2

Rugby Union Player Development 3

A Framework for the Physical
Development of Elite Rugby Union Players
Grant M. Duthie
Increased professionalism in rugby has resulted in national unions develop-
ing high-performance models for elite player development, of which physical
preparation is an important component, to ensure success in future years. This
article presents a 5-step framework for the physical preparation of elite players
in a development program. Competition movement patterns and the physical
profles of elite players are used as the basis of the framework and reinforce the
repeated high-intensity nature of Rugby Union. Physical profling highlights a
players strengths and weaknesses in the areas of strength, speed, endurance, and
body composition. These qualities need to be managed with an understanding of
their interaction. This framework should be implemented within the yearly plan
to ensure that benefts are maximized from the training undertaken. The success
of the framework in developing elite players progression can be evaluated using
standardized physical, performance, and competency tests. Key Words: strength,
speed, conditioning
Physical preparation is a full-time necessity for success in elite Rugby Union.
Moreover, successful unions in the southern and northern hemispheres have estab-
lished advanced systems for elite-player development typically involving a pathway
of talent identifcation and development from junior to senior programs, comprehen-
sive sports-science support, and innovative coaching. The purpose of this review is
to outline a framework for the physical development of elite Rugby Union players
that can be used for short- and long-term planning. The information presented is a
contemporary interpretation of the current knowledge and future directions in the
physical preparation of players for professional rugby.
Physical-Development Framework
Elite success is based on junior development pathways progressing to senior ranks
and eventually international competition.
1,2
In elite competition, there is the ten-
dency to attribute success or failure to immediate or short-term factors
1
including
the quality and experience of the team, the availability and injury status of players,
and the technical and tactical directions provided by the coach. The physical quali-
ties of players, developed over several years of training and competition, also play
an important role in success. The fne-tuning of physical qualities over previous
The author is with NSW Rugby Union, Locked Bag 1222, Paddington, NSW, 2021 Australia.
BRIEF REVIEWS
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 2006;1:2-13
2006 Human Kinetics, Inc.
2
Rugby Union Player Development 3
seasons is the primary contributor to the current physical profle of a given group
of players or an individual player.
Rugby is a highly demanding physical, tactical, and skill-based team sport.
3

Accordingly, substantial resources and emphasis should be directed toward devel-
oping and maintaining physical-ftness qualities in players from an early age.
Development programs for junior players are often based on the content and prac-
tices of elite senior players.
1,2
The process of simply adopting a training method
to prepare future high-performance athletes is a limiting approach. A structured
pathway for rugby should entail the development of strength, power, speed, and
enduranceall critical to the demands of competition
3-5
while also improving the
functional capacity of the athletes.
6
In comparison, elite senior players are looking
to fne-tune the physical qualities developed over several years within an annual
plan involving numerous competitions played at a highly intense level. Although
junior players can follow this plan, long-term development requires the establish-
ment of core physical qualities that can be fne-tuned at a later date.
Within the annual plan the season is divided into the preseason, in-season, and
off-season phases, with weekly training microcycles involving the manipulation of
training loads through the variables of intensity, duration, and frequency.
2
Using a
modifcation of the approaches previously outlined by Gambetta
6
and Pyke,
7
this
review provides a framework for the development of physical attributes of elite
junior rugby players. The frst step in the framework is to collate and interpret
knowledge regarding the physical demands of rugby (the sport) and of different
positions in the team. An individual profle of each player (the athlete) is estab-
lished to determine strengths and weaknesses. Once the physical qualities have
been recognized the systems for improving individual strengths and weaknesses
are developed, and the plan for integration of these systems is established. The
outcome of the plan implemented requires regular evaluation and refnement.
Step 1: The Sport
Understanding the inherent movement patterns of competition and the related physi-
cal demands is critical in developing effective training programs.
6
Evaluation in the
feld and in the laboratory of the functional capacities of rugby players from a range
of ages, levels, and positions also provides information on the physical demands of
competition. This has been complemented with video-based timemotion analysis,
which is a moderately reliable method of detailing the work-to-rest ratios and total
time, frequency, and mean duration of different activities.
8
Collectively, these data
illustrate the physical requirements of the game.
Work Capacity
Improved aerobic capacity will aid in recovery from high-intensity activity.
4,9

Despite some inherent methodological limitations, timemotion analysis has
repeatedly demonstrated that forwards perform more frequent work activities of
longer duration than backs do.
4,5,10
Most work periods for all players are less than
4 seconds in duration and rarely extend beyond ~15 seconds. High-intensity efforts
can sometimes follow each other, resulting in dense phases of work. The average
rest periods in competition are often exaggerated by long breaks in play that occur
4 Duthie Rugby Union Player Development 5
during penalty goals, conversion attempts, and stoppages for injuries. Rest periods
are most likely to be 0 to 20 seconds for all players, with the exception of the outside
backs, who usually have rest periods of over 100 seconds.
5
Speed
Speed is fundamental to success in competitive Rugby Union, with backs being
approximately 10% faster than forwards.
3
During maximal straight-line sprinting
there are 2 partially independent phases classifed as initial acceleration and maxi-
mal velocity. The acceleration phase is often considered the most important aspect
of speed for rugby players,
11,12
primarily because the duration of sprints observed
during competition is only ~3 seconds.
4,5,10,13,14
It is important to recognize, how-
ever, that players accelerate from different starting positions and starting speeds
rather than a stationary, standing start.
15
Ideally, players will be exposed to some
good speed work either in specifc speed sessions or during team skills training.
The ability to catch, pass, and run with the ball at speed is also a fundamental com-
ponent, suggesting that these qualities should form 1 element of a speed-training
program for rugby.
16
Strength and Power
Strength expressed in both absolute terms (regardless of body mass) and relative
to body mass is critical to Rugby Union success. Strength and power qualities are
necessary for improving running velocity,
17
the ability to change direction,
18
and
the force produced in the scrum.
19
Rugby Union competition involves a moderate
amount of static exertion for the forwards (10% of total time) and backs (2%).
5

This equates to ~70% and ~25% of the work performed by forwards and backs,
respectively, during competition. The ability to apply substantial force is crucial in
contact situations where forwards express strength in quasi-isometric-type contrac-
tions that are best developed using maximal strength training.
Body Composition
In Rugby Union, body size and composition play an important role in individual
performance because muscle mass infuences speed, power, and endurance.
20
Con-
sequently, the assessment of body fat is common in high-level rugby programs.
21

Excessive body fat has a negative impact on performance for 2 main reasons.
20
First,
Newtons second law (a = F/m) specifes that increases in fat mass (m) without an
increase in muscle force (F) will reduce acceleration (a). Second, displacement of
additional fat mass requires extra energy, which increases the relative physical cost
of exercise. Therefore, excessive body fat has a negative infuence on economy of
movement and should be avoided, although some researchers have suggested that
body fat acts as a protective buffer against physical force in contact situations.
22
Training Implications
Regardless of position, the development of anthropometric and physical qualities
is fundamental to the progression of elite rugby players. The critical elements
of improving the physical development of players are increasing work capacity;
4 Duthie Rugby Union Player Development 5
improving strength, power, and speed; and optimizing body size and muscularity
for specifc positions.
3
Following the well-accepted training principle of specifc-
ity
7
and game requirements demonstrated in timemotion analysis,
5
the physical
preparation of players should revolve around repeated high-intensity work efforts
(G.M. Duthie, D.B. Pyne, unpublished data, 2005).
A challenge for ftness trainers and conditioners is to develop a base of endur-
ance or aerobic ftness, together with anaerobic qualities, such that players can attain
and reproduce high levels of work output during repeated high-intensity efforts.
Step 2: The Athlete
Physical strengths and weaknesses are identifed by profling a players athletic
status.
7
Pyke
7
introduced a model for presenting the strengths and weaknesses of
Australian Rules footballers. Using a range of feld tests, one can rate players on
their performance and present the results graphically
7
using a standardized Z score,
Z = (x mean)/SD, where x is the players observed score, mean is the mean of the
group, and SD is the between-players standard deviation. This method then provides
a clear indication of how the player ranks against peers of the same level.
When the goal is success at an international level it is appropriate for individuals
to be ranked against other elite performers in their respective playing positions in
either the same team or level of competition. An example of using elite standardized
scores to establish a players strengths and weaknesses is provided in Figure 1. The
example provided is an elite junior back-row forward who is yet to achieve a high
Figure 1 An individual players athletic profle based on Z scores calculated from the
mean and SD of ftness-test scores of elite Rugby Union players. Adapted from Pyke.
7
6 Duthie Rugby Union Player Development 7
level of lean mass; however, he has lower levels of body fat compared with the
elite players, good initial acceleration, and an excellent endurance capacity based
on estimated VO
2max
. The weaknesses in the players profle are poor leg power
and maximal velocity.
It is important to recognize that this assessment relates to physical qualities
and does not consider the players skills. Furthermore, profles must be used in
an individual manner because there will always be exceptions when a player has
modest physical qualities and trainability but excels at an elite level because of
exceptional skill, playing experience, or motivation.
Step 3: The System
The system, in the context of the physical-development framework, refers to the
various elements of the training programwork capacity, speed, strength, power,
and recoveryand the plan refers to how these elements are integrated. The goal
is to maximize performance at a future date while minimizing the risk of fatigue,
injury, illness, and overtraining during the period leading up to competition.
23
The
training status of an athlete can also have a dramatic effect on improvements in
physical qualities. The law of diminishing returns encompasses the idea that the rate
of improvement in ftness is inversely proportional to the initial level of ftness.
7
The basic training principles of overload, specifcity, reversibility, and pro-
gression should be implemented via a periodized approach through each phase of
the season. In general, there is a progressive increase in training load during the
preseason phase, maintenance of ftness during competition, and modifed training
during the off-season to minimize reversibility in ftness levels.
24,25
The purpose
of loading endurance, resistance, and speed training during the preseason period
is to have players near peak condition at the start of the season. The density of
training (or temporal alignment of training sessions during a given microcycle)
should be managed carefully so that players train in an optimal physical state for
the volume of work required. For example, weekly microcycles will vary in inten-
sity and volume, and the overall workload generally increases from macrocycle to
macrocycle during the preseason phase.
Work Capacity
Work capacity forms the foundation for other ftness qualities.
2
Ideally, players will
be exposed to an overload in terms of intensity, frequency, or volume of training
to induce maximal adaptation. The increase in training load involves a sequential
increase in frequency frst, then volume or duration, and fnally intensity.
26
This
approach should permit players to build ftness without increasing the risk of exces-
sive fatigue, illness, and injury.
One limitation of performing frequent high-intensity training is the profound
stress it places on the body. Effective recovery is required between training ses-
sions, particularly in elite rugby, in which multiple sessions are often conducted
within a day. Recovery encompasses the effective use of nutritional supplements
to restore hydration and energy levels. Moreover, despite consistent evidence
lacking on the effcacy of hot or cold baths and compression garments, these pro-
cedures are regularly used in the training of elite Rugby Union players. Glycolytic
6 Duthie Rugby Union Player Development 7
adaptations result in rapid improvement in anaerobic activity during training.
1

Improvements in anaerobic activity are lost very quickly, however, on cessation
of training. Supplementary aerobic training can assist in recovery while inducing
some physical adaptations. Cardiorespiratory adaptations take longer to occur and
are given prominence in the preseason period, typically 8 to 12 weeks in dura-
tion. Excessive training volume at high intensity (maximal aerobic and anaerobic
intensities) can lead to overtraining.
2
Speed
Improving speed requires a variety of methods including sprint drills, sprinting
against resistance, weight training, plyometrics, and, most important, well-planned
and -executed short-interval sprint training.
12
Regardless of the methods employed,
it has been suggested that poor technique and lack of fexibility are major reasons
for the lack of speed; many team-sport athletes have suitable maximal and reactive
strength
12,17
but are unable to show any substantial improvements in speed with
training. Unfortunately, the ability to use these strength qualities in an effcient and
functional running technique is often overlooked.
12
The frequency of the short sprints of approximately 3 seconds
4,5
occurring in
rugby competition suggests that acceleration should be the focus of speed devel-
opment.
11,12
Rapid acceleration requires excellent balance and spatial awareness,
an emphasis on attaining high velocity quickly, and maximizing agility at speed.
11

Despite acceleration predominating, there is also a need to develop maximal veloc-
ity so that a player has a higher endpoint of acceleration. Moreover, timemotion
analysis has demonstrated that players regularly achieve more than 90% of maximal
velocity during competition.
15
The relative distribution of time spent on maximal
velocity and acceleration should be similar for forwards and backs, but the backs
should spend more absolute total time on improving sprinting speed.
13,15
Force production during the propulsive phase of sprinting is related to run-
ning velocity,
27
so hip-extensor strength is a primary focus for developing run-
ning speed.
28
One method employed to develop hip-extensor strength is resisted
sprinting.
29
Resisted sprinting decreases running velocity and therefore increases
the opportunity to apply force based on the forcevelocity relationship
30
while
also providing a greater kinesthetic feel of the correct sprint position.
31
It has been
recommended that the resistance (eg, sleds, parachutes, uphill running) should not
decrease the runners speed by more than 10%
32
because greater knee-extensor and
reduced hip-extension activity are observed if speed decrements are too large.
33

In the latter case, not only is the desired training effect not maximized but also
excessive resistance might adversely affect technique.
Overall, a good speed program consists of structured exercises to improve
the strength characteristics specifc to sprinting and includes resistance training,
plyometrics, and resisted sprinting; regular exposure to good sprint efforts with
technical feedback; and isolated drills to enhance specifc components of the
sprinting technique.
Strength and Power
Irrespective of the methods used to develop strength, it is critical that the force
developed can be applied in a sport-specifc movement. It has been argued that
8 Duthie Rugby Union Player Development 9
there is a need to train movements and not muscles; that is, rather than training
individual muscles in isolation and breaking down the kinetic chain, training
sport-specifc movements under resistance integrates and improves the overall
functionality of the kinetic chain.
34
Therefore, the primary purpose of resistance
training is to improve functionality of sporting movements. The degree of func-
tionality during exercise remains debatable, with some suggesting that maximal
strength should be developed in the gym, plyometrics and resisted sprinting
used to enhance power, and assisted sprinting and sprinting used to improve
speed.
12
This theory is based on the diffculty of replicating the contraction type
and speed of sprinting in a gym setting, therefore suggesting that the use of
heavy-resistance exercises that do not mimic the movement pattern of the sport
is purely to develop the ability of the neuromuscular system to develop force.
35

These concepts underpin the contemporary approach with elite rugby players,
who typically undertake a combination of gym- and feld-based training to
improve strength and power.
Supplementary resistance training is required to develop players functional
strength to assist the application of force in a variety of directions. Additional exer-
cises can be performed within a specifc resistance training session or integrated
into match-specifc training. Exercises involving rotation, balance, and coordination
all contribute to the development of general strength and power.
34
Absorbing and
applying force during jumping, plyometrics, medicine-ball exercises, and wrestling
also improves a players general strength and power. Functional training should be
performed regularly as part of the athletes resistance-training program, along with
heavy-resistance training, so that the eventual outcome is a substantial improvement
in strength, power, and speed.
Plyometric training requires special consideration in rugby training. It is a
common modality employed to develop sport-specifc strength and power but must
be gradually introduced into the training program because of the high impact and
loading experienced during the contact phase of the exercises,
29
which is greatly
magnifed when considering the body mass of some rugby players. Generally,
bilateral exercises involving extended ground-contact times can be used to intro-
duce junior players to the concepts of plyometrics, with subsequent progression
to unilateral exercises involving shorter contact times.
34
Body Composition
One primary goal of the physical preparation of Rugby Union players is to attain
a high proportion of lean mass. Oftentimes players are in the diffcult situa-
tion of simultaneously trying to decrease body fat and increase lean tissue. For
example, a decrease in overall mass occurs for forwards during the preseason
phase of training as they dramatically drop body-fat levels.
24
The reduction in
body fat is accompanied, however, by an increase in lean mass.
24
Unfortunately,
players prone to high body-fat levels tend to have substantial increases in body
fat during lower levels of training, for example, in the off-season.
25
Body-fat
levels are decreased by a combination of higher energy expenditure in training
and decreased caloric intake. Player education can assist to improve skills in
maintaining low body-fat levels during the off-season, thus allowing the training
in the following preseason to focus on the key aspects of strength, power, and
speed development.
8 Duthie Rugby Union Player Development 9
Step 4: The Plan
The wide variety of physical qualities required for Rugby Union underpins a chal-
lenging task in developing a plan for the physical preparation of elite players. The
priorities for teams, positional groups, and individual players need to be established
as prerequisites to a detailed prescription of a training program. Priorities should be
based on the assessment of individual strengths and weaknesses, the timeframe for
player development, and the annual requirements of a particular group or team.
An understanding of the rates of training adaptations is crucial when developing
a physical-preparation framework for elite players. After a training session there is a
range of acute physical responses, each following an individual time course.
1
Initially,
there is an immediate decrease in performance and lowering of work capacity
related to acute fatigue. This is a temporary inability of players to express their true
underlying capacities, and recovery occurs after rest. Unfortunately, this requires a
less-than-optimal training load when players are expected to perform to their maxi-
mal potential at all times,
2
thus promoting short-term performance at the expense of
long-term development.
24
Recognizing the immediate decrease in performance and
the infuence it has on long-term development is crucial for future success.
The cumulative effects of training are essential for an athletes long-term
development and represent the summation of many training sessions or seasons.
1

A long-term continuity of training ensures the development of training residuals,
that is, the partial retention of physical qualities when training has ceased or is
decreased in frequency, volume, or duration. In detraining, individuals with greater
training residuals have slower rates of loss of physical capacity than athletes with
smaller training residuals.
1
In retraining, athletes with longer training histories
regain physical qualities more quickly.
2
The overall level of physical ftness is a net effect of all the different training
methods undertaken. Each individual element of the training program (eg, strength,
speed, or endurance) results in a partial training effect. It is crucial to recognize
responses to partial training loads and how they affect other ftness qualities and
the overall ftness profle. For example, heavy endurance loads characterized by an
extensive program of longer, slower running intervals or continuous running can
limit maximal strength increases. Coaches must be aware of the possible lag in
observable training effects for each training method and that a period of unloading
or recovery is required before partial training effects are fully realized.
Long-term adaptations to different training elements also have different rates
of gain and loss. Recognizing the time taken for adaptations to occur will help
coaches develop a balanced training program in which loss of important physical
qualities is less than the adaptations gained, so that overall physical quality is not
compromised. The rate of adaptation is linked to both the acute loads placed on
the body and the physical processes that are modifed with training.
1
In general, the
rate of loss of adaptations mirrors the rate of gain, with the substantial loss of peak
anaerobic metabolic productivity typically taking only days to weeks, compared
with years for loss of maximal strength gains.
1
Consequently, players need to be
exposed to a variety of training methods over a long period of time, especially when
the aim is to improve characteristics that take many years to develop. Throughout
the annual training program it is important that the players qualities are not sub-
stantially diminished with detraining, so that a short phase of retraining can restore
the previous physical state and provide a basis for further progression.
10 Duthie Rugby Union Player Development 11
Step 5: Evaluation
One of the most important components for players long-term development is the
evaluation of progress. Assessment, testing, or subjective evaluation of athletes can
serve a variety of purposes such as monitoring long-term adaptations to training,
determining the short-term impact of training interventions, selection of players,
prescription of individualized programs, and prediction of performance outcomes.
36

Evaluation is also required to monitor individual progress throughout the elite-
player development pathway. Regardless of the testing protocols employed, player
progress is best monitored by a valid and reliable testing system.
Table 1 outlines a proposed basic feld-testing battery for high-level rugby
to monitor long-term development of either an individual player or a team.
37
The
tests cover a range of physical capacities that can be assessed in isolation or com-
bination. The testing provides an evaluation of body composition, speed, power,
strength, and endurance.
Table 1 Example of a Physical-Testing Battery Used for Australian
Super 12 Rugby Union Players
Physical capacity Test Comments
Anthropometry Mass (kg) Assessment of body mass can be used to monitor
changes in lean tissue.
24
Height (cm) Useful for assigning taller players to specialist positions.
Skinfold
thickness
(mm)
The assessment of body mass and skinfolds can provide
a valid measure of body fat and lean mass.
38-41
Strength Bench press
(kg)
Upper body strength expressed in absolute terms and
relative to body mass. Strength results should be allo-
metrically scaled* to normalize for body mass.
42

Squat (kg) Lower body strength expressed absolutely and relative
to body mass.
Power Vertical
jump (cm)
Expressed as the jump height, or taking account of body
mass to calculate power: [51.9 vertical jump (cm)] +
[48.9 body mass (kg)] 2007.
43
Speed 40-m sprint
(s)
Pure straight-line speed. Split times taken every 10 m
to allow the assessment of acceleration and maximal
velocity.
15
Wind readings should be taken when testing
is performed outdoors and the speed adjusted appro-
priately.
44
The 10-m time might not be able to monitor
worthwhile changes because of the proportionately
larger error than in other distances.
Endurance Multistage
shuttle
run (level:
shuttle)
The multistage shuttle run
45
involves deceleration and
acceleration, which makes it more specifc than continu-
ous running tests. Alternatively, the Yo-Yo test
46
might be
more specifc to the work demands of team sports such as
soccer, rugby, and basketball.
46,47
Repeat sprint tests might
also provide a more specifc measure of competitive per-
formance,
48
for example, 10- 40-m sprints every 30 s.
*S
n
= S/mb (muscle strength in kilograms/mass scaled allometrically to 0.67), where S
n
= normalized strength,
S = muscle strength (load lifted in kilograms), m = body mass (kg), and b = allometric parameter 0.67.
10 Duthie Rugby Union Player Development 11
Conclusion
This framework for developing the physical qualities of elite Rugby Union players
quantifes the physical demands of competitive rugby, assesses individual players
strengths and weaknesses, uses training systems to improve performance, integrates
specifc training methods for each aspect of physical conditioning, and details
methods for assessing individual players adaptations to the training.
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