensible input is greatly increased when learners have to negotiate
for meaning. This occurs when there is a breakdown in communication which interlocutors
attempt to overcome. One of the participants in a conversation will say something that the
other does not understand; the participants will then use various communicative strategies to
help the interaction progress.

The strategies used when negotiating meaning may include slowing down speech, speaking
more deliberately, requests for clarification or repair of speech, or paraphrases.
Prof. Julio Reyes
Prof. Julio Reyes
Prof. Julio Reyes
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