AIR-CONDITIONING

Compiled by
Mohd. Rodzi Ismail
School of Housing Building & Planning
INTRODUCTION
Definitions
The cooling of air (simple definition)
The process of treating air in an internal environment to
establish and maintain required standards of
temperature, humidity, cleanliness and motion.
Temperature (air temperature) is controlled by cooling
(the removal of heat) the air
Humidity, the water vapour content of the air, is controlled
by adding or removing water vapour from the air
(humidification or dehumidification)
Cleanliness or air quality is controlled by either filtration or
by ventilation. Often both are used in an installation
Motion refers to air velocity and to where the air is
distributed. It is controlled by appropriate air distributing
equipment
Why do we need air-conditioning?
Comfort
Work performance and production
Process
Health
Conservation of equipment and material
Symbol of status
Air-conditioning & comfort
Comfort temperature range from 23
o
C to 27
o
C (25
o
C 2)
Effective humidity form 40% to 60%
Air velocity less than 0.2 ms
-1
Sufficient clean air
Noise from equipment and ductwork should be avoided
HEAT &
REFRIGERATION
What is ................ ?
Heat
A form of energy. Every object
contains heat energy in both quantity
and intensity.
Refrigeration
The process of removing heat from
one substance and transferring it to
another substance.
Heat intensity is measured by its temperature, commonly
in either F or C
The quantity of heat is not the same as intensity of heat
Quantity and Intensity of Heat
Dessert
Candle
High in
quantity of
heat
High in
intensity of
heat
43.3C (110F)
15.6C (60F)
same
quantity
of heat
contains more heat per
unit of mass
(the heat energy is
more concentrated)
Measuring Heat Quantity
60F
61F
15C 16C
1 Btu
1 kcal
1 lb
water
1 kg
water
(kilocalorie)
Btu - the quantity of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1
lb of water by 1F.
(British Thermal Unit)
kcal - the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1
kg of water by 1C
Principles of Heat Transfer
Heat energy cannot be destroyed
Heat always flows from a higher temperature substance
to a lower temperature substance
Heat can be transferred from one substance to another
Heat can only be transferred to another substance - the
principle of conservation of energy.
Heat energy cannot be destroyed
As heat is transferred from the beverage
to the ice, the temperature of the
beverage is lowered. The heat
transferred/removed is not destroyed but
instead is absorbed by the ice, changing
the ice from a solid to a liquid.
Heat flows from hot to cold
Heat always flows from a higher
temperature substance to a lower
temperature substance
Three basic methods of heat transfer
Conduction is the process of transferring heat through a
solid
RADIATION RADIATION
hot
water
hot
water
CONDUCTION CONDUCTION
CONVECTION CONVECTION
cool air cool air
warm air warm air
Heat can be transferred from one
substance to another
Convection is the
process of transferring
heat as the result of the
movement of air
caused by temperature
(density) differences
Radiation is the
process of transferring
heat by means of
electromagnetic waves,
emitted due to the
temperature difference
between two objects
The quantity of heat that flows from one substance to
another within a given period of time
Commonly expressed in terms of Btu/hrthe quantity
of heat, in Btus, that flows from one substance to
another over a period of 1 hour
In the SI metric system of units, it is expressed in terms
of kilowatts (kW), which are equivalent to kJ/sec - the
quantity of heat, in kJ, that flows from one substance
to another over a period of 1 second
A larger and more convenient measure of the rate of
heat flow in English system of units called a ton of
refrigeration (TR) 1TR is defined as the transfer of
heat at the rate of 12,000 Btu/hr (3.517 kW).
Heat Flow Rate
REFRIGERANTS
Ice
melts at 32
o
F [0
o
C]
Dry ice
evaporates at -109.4F [-78.6C]
Refrigerant-22 (R-22)
boils at -41.4F [-40.8C]
Coolant
Each of these three substances (pure ice, dry ice, and
R-22) absorbs heat and changes phase at its own
fixed temperature
Effect of Transferring Heat
60F 61F
15C
16C
1 Btu
1 kcal
1 lb
water
1 kg
water
By adding or subtracting heat energy, the temperature is
raised or lowered
Effect of Transferring Heat
60F 212F
15C 100C
+ 152 Btu =
+ 85 kcal =
1 lb
water
1 kg
water
The amount of energy added will raise the water
temperature to its boiling point
Effect of Transferring Heat
212F
100C
+ 970.3 Btu =
+ 244.5 kcal =
1 lb
steam
1 kg
steam
1 lb
water
1 kg
water
212F
100C
At its boiling point, with the amount of energy added, water
will completely transform into steam at the same
temperature
Effect of Transferring Heat
212F
100C
1 lb
water
1 kg
water
1 lb
steam
1 kg
steam
- 970.3 Btu =
- 244.5 kcal =
212F
100C
Condensation
Latent Heat
212F
100C
970.3
Btu
244.5 kcal
1 lb
steam
1 kg
steam
1 lb
water
1 kg
water
212F
100C
Latent heat - the energy involved in changing the phase of a
substance (e.g. from a liquid to a vapor)
The temperature during the phase change remain the same
Sensible Heat
60F
61F
15C
16C
1 Btu
1 kcal
1 lb
water
1 kg
water
Sensible heat - heat energy that, when added to or removed
from a substance, results in a measurable change in
temperature.
AA BB
Specific Heat
140F
[60C]
200F
[93.3C]
The specific heat of a substance is defined as
the quantity of heat, in Btus, required to raise the
temperature of 1 lb of that substance 1F
the quantity of heat, in kJs, required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of that substance 1C
Higher capacity
for absorbing
heat
25
Modern Refrigerants
Refrigerants are substances that are used to absorb
and transport heat for the purpose of cooling.
When selecting a refrigerant to use for a given
application, in addition to these heat transfer
properties the manufacturer considers;
Efficiency
Operating pressures
Compatibility with
materials
Stability
Toxicity
Flammability
Cost
Availability
Safety, and
Environmental
impact.
26
Historically, space cooling systems have relied on
chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) refrigerants (R-11, R-12)
and hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) refrigerant (R-
22)
Refrigerant-22 has been the most widely used
refrigerant in residential, commercial, and industrial
applications since the 1940s
The most common refrigerants used in mechanical
refrigeration systems today are Refrigerant-123 (or
R-123), R-134a, and R-22
Ammonia (R-717) and, under certain operating
pressures, even water (R-718) and carbon dioxide
(R-744) can be used as refrigerants
27
Example of Types of Refrigerants and Their
Use
Refrigerant Name Equipment Use
HCFC-22 (R-22) residential air conditioning (central and window)
commercial rooftop air conditioning, residential
and commercial heat pumps
large air conditioning equipment (chillers)
commercial refrigeration equipment for
supermarkets, food storage, beverage coolers,
etc.
HCFC-123 (R-123) large air conditioning equipment (chillers)
HCFC Blends (R-401 A&B,
402A&B, 405A, 406A, 408A,
409A, 411A&B, 414A&B and
416A
commercial refrigeration equipment (e.g.
supermarkets, food processing, storage &
distribution)
beverage & large commercial coolers
ice machines
ice drinks
28
These refrigerants will be phased out due to
environmental concern (ozone layer depletion) & to
comply with the world CFC reduction standards
(Montreal Protocol)
The most widely accepted replacement option for
HCFCs is the use of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
Ammonia is also a replacement option in the large
commercial air conditioning and refrigeration sectors
These refrigerants do not deplete the ozone layer
and can replace both CFC and HCFC uses
29
Phase-out schedule for HCFCs based on the terms
of the Montreal Protocol
Jan. 1, 1996 baseline annual allowable amount of HCFCs based on
Montreal Protocol
Jan. 1, 2004 annual allowable amount of HCFCs reduced by 35%
Jan. 1, 2010 annual allowable amount of HCFCs reduced by 65%
Jan. 1, 2010 no new R-22 equipment manufactured or imported
Jan. 1, 2015 annual allowable amount of HCFCs reduced by 90%
Jan. 1, 2020 annual allowable amount of HCFCs reduced by 99.5% except
HCFC-123, which can be imported or manufactured until
2030 to service large air conditioning units (chillers) under the
remaining .5% allowance. No new HCFC equipment to be
manufactured or imported
Jan. 1, 2030 HCFCs no longer permitted to be imported or manufactured
The HCFC Phase-out Schedule
REFRIGERATION CYCLE
Basic Refrigeration System
compressor
condenser
evaporator
expansion
device
discharge
line
suction
line
liquid
line
A
B
C
D
Cooling equipment moves heat from
cool indoor spaces to warmer outdoor
locations. It moves heat by causing a
refrigerant to evaporate and
condense. Refrigerants capture a lot
of heat when they evaporate, and the
captured heat is released when
refrigerant vapour condenses.
4 cooling cycles components
A compressor circulates refrigerant
through the loop and an expansion
valve maintains low pressure on the
suction side of the compressor and
high pressure on the discharge side.
AIR-CONDITIONING
SYSTEMS &
COMPONENTS
Air-Conditioning System
Common Components
Condenser
Part of the system that pressurizes refrigerant to cool it by changing
it from a vapor to a liquid
Compressor
Motorised equipment that circulates coolant through the system.
Evaporator
A system of coils that, when filled with cold refrigerant, cools the air
around it
Expansion valve/Device
Controlling pressure
Air handler
Short for air-handling unit (AHU), the blower equipment designed
for circulating cooled air through a central air-conditioning system.
Vapor-Compression
Refrigeration
expansion
device
condenser
compressor
evaporator
Large Air-Conditioning
Equipment
SCHEMATIC COOLING COMPONENTS
PHYSICAL COOLING COMPONENTS
AHU
Chiller
Cooling
tower
Types of Air-Conditioning
Systems
AI R-CONDI TI ONI NG
SYSTEM
UNITARY SYSTEM
PLANT SYSTEM
LOCAL CONTROL
SYSTEM
PACKAGE UNI T
SPLI T UNI T
WINDOW UNIT
CENTRAL HANDLI NG PLANT
SYSTEM
CHILLED WATER PLANT
SYSTEM
SELF-CONTAINED PACKAGED
UNI T
AIR COOLED PACKAGE UNIT
WATER COOLED PACKAGE
UNI T
SPLIT SYSTEM WITHOUT
OUTSIDE AIR
SPLIT SYSTEM WITH
OUTSIDE AIR
I NDUCTI ON UNI T SYSTEM
FAN COI L UNI T SYSTEM
VARIABLE AIR VOLUME UNIT
SYSTEM
Classification based on layout
arrangement, equipment and
components
38
Classification based on air handling and distribution:
Low velocity system
High velocity system
Constant volume system
Variable air volume system
Classification based on air cooled method prior to distribution
into space:
Direct expansion system
All air system
Water to air system
All water system
39
Classification based on services to the cooled area:
Single zone system
Multi zone system
Terminal Reheat system
Dual-duct system
Room Air-Conditioner
Room air conditioner are a
sensible cooling solution
for situations where you
only want to cool one or
two rooms. Like central air
conditioners, room air
conditioners extract heat
and moisture from the room
air, cool it, and return the air
to the room. A blower pulls
warm room air through a
filter.
The main difference between a room and a central air conditioner is
that a room air conditioner is a single, self-contained unit with
evaporator or cooling coils, a condenser, and refrigerant-filled
tubing all in one box.
Split Air-Conditioner
Evaporator
(indoor)
Condenser
(outdoor)
Insulated
refrigerant piping
& wiring
T Thermostat
42
Cassette type
Split unit chiller
43
Package Air Conditioners
They are bigger versions of the room air conditioners and
available in nominal capacities of 3, 5, 7, 10 and 15 tons.
Like the room air conditioners, the package unit also houses:
i. Air filtering
ii. Cooling-humidifying
iii. Air handling components
The package air conditioners are usually factory assembled
and condensers can be air-cooled or water-cooled type.
44
Water-cooled package units
45
Indoor self-contained units
(Capacity: 10 105 TR)
Single package units
Variable Refrigerant Volume (VRV)
Central Air-Conditioner
In a typical air
conditioning system, a
refrigerant circulates
through a loop of
copper tubing that runs
between an outdoor
coil (the condenser)
and an indoor coil (the
evaporator).
Refrigerant travels between the two coils, absorbing heat from the
room and releasing it outside. In the process, the refrigerant cools the
evaporator coils. A blower sends the chilled air into the room. The
cooling effect causes the warm air to release its moisture, which drops
into a drain pan and is carried away.
Centralised air-
conditioning system
Air handling unit
50
AC SYSTEM SELECTION CRITERIA
Air-conditioning design and selection criteria can be classified
as follows:
Comfort criteria
These criteria include noise considerations, accuracy of control
space conditions, amount of fresh air and air filtration, and
tolerance of the effects of failure in the AC system.
Space considerations
AC systems occupy substantial space and AC components
may require special support from structure.
Space considerations include space required to house the
equipment and the distribution ductwork and pipework.
AHU room - 3% of total floor area cooled by that unit
Plant room - 5% of total cooled floor area
Another major considerations is the accessibility of the
equipment for maintenance purposes.
51
First cost
An important consideration in the design and selection of AC
systems.
There is a tendency for owners to prefer low first cost.
Careful consideration should be given to the expandability of
the system as well as to implications on the operating costs.
Operating cost
One of the most important considerations in the design
selection of air-conditioning systems.
The energy cost should be calculated and competing systems
should be compared in terms of their life cycle cost which takes
into account capital, energy and maintenance costs over the
whole life of the systems.
52
Flexibility & maintenance
The system should be flexible enough to meet changes in the
use of building.
The reliability, maintainability and the cost of maintenance
contracts as well as the cost of replacement of major
components should be considered in deciding between
alternative systems.
Others
Fire protection & smoke control, interior & exterior appearance and
environmental effects
The final choice lies on the owner of the building/financier of the
projects. This choice should be based on the recommendations of the
consultants who should provide justifications for the recommended
design solution against the requirements of the owner/financier.
53
LOCATION OF PLANT ROOM
Top floor
Advantage Disadvantage
Main spaces at ground
level are fully utilised for
other purposes (no waste
of spaces)
Load on building frame
increased
Piping distance of chilled
water from cooling tower
to plant room could be
reduced if located on the
same floor
Noise from vibration of
equipment
Good ventilation at the top Accessibility challenge for
maintenance personnel
54
Middle floor
Advantage Disadvantage
No waste of main spaces Increase load on building
frame
Piping distance of chilled
water from cooling tower
to plant room could be
reduced if located on the
same floor
Noise from vibration of
equipment
Good ventilation at this
level
Zoning for air distribution
could easily be done
55
Ground floor
Advantage Disadvantage
Easy accessibility for
maintenance personnel
Waste of valuable space
on ground floor
Reduce load on building
structure
Longer piping installation
to connect the plant room
to cooling tower at roof
top
Good ventilation at this
level
Ventilation problem
occurs if the cooling tower
is located on the ground
floor since it emits heat
Zoning for air distribution
could easily be done
56
Underground
Advantage Disadvantage
No waste of valuable
space
Longer piping installation
to connect the plant room
to cooling tower at roof
top
Reduce load on building
structure
The equipment would be
at risk if flood occurs
Easy accessibility for
maintenance personnel
Reduce space for parking
Reduce noise and
vibration
Ventilation is very critical
57
It could also be explained as follows.
Away from building
Suitable to avoid noise to the
user
Alleviate in getting water
supply, ventilation and
maintenance work
Plant room
SECTION
PLAN
58
Scattered and in between
spaces
For provisions of air-
conditioning requirements for
multiple uses and various
cooling load between spaces
Also acts as boundaries
between buildings (but it is
expensive to have many plant
rooms as compared to just
one huge plant room with
similar capacity)
PLAN
PLAN
PLAN
59
AIR HANDLING UNIT (AHU) ROOM
Location of AHU room
Should be near to facility zone or noise zone (to assist in
maintenance work)
Must consider fresh air intake
Not too close to toilet to avoid contaminated air (minimum
around 6 m)
Not too close to parking area (especially closed parking area)
Should be in one line vertically
As close as possible to the cooling area
60
LOCATION OF COLING TOWER
Roof top
Advantage Disadvantage
Alleviate in getting
optimum ventilation
Could be a problem for
maintenance work
Valuable spaces can be
fully utilised
Increase of load on
buildings main frames
No eyesore view Vibration to building
structure
Heat can be directly
discharged outside
61
Podium
Advantage Disadvantage
Alleviate in getting
optimum ventilation
Eyesore view from the
tower building
Valuable spaces can be
fully utilised
Condensation of
discharged heat will
happen and move upward
increase in building
cooling load
62
Ground level
Advantage Disadvantage
Alleviate in maintenance
work
Waste of valuable spaces
at this level
Load on buildings main
frames could be reduced
Increase of heat to the
surrounding
Location of cooling tower
could be far from the
building
Eyesore and vibration
COOLING LOAD
Space Heat Gain Components
The space cooling load is the rate at which heat must be removed from a
space in order to maintain the desired conditions in the space, generally a
dry-bulb temperature and relative humidity
Cooling load from external heat gains
i. Solar heat gain through the fenestration areas of the building
ii. Conduction heat gains through the fenestration areas, walls and roof
iii. Conduction heat gains through internal partitions, ceilings and floors
iv. Heat gains through infiltration and ventilation air
Cooling load from internal heat gains
i. People
ii. Lighting
iii. Electrical equipment and appliances
roof
lights
equipment
floor
exterior
wall
glass solar
glass
conduction
infiltration
people
partition
wall
Cooling Load Components
sensible
load
latent
load
conduction through roof, walls, windows,
and skylights
solar radiation through windows, skylights
conduction through ceiling, interior
partition walls, and floor
people
lights
equipment/appliances
infiltration
ventilation
system heat gains
space
load
coil
load
cooling load components
Cooling Load Estimation
Rule of thumb
Cooling capacity for an enclosed area
= Area (ft
2
) x Cooling load factor (Btu/hr ft
2
)
Capacity of A/C:
1 HP (horsepower) = 9,000 Btu/hr
1 TR (Ton refigerant) = 12,000 Btu/hr
1 kW= 3,412 Btu/hr
1 kcal= 3.968 Btu/hr
Detail estimation
based on ASHRAEs
recommendation
PSYCHROMETRICS
Psychrometry
Psychrometry
the science of studying the thermodynamic properties of
moist air and the use of these properties to analyze
conditions and processes involving moist air
The air condition can be determined by using a
Psychrometric Chart.
Use of psychrometric chart
determination of comfort zone
prediction of condensation problems
calculation of HVAC capacity/design
Common properties used in the psychrometric chart
includes
i. dry-bulb temperature (T
db
)
ii. wet-bulb temperature (T
wb
)
iii. relative humidity (RH)
iv. humidity ratio (w) (moisture content/absolute humidity)
v. specific volume (v)
vi. dew point temperature (T
dp
)
vii. enthalpy (h)
With two known properties it is possible to characterise
the air in the intersection of the property lines, the state-
point. With the intersection point located on the chart or
diagram, other air properties can be read directly.
Definitions
Dry Bulb Temperature (T
db
):
The air temperature measured with a standard thermometer ,
o
C
Dew Point Temperature (T
dp
):
The temperature at which water vapor in the air will condense
from a gas to liquid if cooled at constant pressure and humidity
ratio (w),
o
C
Examples: Condensation on cold window, cloud formation
Wet Bulb Temperature (T
wb
):
The temperature at which water vapour is evaporated into air
bringing it to saturation conditions at the same temperature,
o
C
Temperature measured by the wetted thermometer in a
psychrometer
Indirect measure of how saturated the air is
Humidity Ratio (w):
The amount (mass) of water in the air, kg/
water
/kg/
air
Relative Humidity (RH or ):
A measure of the actual amount of water vapor in the air
compared to the saturated conditions, %
w
ws
w
ws
P actual vapor pressure of water in the air
vapor pressure of water in the air @ saturation P
x mole fraction of water in the air

mole fraction of water in the air @ saturation x


Enthalpy (h):
The total energy content of the water vapor mixture,
kJ
kg
dry air
Specific Volume ():
Inverse of the air density, m
3
kg
dry air
Related Physical Laws
Ideal Gas Law:
A law that describes the relationships between measurable
properties of an ideal gas
pV = mRT
where
p = absolute pressure (N/m
2
)
V = volume (m
3
)
m = mass (kg)
R = individual gas constant* (J/kg.
o
K)
T = absolute temperature (
o
K)
* The Individual Gas Constant depends on the particular gas and is related to the molecular weight of the gas. The value is
independent of temperature.
Daltons Law of Partial Pressures:
Total pressure is sum of the partial pressures of the components
P
total
= P
dry air
+ P
water vapour
Psycrometric Chart
ASHRAE
CIBSE
Structure
80
PSYCHROMETRIC
CHART
Psychrometric Chart
Applications
Obtaining conditions based
on two known conditions,
e.g.
Given
Temperatures of 15Cdb
and 10Cwb
Obtained from the chart
The RH or percentage of
saturation is 52%
The moisture content is 5.4
g/kg of air
Exercise
Given: T = 27C, RH = 40%
Find: h _________
w _________
_________
T
wb
_________
T
dp
_________
Psychrometric Process
1. Sensible heating and
cooling
Heat addition or removal
without moisture change
HEATING
COOLING
2. Evaporative cooling
Adiabatic process
(constant h)
Move along constant h
or T
wb
line toward
saturation
Air loses sensible heat to
gain latent heat from
water added
COOLING 1
2
3. Heating and humidification
(of the air)
Typical of ventilation air
that circulates through a
building space
Air picks up both sensible
and latent heat from entry
to exit
HEATING +
HUMDIFICATION
1
2
4. Adiabatic mixing
Two separate conditions
of air mixing together to
form a third final
condition without
exchange of energy to
the environment
Addition of 1 and 2 in proportion to mass flow of each. Final condition
will lie in straight line between the two on psychrometric chart.

x
Using the enthalpy/humidity protractor
Protractor in upper left hand side of psychrometric chart is
useful in getting final conditions of complicated mixing
problems
Example: Define supply conditions necessary for air
conditioning air into a space
Outside:
Enthalpy h
=
Humidity Ratio W

S
T
Q
Sensible Heat
=
Total Heat Q
PSYCHROMETRICS &
SYSTEM DESIGN
Air Mixing
Recirculating ductwork containing air at 21Cdb and
15Cwb, mixing with fresh air at 36Cdb and 25Cwb
before processing in an air-handling unit. If the ratio of
mixed air is 3:1, i.e. 75% recirculated to 25% fresh.
Find the state of mixed air:
Tdb
Twb
RH
Moisture content
Plant Sizing
An air-conditioning is used to supply air at 27Cdb and
20Cwb to 20Cdb and 14Cwb, in a factory of 1500 m
3
volume requiring 5 air changes per hour.
Find:
Chiller rating
Reheater rating
Q = Volume x air changes
3600
= 1500 x 5 = 2.1 m
3
/s
3600
Convert m
3
/s to kg/s by establishing specific volume plant
commencing conditions:
At 27Cdb and 20Cwb = 0.87 m
3
/kg (chiller)
At 10Cdb and 10Cwb = 0.81 m
3
/kg (reheater)
Therefore
2.1 m
3
/s = 2.4 kg/s (chiller)
0.87 m
3
/kg
and
2.1 m
3
/s = 2.6 kg/s (reheater)
0.81 m
3
/kg
Enthalpy values for chilling and reheating:
Chilling 57 45 kJ/kg = 12 kJ/kg
Reheating 39 29.5 kJ/kg = 9.5 kJ/kg
The chiller rating is
2.4 kg/s x 12 kJ/kg = 28.8 kW
The reheater rating is
2.6 kg/s x 9.5 kJ/kg = 24.7 kW
REFERENCES
Greeno, R.(1997). Building Services, Technology and
Design. Essex: Longman.
Hall, F. & Greeno, R. (2005). Building Services
Handbook. Oxford: Elsevier.
Trane Air-Conditioning Company.
Mohamed Rashid Embi & Sulaiman Shariff (1996).
Pengudaraan dan Sistem Penyamanan Udara. Kuala
Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Quiz
What is cooling load?
List down the components of heat gains.