Virginia Woolf and The F-Word

Virginia Woolf and the F-Word:
On the Difficulties of Defining Woolf's (Anti-)Feminism.

Ute Kathmann
LIVR07
Master's thesis in Literature/Culture/Media
Spring 2012
Centre fr Languages and Literature
Lund Uni!ersit"
Super!isr# $lisa%eth &riis
Abstract
'he fll(ing master's thesis dis)usses Virginia *lf's essa"s A Room of One's Own and Three
Guineas frm )ntemprar" feminist pints f !ie(s in rder t define the nature f *lf's
feminism+ 'he t( feminist therists Rsi ,raidtti and -udith ,utler ser!e as the %ases f the t(
mst (idel" .n(n %ran)hes in feminist ther" tda"/ the se0ual differen)e ther" n the ne hand/
and the ther" re1e)ting )mpulsr" heterse0ualit" and supprting the )n)ept f )hange thrugh
perfrmati!it" n the ther hand+ 'hese mdern theries are presented/ dis)ussed/ and effe)ti!el"
applied t *lf's (r.+ In additin/ the t( feminist )riti)s $laine Sh(alter's and 'ril Mi's
pinins and de%ates n *lf's feminism )ntri%ute t the attempt f defining the nature f
*lf's feminism (ith mdern theries in mind+ 'he paper )n)ludes (ith a definitin f *lf's
feminism as )ntaining aspe)ts f %th theries presented/ thus underlining the )mple0it" and
prgressi!eness f *lf as a feminist (riter in the earl" t(entieth )entur"+ 2er feminism )annt %e
stri)tl" )ategri3ed/ it is uni4ue+
Table of ontents
! "ntroduction++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++1
# The feminism of Virginia Woolf and her time+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++5
#.! "m$ortant biogra$hical as$ects++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++5
#.# Virginia Woolf and the f-%ord++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++6
#.& Which feminist to$ics %as Woolf most outs$o'en about(+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++7
#.) Women's rights and feminism in *ngland at the beginning of the
#+
th
centur,+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++10
& The theor, of se-ual difference.s+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++12
&.! /osi 0raidotti and her model of the three le1els of se-ual difference.s+++++++++++12
&.# 0raidotti on Woolf++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++16
&.& A$$l,ing 0raidotti to Woolf: To %hat e-tent can feminist thoughts of
difference be found in Woolf's essa,s(++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++16
) Feminist theor, be,ond the se-es++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++26
).! 2udith 0utler3 4$erforming gender5++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++26
).# an 0utlerian thoughts be found in Virginia Woolf's %riting(++++++++++++++++++++++++80
6 A debate on Woolf's feminism++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++87
7 onclusion++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++57
8 0ibliogra$h,+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++57
Kathmann 1
! "ntroduction
'he ld names as (e ha!e seen are futile and false+ 9&eminism/: (e ha!e had t destr"+ 9'he eman)ipatin
f (men: is e4uall" ine0pressi!e and )rrupt+
1

Virginia *lf is n(ada"s ften referred t as an earl" feminist (riter; frm the pint f !ie( f a
*lf reader in the 21
st
)entur"/ there seems t %e n du%t a%ut *lf's status as a feminist+
*lf herself/ h(e!er/ (as !er" )riti)al a%ut the term feminism/ hen)e the term the f-word+ Man"
pliti)al and s)ial )hanges t. pla)e during her lifetime/ a)hie!ed mainl" %" female a)ti!ists fr
the (men in $ngland+ 'he feminist gals %a). then appear t ha!e %een )learl" frmulated t
tda"'s readers f *lf# *men (ere %" n means e4ual and/ )nse4uentl"/ the a)ti!ists sught
fr representatin and e4ualit"+ 2(e!er/ (hen stud"ing *lf's (r.s in detail it %e)mes
in)reasingl" mre diffi)ult t define (hat .ind f feminism she represented+ <id she parti)ipate in
the (men's m!ement= <id she ad!)ate e4ualit" f the se0es= *as she a radi)al feminist= >nd
e!en mre s/ )nsidering that she )laimed the (rd t %e )rrupt/ (as she a feminist at all= 2(
)an Virginia *lf's feminism %e defined n( that feminism has ta.en s man" different frms=
'hese 4uestins ser!e as the guidelines fr this thesis (ith the aim at pr!iding an !er!ie( f the
nature f *lf's feminism frm different feminist perspe)ti!es+ 'he %asis are her t( ppular
essa"s A Room of One's Own and Three Guineas, the reasn %eing that essa"s/ unli.e n!els/
suppsedl" present the (riter's unmediated pint f !ie(+
2
*hether this assumptin is )rre)t in the
)ase f the t( essa"s (ill %e dis)ussed later in the te0t+
Mre than eight" "ears after the pu%li)atin f the earlier essa"/ e4ualit" f (men and men
has/ at least in ther"/ %een esta%lished in the *estern (rld+ &eminist therists ha!e ela%rated n
the differen)es/ similarities/ and pe)uliarities %et(een and (ithin the se0es+ $!en (ithin the su%1e)t
area f feminist ther" there are !ast differen)es+ 'he field f gender/(men's studies is nt at all
)herent and harmnius in itself as the different theries differ t a great e0tent and are at times
)ntrasting+ 'he t( mst pre!alent feminist theries are thse f the Cntinental and the >ngl?
>meri)an traditin+
8
'he feminists f the frmer grup %ase their arguments n se0ual differen)e/
(hereas the therists fll(ing the latter grup ad!)ate a re1e)tin f the )ategr" f se0+ 'he
>ngl?>meri)an feminists thus dismiss (hat fun)tins as the %asis fr the Cntinental feminists+
'hese t( )ntrasting feminist stands ser!e as pints f departure in determining *lf's feminism+
In the first instan)e/ the theries and ideas e0pressed %" feminists in the a)ademi) field tda" seem
1 *lf/ Virginia# Three Guineas. 178@+ Lndn# 2garth Aress/ 1758/ p+25@+
2 *lf/ Virginia# A Room of One's Own. 1727+ Lndn# 2garth Aress/ 1757+
8 9Cntinental: and 9>ngl?>meri)an: merel" refer t the feminist dire)tins f the respe)ti!e therists and d nt
mean t indi)ate their natinalities+ 'he terms ha!e lng %een esta%lished in the field f feminist studies+
Kathmann 2
t differ greatl" frm the thughts Virginia *lf de!elped in her (ritings+ 'he theries tda" are
mre )mple0 and mre detailed/ and naturall" s/ as the therists (ere a%le t refer t alread"
esta%lished dis)urses+ 'he !erall input and intelle)tual e0)hange %et(een feminists is mu)h
greater tda" than it has e!er %een %efre+ 'heir theries f)us n !er" spe)ifi) ideas and
philsphies t (hi)h *lf did nt ha!e a))ess as the" had nt %een re)gni3ed as su)h+ 'hus/ at
first !ie(/ *lf and the mdern therists d nt seem t ha!e mu)h in )mmn+ Interestingl"
enugh/ thugh/ man" therists n(ada"s mentin that Virginia *lf's (r. has influen)ed them+
,ased n the t( )amps f feminism tda" *lf's essa"s are read and re?interpreted )n)erning
their feminist !ie(s+
'he first part f this thesis )n)erns *lf's feminism and the feminist m!ement f her time+
' %egin (ith/ sme imprtant %igraphi)al aspe)ts are mentined in rder t gi!e an a))unt f the
e!ents and !alues that influen)ed Virginia *lf/ espe)iall" in terms f feminist ideas+ <id *lf
ha!e a strng feminist %a).grund= In (hat (a" (as she a representati!e f the $nglish (man in
the earl" t(entieth )entur"= ' (hat e0tent (as she different )nsidering her famil" %a).grund
and prfessinal en!irnment= 'he %rief %igraphi)al a))unt is %" n means )mplete %ut presents
fa)ts that are rele!ant t the dis)ussin+ *hat fll(s is a presentatin f *lf's !er" (n
per)eptin f feminism/ (hi)h (as )ertainl" nt a linear ne+ 'he main (r.s f referen)e are
Bami ,la).'s Virginia Woolf as Feminist as (ell as Cuentin ,ell's %igraph" n *lf+
5

&urthermre/ *lf's )entral feminist fields f interest are e0amined+ *hi)h feminist D r feminism
related D tpi)s (as she mst )n)erned a%ut= 'he aspe)ts mentined in this se)tin pr!ide the
reader (ith a first !er!ie( f *lf's feminism and (ill %e )mpleted as the dis)ussin m!es n
in the )urse f the thesis+ 'he first part )n)ludes (ith imprtant %en)hmar. data f ,ritish histr"
)n)erning (men's rights that aim at putting *lf's (r.s and her feminist am%itins int
histri)al and pliti)al )nte0t+
2ereafter/ emphasis is put n the Cntinental )amp f feminism and its main thereti)al ideas+
'he Italian feminist philspher Rsi ,raidtti is a representati!e f the ther" f se0ual differen)e
and the essa"s pu%lished in her %. Nomadic u!"ects. #m!odiment and e$ual %ifference in
&ontem'orar( Feminist Theor( ser!e as the main (r.s f referen)e )n)erning the theries f the
Cntinental feminists+
E
,raidtti is )ertainl" nt the mst prminent representati!e f the ther" f
se0ual differen)e+ 2(e!er/ she manages t in)lude and dis)uss !arius fields f feminism in her
essa"s and des nt fail t refer t ther thin.ers f the time and f the past+ &urthermre/ she has
5 ,la)./ Bami# Virginia Woolf as Feminist. Itha)a and Lndn# Crnell Uni!ersit" Aress/ 2005+
,ell/ Cuentin# Virginia Woolf) A *iogra'h(/ Vl+ I F II+ Lndn# 2garth Aress/ 1778+
E ,raidtti/ Rsi# Nomadic u!"ects. #m!odiment and e$ual %ifference in &ontem'orar( Feminist Theor(. Be(
Gr.# Clum%ia Uni!ersit" Aress/ 1775+
Kathmann 8
esta%lished a mdel f the three le!els f se0ual differen)e/s/ (hi)h is first dis)ussed in detail in this
paper in rder t %e applied t *lf's essa"s after(ard+ ,raidtti's mdel thus pr!ides the
thereti)al grund f the Cntinental feminists' thughts+ Aarts f A Room of One's Own and Three
Guineas are interpreted in the )nte0t f se0ual differen)e/s and represent e0amples f the nature f
Virginia *lf's feminism+ 'his detailed anal"sis f *lf's (ritings n feminist issues (ith regard
t ,raidtti's thereti)al pints ena%les the reader t re)gni3e parallels and dis)repan)ies %et(een
the t(+ Culd *lf's feminism %e defined as ad!)ating the se0ual differen)e ther" and if s/ t
(hat e0tent=
,raidtti's theries are fll(ed %" thse f the >meri)an philspher -udith ,utler/ (h (ill
ser!e as the representati!e f the >ngl?>meri)an feminist traditin+ ,utler's %. Gender Trou!le)
Feminism and the u!+ersion of ,dentit(/ pu%lished in 1770/ presents a feminist !ie( %e"nd the
%inar" s"stem f the se0es; its signifi)an)e in the field f feminist/gender studies is immense and
(ill thus present the )unter?psitin t the ther" f se0ual differen)e+
6
-udith ,utler 4uestins the
)ategr" f se0 as a restri)ti!e la%el leading t e0)lusin and pr)eeds t )hallenge the nrmati!e
attitude t(ards heterse0ualit" in rder t present the dangers f su)h nrms+ 'hese issues are
presented and dis)ussed in the first se)tin dealing (ith ,utler's thereti)al implementatins+ In
additin t that/ her thughts n gender )nfusin as (ell as the )n)ept f perfrmati!it" alng
(ith its pprtunities fr )hange are su%1e)ts f her ther" and f this thesis+ 'he )mple0
thereti)al %ser!atins are then applied t *lf's essa"s t e0amine if ,utlerian thughts are at all
present in A Room of One's Own and Three Guineas+ *as *lf familiar (ith the ppsitin f the
%inar" s"stem f the se0es= *as she a(are f its restri)tins and if s/ (hat did she ma.e f it= <id
*lf li.e(ise )hallenge the )mpulsr" nature f heterse0ualit"= Reading *lf's t( essa"s
(ith t( ppsing mdern feminist theries in mind ffers !er" different appra)hes t the feminist
issues dis)ussed %" *lf in the first half f the t(entieth )entur"+ 'he anal"ses pr!ide a spe)trum
f pssi%le frms f feminism ta.en up and presented %" *lf+
>fter anal"3ing Virginia *lf's (r.s (ith the t( spe)ifi) )ntemprar" feminist theries
as patterns/ emphasis is put n a general de%ate n *lf's feminism+ Literar" )riti)s ha!e sh(n
s.epti)ism regarding the authr's feminist stands and sme ha!e 4uestined if *lf )an %e
)nsidered a feminist at all+ ' %egin (ith/ the fla(s in *lf's feminism that seem %!ius frm
tda"'s feminist pints f !ie( are dis)ussed+ 'his is fll(ed %" pinins frm ,la). and
,raidtti/ )mmenting n the 4ualit" f *lf's psitin )n)erning (men's rights and their
emp(erment+ 'he main part f the de%ate/ h(e!er/ f)uses n t( psitins that )uld hardl" %e
6 ,utler/ -udith# Gender Trou!le) Feminism and the u!+ersion of ,dentit(+ 1770+ Be( Gr. and Lndn# Rutledge/
2006+
Kathmann 5
mre )ntrasting+ Hn the ne hand/ the >meri)an literar" )riti) $laine Sh(alter's )ntr!ersial
pint f !ie( n *lf is dis)ussed in detail+ In her %. A -iterature of Their Own she famusl"
)hallenged nt nl" *lf's feminism as set ut in her n!els and essa"s %ut espe)iall" emphasi3ed
the authr's pri!ate life as an indi)atr f the feminism/ r rather/ the la). theref+
7
Sh(alter's
negatin f *lf's stand n (men's issues thus fun)tins as the )unterpart t 'ril Mi's
arguments that are in fa!r f the authr's am%itins )n)erning the rights f (men+ 'he
Br(egian literar" )riti)'s intrdu)tin t her (r. e$ual.Te$tual /olitics/ pu%lished a fe( "ears
after Sh(alter's %./ refers dire)tl" t the >meri)an )riti)'s assertin that *lf (as an anti?
feminist+
@
Mi's %. (as )alled a 9histri)all" in)rre)t anti?>meri)an diatri%e: %" feminist )riti)
and *lf s)hlar -ane Mar)us+
7
2(e!er/ %th pu%li)atins )ntain fla(s that are pinted ut in
this de%ate n *lf and that ultimatel" help t define the $nglish authr's feminism+
In the )n)lusin/ the results frm the pre!ius anal"ses f the feminist therists ,raidtti/
,utler/ ,la)./ Mi/ and Sh(alter are summari3ed in rder t present an attempt at defining the
nature f *lf's feminism as (ell as the reasns fr the diffi)ulties in!l!ed in su)h an
underta.ing+
# The feminism of Virginia Woolf and her time
#.! "m$ortant biogra$hical as$ects
>deline Virginia Stephen (as %rn in 1@@2 as the third )hild f -ulia and Leslie Stephen+ She and
her si%lings (ere hme?s)hled %" their parents and se!eral pri!ate tea)hers; unli.e her %rthers/
she and her sister Vanessa (ere nt sent ff t s)hl after their elementar" s)hl "ears+
10

Bnetheless (men's edu)atin (as f great imprtan)e t the Stephens+ Still/ Virginia's parents
)annt %e referred t as feminists# Leslie (as against the right fr (men t !te and -ulia
supprted the 1@@7 9>ppeal against &emale Suffrage;: the de)isin t edu)ate their daughters at
hme )in)ided (ith -ulia's disappr!al f sending girls t s)hl+
11
>t the age f nine/ Virginia
started a ne(spaper (ith her elder si%lings 'h%" and Vanessa/ a pr1e)t that (as en)uraged %"
their parents/ and that refle)ted the )hildren's talents and appre)iatin fr literature and the arts+
12

*hen Virginia (as thirteen/ her mther -ulia died; at age fifteen she lst her half?sister and mther
7 Sh(alter/ $laine# A -iterature of Their Own. *ritish Women No+elists From *ront0 to -essing+ Arin)etn/ B-#
Arin)etn Uni!ersit" Aress/ 1777+
@ Mi/ 'ril# e$ual.Te$tual /olitics) Feminist -iterar( Theor(. 17@E+ Lndn# Rutledge/ 1771+
7 Mar)us/ -ane# 9Aathgraphies# 'he Virginia *lf Sap Hperas+: igns/ 17+5 I1772J/ p+@1E+
10 Cf+ ,ell/ Cuentin# Virginia Woolf) A *iogra'h(/ Vl+ I/ 1778/ pp+26?27+
11 Cf+ ,la)./ Bami# Virginia Woolf as Feminist/ 2005/ p+86+
12 Cf+ ,ell/ Cuentin# Virginia Woolf) A *iogra'h(, Vl+ I/ 1778/ p+2@+
Kathmann E
figure Stella; in 1705/ her father Leslie died/ and in the "ear 1706 her %rther 'h%" passed a(a"+
'hese lsses had a great effe)t n Virginia's life and (ere said t ha!e led t se!eral %rea.d(ns
and a sui)ide attempt+
18
2er health (as )nstantl" at sta.e+ Bt nl" did Virginia suffer frm se!ere
depressin %ut frm phases f anre0ia/ t+
15

Hn the su%1e)t f feminism/ Cuentin ,ell (rites#
She had/ fr a lng time/ %een in s"mpath" (ith the feminist )ause/ %ut it (as nt until 1 -anuar" 1710/ -anet
Case ha!ing put the arguments fr pliti)al a)tin (ith unans(era%le fr)e/ that Virginia (rte t her sa"ing
that she )uld neither d sums/ nr argue/ nr spea./ %ut (uld li.e in sme hum%ler (a" t %e helpful+
1E
'hus/ unli.e her mther -ulia/ Virginia supprted the feminist m!ement+ She (as )n!in)ed f the
aims %ut refused t %e pliti)all" in!l!ed t an e0tent that (uld re4uire attending pu%li) e!ents r
ma.ing pu%li) statements+ 'he (r. fr this suffrage grup remained her nl" a)ti!it" fr a grup
prmting (men's rights+ Virginia's sense fr e4ualit" is refle)ted in her plans fr a )hanged li!ing
situatin in 1711 (hen she (as eager t m!e int a huse (ith three men# 2er %rther >drian
Stephen/ the e)nmist -hn Ma"nard Ke"nes/ and her future hus%and Lenard *lf+ $!er"
indi!idual (as t ha!e their (n flr; the" (ere t %e independent frm ea)h ther/ e0)ept at meal
times+
16
Virginia Stephen and Lenard *lf gt married in 1712+ 'he )uple spent hurs (riting
n!els side %" side; letters frm %th f them dra( a pi)ture f their marriage as an e4ual unin f
man and (man+ It (as a 9slid and happ" marriage: despite the fa)t that n !erl" ph"si)al
affe)tin (as in!l!ed+
17
Virginia's strng re1e)tin f an" .ind f se0ual a)ti!it" is said t %e
lin.ed t her half?%rthers Kerald and Kerge <u).(rth+ In 1778/ Cuentin ,ell )alled Kerge's
%eha!ir a 9mis)ndu)t;:
1@
tda" it (uld %e )alled )hild a%use and pedphilia+ *hen Virginia (as
si0 "ears f age/ t(ent"?"ear?ld Kerge e0amined her pri!ate parts+ 9Virginia felt that Kerge had
LspiledM her life %efre it had fairl" %egun+ Baturall" sh" in se0ual matters/ she (as frm this time
terrified %a). int a psture f fr3en and defensi!e pani)+:
17
Cntrar" t ,ell's assumptin that
nl" Kerge (as in!l!ed in this a%use/ it (as Kerald (h undert. said e0aminatin f si0?"ear?
ld Virginia+ Kerge %egan t mlest Virginia %" la"ing d(n in her %ed repeatedl" against her (ill
after her mther's death in 1@7E+
20
18 Cf+ ,ell/ Cuentin# Virginia Woolf) A *iogra'h(, Vl+ I/ 1778/ pp+@7?70 F 170?17E+
15 Cf+ ,riggs/ -ulia# Virginia Woolf) An ,nner -ife. Lndn# >llen Lane/ 200E/ pp+21/ 87/ 58+
1E ,ell/ Cuentin# Virginia Woolf) A *iogra'h(, Vl+ I/ 1778/ p+161+
16 Cf+ i%id+/ p+17E+
17 ,ell/ Cuentin# Virginia Woolf) A *iogra'h(/ Vl+ II/ 1778/ p+205+
1@ In Virginia Woolf) A *iogra'h(, Vl+ I/ 1778/ p+22@+
17 I%id+/ p+55+
20 Cf+ Ale/ Rger# The 1n2nown Virginia Woolf. Cam%ridge# Cam%ridge Uni!ersit" Aress/ 177@/ pp+27?85+
Kathmann 6
In 172@/ Virginia's friend Vita Sa).!ille?*est e0plained her frigidit" (ith a simple %ut strng
a!ersin t male dminatin+
21
It (as (ith Sa).!ille?*est that Virginia stensi%l" had a l!e affair
!er a perid f fur "ears/ %eginning in 172E+ Virginia (as attra)ted t her persnalit" and/ mre
nta%l" s/ t her %eaut"+ 'here (as a ph"si)al attra)tin that had nt %een arti)ulated %" *lf
%efre+ 'his l!e affair (ith Sa).!ille?*est/ h(e!er/ did nt affe)t Virginia's l!e fr Lenard+
22
*ith Lenard/ she funded the 2garth Aress in 1717/ ena%ling %th f them t pu%lish their
(n (ritings dire)tl" and (ith the mst pssi%le freedm+ 'he printing press pur)hase had %een
planned fr a lng time and re4uired a finan)ial plan+ 'he *lfs (ere nt pr %ut Lenard
refused t pa" fr the press (ith his se)urities+ <espite this/ the t( (riters (ere mem%ers f the
upper?middle )lass; the" empl"ed ser!ants/ (ere (ell?edu)ated/ and relati!el" (ell?ff+ ,efre the
first 2garth pu%li)atin/ their in)me (as %ased n minimal earnings frm n!els/ n Lenard's
sa!ings/ and n Virginia's se!eral inheritan)es+
28
'he 2garth Aress did nt nl" pu%lish (ritings %"
the *lfs themsel!es %ut ther imprtant (r.s %" (riters su)h as '+S+ $lit/ 'lst" and
<st"e!s."+ Bami ,la). refers t 2garth as 9feminist?friendl"/: indi)ating that it (as
supprti!e f feminist (ritings/ amng ther things+
25
>s mentined a%!e/ the *lfs' marriage
(as !er" mu)h %ased n e4ualit"+ Lenard )an %e referred t as feminist gi!en the fa)t that he (as
)n!in)ed that men and (men shuld ha!e e4ual rights and that the suppressin f (men needed
t %e a%lished+
2E
'hrughut her life/ Virginia had al(a"s %een surrunded %" friends and
a)4uaintan)es supprting the (men's m!ement either a)ti!el" r !ia silent appr!al+
26

Hn 2@ Mar)h/ 1751/ at the age f fift"?nine/ Virginia *lf (rte a letter t her hus%and/
%eginning (ith the (rds 9<earest/ I feel )ertain I am ging mad again/:
27
alluding t her
assumptin that "et anther mani)?depressi!e phase (as n its (a"+ Hn this da" she (ent t a near?
%" ri!er and )mmitted sui)ide %" dr(ning/ (ith hea!" stnes in her p).ets t ma.e sure that this
attempt (uld %e her last+
#.# Virginia Woolf and the f-%ord
*lf's essa"s A Room of One's Own and Three Guineas are n(ada"s referred t as feminist
pie)es f (ritings+ Beither f them )an %e put entirel" int the )ategr" f nn?fi)tin/ thugh/
21 Cf+ ,ell/ Cuentin# Virginia Woolf) A *iogra'h(/ Vl+ II/ 1778/ p+6+
22 Cf+ i%id+/ pp+116?117+
28 Cf+ i%id+/ pp+8@?51+
25 ,la)./ Bami# Virginia Woolf as Feminist/ 2005/ p+101+
2E Cf+ i%id+/ p+157+
26 > list f feminist a)ti!ists in *lf's immediate as (ell as larger en!irnment )an %e fund in# ,la)./ Bami#
Virginia Woolf as Feminist/ 2005/ pp+8E?86+
Kathmann 7
%e)ause *lf managed t )reate nn?fi)tinal essa"s (ith fi)tinal elements+ 'he essa"s ha!e
narratrs; it is nt *lf herself spea.ing (ith her (n !i)e+ 2(e!er/ the narratrs resem%le the
authr t a great e0tent and the feminist !ie(s presented )nfrm (ith thse f *lf herself+
2@
2er
nephe( and %igrapher Cuentin ,ell (uld later sa" that 9in A Room of One's Own ne hears
Virginia spea.ing/:
27
meaning that the ideas presented refle)t her (n thughts n the matter+ 'his
is (h"/ in the fll(ing and fr the sa.e f reada%ilit"/ I refer t 9*lf: mre s than t 9the
narratr:/ unless it is imprtant t ma.e that distin)tin in the respe)ti!e )nte0t+
In Three Guineas/ *lf e0pli)itl" )alls fr the destru)tin f the (rd feminism as/ t her/ it
is n lnger f an" use#
Let us in!ent a ne( )eremn" fr this ne( ))asin+ *hat mre fitting than t destr" an ld (rd/ a !i)ius
and )rrupt (rd that has dne mu)h harm in its da" and is n( %slete= 'he (rd 9feminist: is the (rd
indi)ated+ 'hat (rd/ a))rding t the di)tinar"/ means 9ne (h )hampins the rights f (men+: Sin)e
the nl" right/ the right t earn a li!ing/ has %een (n/ the (rd n lnger has a meaning+ >nd a (rd
(ithut a meaning is a dead (rd/ a )rrupt (rd+
80
' feminist and nn?feminist readers ali.e tda"/ this statement sunds )"ni)al/ espe)iall"
)nsidering that *lf is generall" ass)iated (ith feminist literar" (riting+ 2(e!er/ )"ni)ism
(as nt intended as the fll(ing remar.s %" *lf n the terms feminism and feminist (ill sh(+
*lf's a!ersin t these (rds and the meanings she ass)iated (ith them (ere genuine+ 'he right
she thught (as the mst imprtant right t %e a)hie!ed %" (men had su))essfull" %een fught
fr+ 'hereti)all"/ (men n( had the same pprtunities as men+ In realit"/ r in pra)ti)e/ that is/
this (as nt the )ase and/ sme(hat parad0i)all"/ this is e0a)tl" (hat *lf )riti)i3es in Three
Guineas+ She (as (ell a(are f the nging suppressin f (men+ *men earned )nsidera%l"
less mne" (hen the" (r.ed in the same psitins as men/ i+e+ if the" a)tuall" happened t !e in
the same psitin as men+ $!en thugh the prfessins (ere n( pen fr men and (men ali.e/
(men (ere still dis)riminated against in mst fields f (r.+ S (h" did *lf still thin. that the
(rd feminism (as %slete (hen at the same time she .ne( that men and (men (ere nt e4ual
in realit"= 'he reasn fr her statement is simple# 2er definitin f feminism (as )nfined t the
la( alne/ it seems+ &eminism is ther"/ and/ thereti)all"/ (men n( had the same rights as men+
'he" (ere e4ual %efre the la(+ ' *lf/ it (as still imprtant t fight patriar)h" %ut she did nt
)all this underta.ing an issue f feminism+ 'he narr( definitin f feminism as 9ne (h
)hampins the rights f (men: re4uired a ne( (rd des)ri%ing (hat had t %e dne fr e4ualit"'s
sa.e in pra)ti)e after the la( had esta%lished e4ualit"+ *lf e!en ges as far as t refer t the (rd
2@ Cf+ ,la)./ Bami# Virginia Woolf as Feminist/ 2005/ pp+77?@0+
80 *lf/ Virginia# Three Guineas/ 1758/ p+1@5+
Kathmann @
in 4uestin as a destru)ti!e term that is 9!i)ius/: indi)ating that the (rd alne )aused a lt f
negati!e )mmentar" (here!er it appeared+ 'he term is a la%el and la%els 9.ill and )nstri)t+:
81
It
separates men and (men %e)ause men tend t feel e0)luded %" it+ 'he authr Bami ,la). )laims
that 9*lf )ntri%uted t !ie(s f herself as Lanti?feministM and als/ unfrtunatel"/ helped t
dis)redit the .e" term itself+:
82
Irni)all"/ *lf's statements )ntri%uted t the negati!e
)nntatin f the (rd feminism (hile she still argued !ehementl" fr the emp(erment f
(men+ It is d)umented that she (as mu)h in!l!ed in the *men's C?perati!e Kuild/ 9a ma1r
suffrage and refrm rgani3atin/: !er a perid f t(ent" "ears/ starting in 1718+
88
&r *lf/
fighting fr (men's emp(erment and simultaneusl" demanding the destru)tin f the term
feminism (as nt a )ntradi)tin+ 'his )an nl" %e understd %" ta.ing int )nsideratin her
persnal narr( definitin f the term/ (hi)h (as a 1uridi)al gal that had %een rea)hed and/
a))rding t *lf/ lst its meaning in )nse4uen)e+
Three Guineas (as pu%lished in 178@ %ut the re1e)tin f the (rd feminism (as nt ne( t
*lf+ >s earl" as in 1725/ she had stated that she (as nt a feminist an" mre/ thus impl"ing that
at ne pint in her past she did see herself as su)h+
85
$ight "ears %efre/ in -anuar" 1716/ she (rte
a letter t the feminist Margaret Lle(el"n <a!ies/ sa"ing that she (uld 9%e)me steadil" mre
feminist: due t reading the ne(s a%ut the (ar/ (hi)h she lin.ed t mas)ulinit" and patriar)hal
stru)tures+
8E
'he *lf s)hlar ,la). defines her feminism as fll(s#
LNM LMocial feminism/ %ased n (men's differen)es frm men/ is deri!ed frm (men's distin)ti!e
e0perien)e and )hara)teristi)s+ 'he gal is mre than 1ust e4ualit" r e4ual treatment+ Virginia *lf %elngs
amng the s)ial feminists/ %e)ause f her !alri3atin f (men's 9L)i!ili3atinM: as a %asis fr s)ial and
pliti)al transfrmatin+
86
'he nl" time *lf empl"s the term feminist in A Room of One's Own is (hen she 4utes a man
(h refers t Re%e))a *est as an 9arrant feminist L(hM sa"s that men are sn%sL+M:
87
*hat fll(s
is *lf defending *est %" sa"ing that she might ha!e %een right in her assumptin+ *hat remains
is the negati!e )nntatin f the (rd 'feminist'+ 'he man 4uted %" *lf uses it as an insult and
*lf des nt ma.e an effrt t defend it+ B(here else des the term appear in the essa" itself; it
)an nl" %e fund in sme intrdu)tins f mre re)ent editins+ In the 2001 Vintage editin/
2ermine Lee intrdu)es the essa" as fll(s# 9A Room of One's Own is pr%a%l" the mst
81 *lf/ Virginia# Three Guineas/ 1758/ p+2E0+
88 I%id+/ pp+8@?87+
85 Cf+ *lf/ Virginia# The %iar( of Virginia Woolf, Vl+ 2+ $d+ >nne Hli!ier ,ell+ Lndn# 2garth Aress/ 177@/ p+81@+
8E ,la)./ Bami# Virginia Woolf as Feminist/ 2005/ p+17+
86 I%id+/ p+10+
87 *lf/ Virginia# A Room of One's Own/ 1757/ p+E8+
Kathmann 7
influential feminist essa" f the t(entieth )entur"+:
8@
'he (man (h (anted t destr" the (rd
feminism is n( )nsidered an influential feminist+ Hn anther ))asin/ namel" ne da" %efre the
essa"'s pu%li)atin/ *lf nted in her diar"# 9I fre)ast/ then/ that I shall get n )riti)ism/ e0)ept f
the e!asi!e 1)ular .ind LNM; that the press (ill %e .ind F tal. f its )harm/ F sprightiness; als I
shall %e atta).ed fr a feminist L+++M+ I am afraid it (ill nt %e ta.en seriusl"+:
87
'he diar" entr"
sh(s that nt nl" *lf herself had an a!ersin t the f?(rd+ 2er )riti)s used it as an insulting
term (ith a negati!e )nntatin as (ell; it ser!ed them as a (eapn+ 'hat/ at least/ (as (hat *lf
e0pe)ted in the re!ie(s that (ere t %e (ritten; %eing referred t as a feminist (as her fear+
'he re!ie(s/ h(e!er/ (ere mstl" psiti!e+ Bt nl" the )riti)s %ut als *lf's )lse
friends (ere mainl" in fa!r f the (r.+ >part frm the )riti)al su))ess/ the essa" (as a finan)ial
su))ess as (ell+
50
Three Guineas sld e4uall" (ell %ut (as less ppular amng )riti)s+ *lf
re)ei!ed appre)iati!e letters mstl" frm (men %ut at the same time/ the friends )lsest t her
remained silent r )riti)al+
51
$!en thugh *lf had e0pe)ted negati!e re!ie(s and harsh rea)tins
t Three Guineas ? 9I'm ging t %e %eaten/ I'm ging t %e laughed at/ I'm ging t %e held up t
s)rn and ridi)ule:
52
? she (as still disappinted %" her friends' nging silen)e+
58

#.& Which feminist to$ics %as Woolf most outs$o'en about(
&eminism ta.es a lt f different dire)tins and peple fighting fr (men's rights %!iusl" d nt
all put emphasis n the same tpi)s+ Li.e(ise did *lf (rite mre e0tensi!el" and passinatel"
a%ut sme tpi)s (hile she negle)ted thers+ Hne f her )entral )n)erns (as the pr%lemati)
phallg)entri) rder f s)iet" as presented in %th A Room of One's Own and Three Guineas+ 'he
patriar)hal stru)tures ser!e as a (eapn f ppressin fr (men and suggest their inferirit"+
*lf's earlier essa" argues that the inferirit" f the female mind is a m"th )reated and en)uraged
espe)iall" %" men f influen)e+
> feminist 4uestin f great imprtan)e tda" is that f h( t manage %th mtherhd and
a )areer+ *lf hints at this diffi)ult pr%lem (hen she spea.s a%ut Mrs+ Setn/ the mther f
Mar" Setn/ (h is ne f the fur narratrs in A Room of One's Own+ *hat pssi%ilities (uld
smene li.e Mrs+ Setn ha!e had at the time= Culd she ha!e made mne"= 'he ans(er is "es/ %ut
8@ *lf/ Virginia# A Room of One's Own and Three Guineas/ Lndn# Vintage/ 2001/ !ii+
87 *lf/ Virginia# The %iar( of Virginia Woolf, Vl+ 8+ $d+ >nne Hli!ier ,ell+ Lndn# 2garth Aress/ 17@0/ p+262+
50 Cf+ ,ell/ Cuentin# Virginia Woolf) A *iogra'h(/ Vl+ II/ 1778/ p+1E0+
51 Cf+ i%id+/ pp+205?20E+
52 *lf/ Virginia# The %iar( of Virginia Woolf, Vl+ E+ $d+ >nne Hli!ier ,ell+ Lndn# 2garth Aress/ 17@5/ p+65+
58 Cf+ i%id+/ pp+167 F 178+
Kathmann 10
she )uld nt ha!e %een a mther at the same time+
55
'his issue is further dis)ussed in Three
Guineas (hen the n!elist Margaret Hliphant's life and its influen)e n her (r. are presented+
*lf pints ut that Hliphant had t sell 9her %rain/ her !er" admira%le %rain/ prstituted her
)ulture and ensla!ed her intelle)tual li%ert": as she had t (rite (hat (uld %e mar.eta%le in rder
t feed her )hildren and ena%le them t get a gd edu)atin+
5E

>nther )urrent tpi) t %e fund in *lf's (ritings is that f the se0es' une4ual pa" fr the
same (r./ (hi)h tda" is )alled the gender pa" gap+ *lf )mpares the psitins men and
(men ha!e in )hur)h and %ser!es that e!en thugh sme psitins (ere !er" similar/ re4uiring
similar respnsi%ilities and attentins that is/ the pa" gap (as tremendus+
56
'he same )riti)ism
)n)erns the une4ual pa" in the )i!il ser!i)e# 9It is true that (men )i!il ser!ants deser!e t %e paid
as mu)h as men; %ut it is als true that the" are nt paid as mu)h as men+:
57
&urthermre/ *lf nti)es the ine4ualities ))urring %et(een the se0es in higher ran.s/
(hi)h is n( referred t as the glass )eiling in e)nmi)s+ 'hus/ men are far mre ften represented
in higher psitins than (men regardless f the thereti)al pening f these higher prfessins t
(men+ *lf e0plains this disparit" as resulting frm the la). f suffi)ient edu)atin that (men
still ha!e t )pe (ith+ Instead f ging t uni!ersit" li.e their %rthers/ the" are fr)ed t sta" at
hme t ta.e )are f the famil"+
5@

'he fa)t that an insuffi)ient edu)atin fr (men leads t a !er" narr( spe)trum f
pprtunities is a re)urrent theme in %th f *lf's essa"s+ It is regarded as the fundatin f an
independent life+ In Three Guineas/ *lf demands that ne( (men's )lleges %e funded and that
thse )lleges re1e)t the )urri)ula esta%lished %" men/ the reasn %eing that the" )annt pssi%l"
represent the )ntents and means that are f !alue and interest fr (men+
57
>t this pint she
famusl" lin.s patriar)h" t (ar/ thus )ntradi)ting pa)ifism and men's dminan)e+
E0

#.) Women's rights and feminism in *ngland at the beginning of the #+
th
centur,
>t the %eginning f the 20
th
)entur"/ (men in $ngland (ere far frm %eing s)iall" r legall"
e4ual t men+ *men frm the (r.ing )lass and the middle )lass (r.ed predminantl" in the
fields f tea)hing and nursing/ (hereas it (as s)iall" nt a))epta%le fr upper middle )lass and
55 Cf+ *lf/ Virginia# A Room of One's Own/ 1757/ p+88+
5E *lf/ Virginia# Three Guineas/ 1758/ p+166+
56 Cf+ i%id+/ p+22E+
57 I%id+/ p+7E+
5@ Cf+ i%id+/ pp+@6?70+
57 Cf+ i%id+/ pp+61?68+
E0 Cf+ i%id+/ pp+77?7@+
Kathmann 11
upper )lass (men t (r. fr pa" at all+ Instead/ the" (r.ed !luntaril" fr rgani3atins and
)harities and remained e)nmi)all" dependent n their hus%ands+
E1
Arfessins f higher ran. in
the )i!il ser!i)e (ere nt pened fr (men until 1717+ *ith the Se0 <is4ualifi)atin IRem!alJ
>)t (men (ere gi!en the right t enter su)h upper ran.s %ut at the same time this stensi%l"
e4uali3ing right did nt in)lude the right t e4ual pa"/ as (men (h (ere t (r. in the upper
ran.s f the )i!il ser!i)e (ere nt granted the same pa" as men in the same psitin+
E2
It t.
anther fift" "ears until the $4ual Aa" >)t (as intrdu)ed in 1770+
E8

Starting at the end f the 17
th
)entur"/ the num%er f (men's rgani3atins (as in)reasing
thugh+ *men frmed grups and thus 1ined a feminist m!ement that %e)ame larger and larger+
In the 1780s/ the rgani3atins )unted a ttal f mre than t( millin mem%ers/ a rapid
de!elpment pr!ing that (men (ere mre than eager t a)hie!e in)lusin+
E5
Aliti)all"/ (men
had %een e0)luded until 171@/ e!en thugh -hn Stuart Mill tried t gi!e (men the !te/ and
failed/ as earl" as in 1@66+
EE
&inall"/ in 171@/ the Representatin f the Aeple >)t (as intrdu)ed+
>ll men !er the age f t(ent"?ne (ere granted the right t !te+ 2(e!er/ the enfran)hisement f
(men (as restri)ted+ *men had t %e thirt" "ears f age and/ in additin t that/ the" had t
pr!e land (nership/ r an in)me f at least OE per "ear+ 'his restri)tin "et again e0)luded a
great num%er f (men/ espe)iall" thse f the (r.ing )lass+
E6
Hne de)ade later/ these restri)tins
(ere a%lished# 'he 172@ $4ual &ran)hise >)t ena%led (men t !te at the age f t(ent"?ne
(ithut an" further restri)tins+
E7
*ith these imprtant ne( la(s/ (men (ere gi!en mre pprtunities than e!er %efre/
thereti)all"/ that is+ $0emplar" statisti)s sh( that there )an %e grss differen)es %et(een ther"
and pra)ti)e# 9," 1711/ (men made up nl" 6 per )ent f the higher prfessins/ a prprtin
(hi)h had risen nl" t @ per )ent %" 17E1+:
E@
," 9higher prfessins/: the authr means
prfessins utside the )i!il ser!i)e+ Arfessins (ere legall" pen t (men %ut the la( did nt
prte)t (men frm ther .inds f se0 dis)riminatin+
E1 'hane/ Aat# 9'he S)ial/ $)nmi) and Aliti)al Status f *men+: 34
th
&entur( *ritain) #conomic, ocial and
&ultural &hange. $d+ Aaul -hnsn+ Lndn and Be( Gr.# Lngman/ 1775/ pp+7@?101+
E2 Cf+ Mntgmer"/ &ina >+# Women's Rights. truggles and Feminism in *ritain c.5664-5764. Man)hester and Be(
Gr.# Man)hester Uni!ersit" Aress/ 2006/ pp+28?25+
E8 Cf+ i%id+/ pp+80?80+
E5 Cf+ i%id+/ pp+1@7?1@@+
EE Cf+ i%id+/ p+1E5+
E6 Cf+ Sh(alter/ $laine# A -iterature of Their Own, 1777/ p+82# 'he fa)t that (men (ere granted the !te at all
suppsedl" resulted frm (men's de!tin and strengths during *rld *ar I+ 'he !te ser!ed as a re(ard fr their
effrts+
E7 Cf+ Mntgmer"/ &ina >+# Women's Rights, 2006/ p+11+
E@ 'hane/ Aat# 9'he S)ial/ $)nmi) and Aliti)al Status f *men+: 1775/ p+100+
Kathmann 12
& The theor, of se-ual difference.s
&.! /osi 0raidotti and her model of the three le1els of se-ual difference.s
Rsi ,raidtti is a representati!e f the ther" f se0ual differen)e; in 9Se0ual <ifferen)e as a
Bmadi) Aliti)al Ar1e)t:
E7
she starts ut %" mentining the histr" f differen)e in $urpe and the
negati!e )nntatin the term has as it is affli)ted (ith e0)lusin+ It is f great imprtan)e t her 9t
thin. thrugh differen)e+:
60
,raidtti des)ri%es herself as a nmad and ad!ertises nmadism nt as a
ph"si)al (a" f m!ing %ut as m!ing %et(een entren)hed dis)urses and 4uestining as (ell as
)nne)ting them+ 'he nmadi) )nditin is e0plained as the de)mpsitin f said dis)urses+
61
>s
the title f ,raidtti's essa" suggests/ nmadism t her is lin.ed (ith the ther" and thin.ing f
se0ual differen)e/ (hi)h means that esta%lished dis)urses are re)nsidered in the light f this
feminist thereti)al idea+
,raidtti e0pli)itl" )riti)i3es gender studies %" sa"ing that gender assumes the s"mmetr" f
the se0es %" not f)using n (men's studies+ Men's studies are in)luded/ the f)us shifts a(a" and
thus )hanges+ 'his s"mmetr" f the se0es is des)ri%ed as an 9illusin: as the se0es are histri)all"
diss"mmetri)al+
62
$!en thugh gender therists D li.e se0ual differen)e therists D are in fa!r f
a%lishing the patriar)hal stru)tures alng (ith the steret"pi)al rles f men and (men that ha!e
e!l!ed frm this patriar)h"/ their means are different+ 'he" ad!)ate andrg"n" and there%" re1e)t
the ntin f the se0es+ 'his idea is 4uestined %e)ause a female feminist su%1e)t has ne!er e0isted
as an independent and e4ual )unterpart t the male su%1e)t and )an thus nt %e re1e)ted in the first
pla)e+ > re1e)tin (uld lea!e (men %ehind as the e!er inferir se0+ ' se0ual differen)e therists
as ,raidtti/ andrg"n" )annt %e the slutin sin)e this (uld mst li.el" mean that (men (uld
adpt mas)uline mdes f thught %e)ause that mde is the predminant and .n(n ne+ >
feminine mde f thught is nt )mmn sin)e it has ne!er %een all(ed t %e esta%lished t the
fullest+
68
'he means f the se0ual differen)e therists t a%lish patriar)hal stru)tures are t
emp(er (men %" strngl" en)uraging female identities+
>))rding t ,raidtti/ the *estern (rld is dminated %" a phallg)entri) s"stem in (hi)h
men and (men are )ulturall" )nstru)ted in an as"mmetri)al (a"+ Men are trans)endent and
(men are immanent+ $!entuall"/ this )ir)umstan)e led t the de!elpment f the ther" f se$ual
difference/ (here the female su%1e)t needs t %e refrmulated+
65
'he term 9female feminist su%1e)t:
implies autnm" and self?determinatin/ and suggests that (men as female feminist su%1e)ts are
E7 In ,raidtti/ Rsi# Nomadic u!"ects/ 1775+
60 I%id+/ p+157+
61 I%id+/ p+E+
62 I%id+/ p+1E1+
68 Cf+ i%id/ p+1E8+
65 Cf+ i%id+/ p+1E2?1E8+
Kathmann 18
a relati!el" ne( manifestatin+
6E
'hus/ female feminist su%1e)ts ha!e nt e0isted fr a lng time/
(hereas (men as female su%1e)ts/ defined as the inferir ther and as su)h nt reall" su%1e)ts %ut
%1e)ts/ ha!e pre!ailed in the past+ ,raidtti uses the term t refer t all (men tda"+ *hen she
)laims that there is a 9need t re)de r rename the female feminist su%1e)t nt as "et anther
s!ereign/ hierar)hi)al/ and e0)lusinar" su%1e)t %ut rather as a multiple/ pen?ended/
inter)nne)ted entit"/:
66
she means that the ld image f (men is %slete and re4uires re)ding
in rder t !ecome a female feminist su%1e)t in the first pla)e+ 'he idea f a!iding the frmulatin
f anther hierar)hi)al su%1e)t (ill %e pushed t an e0treme that (ill %e dealt (ith later in the te0t+
It is imprtant t esta%lish a female feminist su%1e)t that is e4ual/ respnsi!e/ and in fa!r f its
differen)es+ Male and female su%1e)ts are )nsidered as )unterparts in a dualisti) s"stem f se0ual
differen)e/ in (hi)h %th se0es/genders e0ist and are e4ual+
,raidtti pr)eeds t ela%rate n the 9ne( )mple0 feminist su%1e)ti!it"/:
67
her emphasis
%eing n the (man's )mple0it" as ppsed t a narr( esta%lished steret"pe+ She )reates three
le!els f se0ual differen)e# <ifferen)es %et(een men and (men/ differen)es amng (men/ and
differen)es (ithin ea)h (man+
6@
,raidtti's main idea is nt that f reinfr)ing a %inar" s"stem f
the se0es rather than pinting ut the )mple0it" that is as mu)h inherent in (manhd as it is in
manhd+ 2er three le!els f se0ual differen)e 9in!l!eL+++M %th the )riti4ue f e0isting definitins
and representatins f (men and als the )reatin f ne( images f female su%1e)ti!it"+:
67
'he first le!el is )n)erned (ith man as su%1e)t and (man as the ther/ (hereas the (man
is nt present inside the s"stem f phallg)entrism %e)ause the man as the 9uni!ersal ntin f the
su%1e)t:
70
is the nl" .ind f su%1e)ti!it" pssi%le+ 'his first le!el f se0ual differen)e des nt
represent ,raidtti's ideal !ie( n the t( se0es %ut the traditinal )nser!ati!e !ie(/ (hi)h has
de!elped during the time f )mplete male dminan)e/ i+e+ the lng time that (men ha!e %een
a%sent as su%1e)ts in histr"+ 'he therist nl" aims at des)ri%ing the steret"pi)al images f the
differen)es that ha!e lng e0isted f men and (men+ ,raidtti underlines that her pr1e)t f the
three le!els f se0ual differen)e aims at em%ra)ing differen)es and at emphasi3ing female strengths
instead f ha!ing (men adapt t a steret"pi)all" mas)uline (a" f thin.ing+ *men shuld nt
ha!e t a))mmdate themsel!es t men and imitate their %eha!ir %ut instead the" shuld tr" 9t
ela%rate alternati!e frms f female su%1e)ti!it"/ in a pr)ess that is als des)ri%ed as asserting the
6E Cf+ ,raidtti/ Rsi# Nomadic u!"ects/ 1775/ p+8+
66 I%id+/ p+1E@+
67 I%id+/ p+1E@+
6@ Cf+ i%id+/ pp+1E7/ 162/ 16E+
67 I%id+/ p+1E@+
70 I%id+/ p+1E7/ ta%le 1+
Kathmann 15
psiti!it" f se0ual differen)e:+
71
If the" 1ust imitated male %eha!ir the" (uld nl" (ear
mas)uline mas.s and hide their female sel!es/ (hi)h is nt )n)mitant (ith the agenda f se0ual
differen)e therists+ 'he ,elgian se0ual differen)e therist Lu)e Irigara"/ (h is f great influen)e
t ,raidtti/ e!en ges as far as t sa" that men (uld )ertainl" %enefit frm adpting
steret"pi)all" female )hara)teristi)s+
72
'he se0ual differen)es ,raidtti prtra"s in her mdel's first
le!el is the result f feminist %ser!atins f the di)htm" f the se0es+ 'he differen)es presented
in this first ta%le are t %e understd as )riti)ism t(ards patriar)hal stru)tures in (hi)h (men
(ere )nfined t the image men )reated f them+ 'he imprtan)e f this le!el shuld nt %e
underestimated; 9the ne( is )reated %" re!isiting and %urning up the ld+:
78

'he se)nd le!el presents the differen)es amng (men/ that is thse f the (men as the
ther Ias ppsed t male su%1e)ti!it"J and real?life (men+ It %e)mes )lear that the woman as the
other is signifi)antl" less )mple0 than (hat ,raidtti refers t as real-life women/ (h ha!e
di!erse identities/ e0perien)es/ and %a).grunds+ 'he (man as the ther is a 9)ultural imag:
(hereas 9real (men LareM agents f )hange+:
75
'his distin)tin is essential fr the ther" f se0ual
differen)e %e)ause it as)ertains that (men are nt su%1e)ted t generali3atins %ut re)gni3ed as
di!erse human %eings/ (hi)h is/ t put it simpl"/ realit"/ as (men are indeed nt all the same+
&eminism )n)erns all (men %ut nt all (men are the same r e4uall" )n)erned/ and thus their
different standpints ha!e t %e heard in rder t all( emp(erment fr (men f all ethni)ities/
ages/ )lasses/ et)+# 9>ttentin t the situated as ppsed t the uni!ersalisti) nature f statements is
the .e" idea+:
7E
<epending n (here a (man is situated/ her e0perien)es/ )n)erns/ and interests
(ill %e different frm thse f ther (men+ Kenerali3atins need t %e a!ided+ >t this pint/
,raidtti )uld als %e said t (el)me the different thereti)al pints f !ie(s (ithin the feminist
studies as she underlines the imprtan)e f ta.ing di!ersit" in general int strng )nsideratin+ 'he
>ngl?>meri)an grup represents feminists situated differentl" than Cntinental feminists/ thus
leading t different pinins n h( (men's emp(erment shall %e a)hie!ed+
'he third le!el pses the differen)es (ithin ea)h (man as a female feminist su%1e)t+
Multipli)it" des nt nl" e0ist amng (men %ut (ithin ea)h (man as (ell; )nstant ne(
impressins frm an e!er?)hanging (e% f e0perien)es+ 'he su%1e)t's identit" in parti)ular is %eing
a))entuated#
Identit" L+++M is a pla" f multiple/ fra)tured aspe)ts f the self; it is relatinal/ in that it re4uires a %nd t the
71 ,raidtti/ Rsi# Nomadic u!"ects/ 1775/ p+161+
72 Cf+ Irigara"/ Lu)e# 8e, Tu, Nous. Aaris# ,ernard Krasset/ 1770/ p+7@+
75 I%id+/ p+165+
7E I%id+/ p+168+
Kathmann 1E
9ther:; it is retrspe)ti!e/ in that it is fi0ed thrugh memries and re)lle)tins/ in a genealgi)al pr)ess+
Last/ %ut nt least/ identit" is made f su))essi!e identifi)atins/ that is t sa" un)ns)ius internali3ed
images that es)ape ratinal )ntrl+
76
Identit" is )mple0 and t ,raidtti it is lin.ed hea!il" (ith the un)ns)ius/ (hi)h )annt %e
)ntrlled+ 'he therist prmtes the signifi)an)e f ta.ing inner )nfli)ts (ith ease and a sense f
humr/ and all(s and 1ustifies )ntradi)tr" thughts (ithin ea)h female feminist su%1e)t+
77
'his is
(here the term nmadism %e)mes imprtant as 9!ertiginus prgressin t(ard de)nstru)ting
identit"; mle)ularisatin f the self+:
7@
Hne )uld argue that this is a mere des)riptin f a health"
and relati!el" %alan)ed indi!idual; ,raidtti's ideal is fr indi!iduals t %e)me nmads in the
philsphi) sense+
In )n)lusin/ female su%1e)ti!it" needs t %e refrmulated/ r rather frmulated in the first
pla)e/ and the generi) images f (men re4uire re)nditining+ 'his is nt a surprising %ttm line
%ut ,raidtti ges ne step further %" sa"ing that se0ual differen)e/s shuld %e pushed t an
e0treme e!en if that results in repetitin regarding the se0uali3atin f (men and men# 9I ha!e
pted fr the e0treme affirmatin f se0ed identit" as a (a" f re!ersing the attri%utin f
differen)es in a hierar)hi)al mde+ 'his e0treme affirmatin f se0ual differen)e ma" lead t
repetitin/ %ut the )ru)ial fa)tr here is that it emp(ers (men t a)t+:
77
'he f)us here lies in
emphasi3ing differen)es/ resulting in di!ersit" nt nl" )n)erning se0 %ut ther aspe)ts that are
essential t the female identit"+
'he therist's slutin t the )urrent situatin D (men are still suppressed in !arius (a"s D
and the .e" fr )hange is t stud" and )riti)all" anal"3e the steret"pi)al/ ld image f the gender
rles as presented in her se0ual differen)e le!el ne+ 'his is f great imprtan)e s as t )reate a
ne( and emp(ered image f the female feminist su%1e)t/ (hi)h means an a)tual autnmus
female feminist su%1e)t in the first pla)e as there (as n self?determined female feminist su%1e)t in
the past+
@0
'he imprtan)e f the three presented le!els is stressed as these le!els are said t )!er
all the different la"ers f the female feminist su%1e)t's identit"; 9transfrmatin )an nl" %e
a)hie!ed thrugh de?essentiali3ed em%diment r strategi)all" re?essentiali3ed em%diment# %"
wor2ing through the multila"ered stru)tures f ne's em%died self+:
@1
Le!el ne presents h(
(men (ere and still are ften seen/ le!el t( des)ri%es h( that image )mes int pla" in realit"/
and le!el three sh(s the numerus pssi%ilities and multipli)ities f ea)h indi!idual (man+
@2
77 Cf+ i%id++
7@ I%id+/ p+16+
77 I%id+/ p+167+
@0 Cf+ i%id+/ pp+167?171+
@1 I%id+/ p+171+
@2 'he three le!els f se0ual differen)e des)ri%ed %" ,raidtti in sme (a"s resem%le the three phases the philspher
Kathmann 16
&.# 0raidotti on Woolf
In 9'he Su%1e)t in &eminism:/ an essa" ser!ing as an inaugural address/ ,raidtti underlines the
imprtan)e f edu)atin; a )nne)tin is made %et(een edu)atin and 9the %u"ant )nfiden)e
displa"ed %" "unger (men+:
@8
She e0pli)itl" dra(s a line %et(een Virginia *lf's (r.s and
)ntemprar" feminism+ *lf's struggles/ as des)ri%ed in A Room of One's Own and Three
Guineas as (ell as in man" f her n!els/ ser!e (men f tda" as a memr" f the past and f the
histr" f feminism+ 'he ,ritish authr's e0perien)es ser!e t raise tda"'s feminists' a(areness f
(hat life fr (men (as li.e in the past and (hat dire)tin it t. until tda"/ %" means f feminist
pra)ti)es+ ,raidtti )alls this pr)ess feminist genealg"# 9Kenealgies are pliti)all" infrmed
)untermemries/ (hi)h .eep us )nne)ted t the e0perien)es and the spea.ing !i)es f sme f
the (men (hse resistan)e is fr us a sur)e f supprt and inspiratin+:
@5
Cnsidering the
4uantit" and 4ualit" f referen)es t *lf in Nomadic u!"ects as (ell as in /atterns of
%issonance/ the therist )learl" sees *lf as a sur)e f inspiratin+ In ne f her essa"s/ she e!en
names Three Guineas as ne f the )hief influen)es n her %e)ming a feminist+
@E
,raidtti
manages t present a helpful lin. %et(een feminist ther" and literature; she underlines the
imprtan)e f a female (riter li.e *lf at a time (hen (men (ere nt suppsed t %e (riters
and espe)iall" )riti)al essa"ists+
&.& A$$l,ing 0raidotti to Woolf: To %hat e-tent can feminist thoughts of difference be found
in Woolf's essa,s(
In Virginia *lf's 1727 essa" A Room of One's Own the )riti)ism f the traditinal patriar)hal
%inar" s"stem f the se0es is u%i4uitus frm the !er" %eginning+ *hen the female narratr tries t
)rss the la(n n a uni!ersit" )ampus/ a male guard tells her ff+ 'he s)ene is )mmented n as
fll(s# 9Instin)t rather than reasn )ame t m" help; he (as a ,eadle
@6
; I (as a (man+ 'his (as
the turf; there (as the path+ Hnl" the &ell(s and S)hlars are all(ed here; the gra!el is the pla)e
and feminist therist Lu)e Irigara" des)ri%es as the stages f her IIrigara"'sJ (r.# 9'hus/ three phases# the first a
)riti4ue/ "u might sa"/ f the aut?mn?)entrism f the *estern su%1e)t; the se)nd/ h( t define a se)nd
su%1e)t; and the third phase/ h( t define a relatinship/ a philsph"/ an ethi)/ a relatinship %et(een t( different
su%1e)ts+9 IIrigara"/ Lu)e# P'-e?Lu)e Irigara"'# > Meeting (ith Lu)e Irigara"+P ," $li3a%eth 2irsh and Kar" >+
Hlsn+ 'rans+ $li3a%eth 2irsh and KaQtan ,rultte+ 8A& online+ 16+8 I177EJ/ p+855+J Irigara"'s first t( phases share
strng similarities (ith ,raidtti's first t( le!els f se0ual differen)e/ her third phase/ h(e!er/ differs entirel"+
,raidtti des nt fail t )riti)i3e Irigara"'s )hi)e f f)uses+ ICf+ ,raidtti/ Rsi# Nomadic u!"ects, 1775/ p+170+J
@8 ,raidtti/ Rsi# Nomadic u!"ects, 1775/ p+288+
@5 I%id+/ p+207+
@E Cf+ I%id+/ pp+152 F 282+
@6 >))rding t the H0frd $nglish <i)tinar"/ 9in the $nglish uni!ersities La ,eadleM Iat present )n!entinall"
spelLledM %edel/ ?ell/J LisM the name f )ertain ffi)ials/ frmerl" f t( ran.s distinguished as es4uire %edels and
"emen %edels/ ha!ing !arius fun)tins as e0e)uti!e ffi)ers f the Uni!ersit"+: In this )nte0t it is %!ius that
the ffi)er mentined %" *lf is f the male se0+
Kathmann 17
fr me+:
@7
Right at the utset *lf presents three dualisti) ppsitins# 'he %eadle as the man
)ntrar" t the (man; the turf )ntrar" t the un)mfrta%l" gra!eled path; the s)hlars )ntrar"
t *lf/ (h represents the (man as the unedu)ated se0+ 'hus/ %eing a man means %eing a%le t
m!e freel" and e!er"(here/ t )ut ne's (n path D (ith shrt?)uts !ia the la(n r %" (al.ing n
the gra!el D and t %e edu)ated+ > (man/ h(e!er/ sta"s immanent/ her ptins are limited/ she
m!es (ithin a )ertain defined spa)e D %e it in s)iet" r the huse itself D/ and she is mst
)ertainl" nt a s)hlar %ut remains little edu)ated r des nt re)ei!e an" edu)atin at all+ 'his is
the %inar" s"stem that *lf re)gni3ed and it almst )nfrms (ith Rsi ,raidtti's %ser!atins
in her first le!el f se0ual differen)es# 'he differen)es %et(een man as su%1e)t and (man as the
ther+ 'his is (hat *lf %ser!es n )ampus# 'he (man tries t distur% the rder and the man
re%u.es her in rder t .eep the esta%lished %inar" s"stem f the se0es ali!e/ alng (ith the
)hara)teristi)s that are ass)iated (ith this s"stem+
*lf dra(s a pi)ture f the se0es' status 4u in Kreat ,ritain f the 1720s; the (hle first
)hapter is de!ted t the fa)t that men and (men are separated in s)iet"+ 'his is des)ri%ed in a
ridi)uling manner (hen the narratr as.s the 4uestins# 9Still an hur remained %efre lun)hen/
and (hat (as ne t d= Strll n the mead(s= LSMit %" the ri!er=9
@@
'hese are a)ti!ities that are
e0pe)ted frm (men; the 9ne: *lf is referring t is the (man as the ther/ the immanent and
simple )reature+ 'his (man is nt suppsed t d an"thing that re4uires intelle)tual in!l!ement+
>dditinall"/ *lf )riti)i3es the fa)t that men put (men n pedestals (here the" are nl"
all(ed t d )ertain/ prefera%l" (manl" things+ In a man's imaginatin/ the female )reature
represents the perfe)t human %eing %ut in realit" the man is high a%!e the (man and his
superirit" is e!ident+ *lf des)ri%es this di)htm" as fll(s#
> !er" 4ueer/ )mpsite %eing thus emerges+ Imaginati!el"/ she is f the highest imprtan)e; pra)ti)all"/ she
is )mpletel" insignifi)ant+ She per!ades petr" frm )!er t )!er; she is all %ut a%sent frm histr"+ She
dminates the li!es f .ings and )n4uerrs in fi)tin; in fa)t she (as the sla!e f an" %" (hse parents
fr)ed a ring upn her finger+ Sme f the mst inspired (rds/ sme f the mst prfund thughts in
literature fall frm her lips; in real life she )uld hardl" read/ )uld s)ar)el" spell/ and (as the prpert" f her
hus%and+
@7

Cnse4uentl"/ the female %e)mes a%stra)t %th in fi)tin and in realit" as she is nt seen as an
indi!idual human %eing %ut rather as an image )reated %" men/ al(a"s in )ntrast (ith men/ and
stensi%l" endured and tlerated %" mst (men+
70
' put it (ith ,raidtti's terms/ it )an %e said
that male authrs prtra" (man as the other rather than real-life women as the" seem t %e either
@7 *lf/ Virginia# A Room of One's Own/ 1757/ p+7+
@@ I%id+/ p+18+
@7 I%id+/ p+66+
70 Cf+ i%id+/ p+125+
Kathmann 1@
una(are f (hat real?life (men are li.e r the" )hse t ignre them+
71
*man as the ther/ as an
ideali3ed figure/ is (hat man e0pe)ts/ (hereas real?life (men are altgether unseen and
unrepresented+ 'here is a grss disparit" %et(een the t(; men's fi)tin is nt met %" (men's
realities+ &urthermre/ *lf )riti)i3es the fa)t that (men in literature are t a great e0tent
presented %" men and nt %" (men# 92a!e "u an" ntin f h( man" %.s are (ritten a%ut
(men in the )urse f ne "ear= 2a!e "u an" ntin h( man" are (ritten %" men= >re "u
a(are that "u are/ perhaps/ the mst dis)ussed animal in the uni!erse=:
72
2ere/ (men are
des)ri%ed as animals rather than human %eings/ their inferirit" e!ident+ ,esides/ men are a)ti!e/
the" ha!e a !i)e (ith (hi)h the" dis)uss (men/ (hereas the female !i)e des nt e0ist/ as
(men are )nfined t passi!it" and remain unrepresented+ *lf's (rd )hi)e %e)mes e!en
mre )mprehensi%le (hen man's pri!ileges and fields f p(er are enumerated# 92is (as the
p(er and the mne" and the influen)e+ 2e (as the prprietr f the paper and its editr and su%?
editr+ 2e (as the &reign Se)retar" and the -udge+ LNM L2Me it is (h (ill a)4uit r )n!i)t the
murderer/ and hang him/ r let him g free+:
78
'his des)riptin is essentiall" (hat ,raidtti refers t
as man as su%1e)ti!it"/ i+e+ as the 9uni!ersal ntin f the su%1e)t+:
75
Maleness is presented as the
uni!ersal/ thus femininit" must %e the grssl" inferir part f the di)htm" man/(man+ Men are
mnipresent in the pu%li) sphere/ the s)ial rder is dependent n them alne as all de)isins are
made %" them+
>))rding t *lf/ (man's inferirit" is the result f man's fear f lsing his (n
superirit"#
*ith the e0)eptin f the fg he seemed t )ntrl e!er"thing+ Get he (as angr"+ I .ne( that he (as angr" %"
this t.en+ *hen I read (hat he (rte a%ut (men R I thught/ nt f (hat he (as sa"ing/ %ut f himself+
LNM Assi%l" (hen the prfessr insisted a little t emphati)all" upn the inferirit" f (men/ he (as
)n)erned nt (ith their inferirit"/ %ut (ith his (n superirit"+
7E
,raidtti pi).s up the ntin f (man's inferirit" as resulting frm man's (ish t %e superir in
her essa" 9'he Su%1e)t in &eminism:+ 2er (rding is nearl" the same as that f *lf and fr the
sa.e f )mparisn it is nt paraphrased %ut 4uted#
Misg"n" is nt an irratinal a)t f (man?hating %ut rather a stru)tural ne)essit"# it is a lgi)al step in the
pr)ess f )nstru)ting male identit" in ppsitin t D that is t sa"/ re1e)tin f D *man+ Cnse4uentl"
71 'here are al(a"s e0)eptins t the rule+ Artra"als f strng and )mple0 herines su)h as 2enri. I%sen's Bra in #t
%u22eh"em and 2edda in 9edda Ga!ler did f )urse e0ist at the time f the Mdern ,rea.thrugh/ %ut the"
remained t %e e0)eptins fr a lng time and fa)ed hea!" )riti)ism at the time f their pu%li)atins/stage
perfrman)es+
72 *lf/ Virginia# A Room of One's Own, 1757/ p+50+
78 I%id+/ pp+E0?E1+
75 ,raidtti/ Rsi# Nomadic u!"ects/ 1775/ p+1E7+
7E *lf/ Virginia# A Room of One's Own, 1757/ pp+E1?E2+
Kathmann 17
*man is )nne)ted t the patriar)h" %" negatin+ LNM 'he parad0 f %eing defined !( thers is that
(men end up %eing defined as thers; the" are represented as different?frm Man and this differen)e is
gi!en a negati!e !alue+ <ifferen)e is a mar. f inferirit"+
76
'he Italian's philsphi) remar.s )an easil" %e used as an e0planatin f the %ser!atins *lf has
made in literar" studies a%ut (men )mpsed %" men+ *hat ,raidtti )alls misg"n" in her
essa" is (hat is simpl" )alled anger in A Room of One's Own. Resentment is the starting pint/
stressing the differen)es %et(een man and (man is the e0e)utin f the male se0 t esta%lish
superirit"+ 'his similarit" %et(een the t( (riters is stri.ing as the t( 4utes )an %e put ne0t t
ea)h ther e!en thugh the" are si0t" "ears apart+ In 9'he Su%1e)t in &eminism:/ ,raidtti refers t
the a%!e 4ute %" *lf/ )alling her thughts n man's superirit" 9memra%le:
77
and thus
indi)ating that the )ntemprar" therist (as highl" inspired %" the n!elist's feminist %ser!atins+
'he surprising aspe)t here is that these ideas n the superirit" f the male are still as )urrent as t
ma.e their (a" int )ntemprar" feminist ther"+
Hne f the aspe)ts f the se0ual differen)e ther" is that (men shuld a!id %rr(ing
)ertain )hara)teristi)s t"pi)all" ass)iated (ith men in rder t a)hie!e female emp(erment+
$0amples f su)h mas)uline )hara)teristi)s are nt e0pli)itl" gi!en %ut emphasis is put n
frmulating a female identit" (ithut )p"ing the mnipresent male identit"+
7@
Instead f ad1usting
themsel!es t the patterns f a male?dminated (rld/ (men shuld esta%lish their (n patterns+
&rmulating a female identit" here means that (men shuld re)gni3e and respe)t their strengths+
>dpting male )hara)teristi)s and thus en)uraging these steret"pi)all" mas)uline mdes f
thught as %eing f a uni!ersal nature is nt helpful in the pr)ess f female emp(erment+ 'his
)entral idea f the ther" f se0ual differen)e )an als %e fund in Three Guineas. 'he essa"
)nsists f se!en (ritten letters/ ne f (hi)h is an ans(er t a letter frm a male?dminated anti?
(ar s)iet"+
77
'he s)iet" (uld li.e the letter's re)ipient t 1in the s)iet" and ma.e a dnatin in
rder t pre!ent (ar tgether+ 'his re4uest/ h(e!er/ is re1e)ted/ pre)isel" %e)ause f the fa)t that
said s)iet" is male?dminated# 9L'Mhe S)iet" f Hutsiders has the same ends as "ur s)iet" D
freedm/ e4ualit"/ pea)e; %ut L+++M it see.s t a)hie!e them %" the means that a different se0/ a
different traditin/ a different edu)atin/ and the different !alues (hi)h result frm thse differen)es
ha!e pla)ed (ithin ur rea)h+:
100
*hat is here referred t as the s)iet" f utsiders are (men/ f
)urse; the anti?(ar s)iet" )an %e referred t as s)iet" in general+ *men are utsiders as the" are
76 ,raidtti/ Rsi# Nomadic u!"ects/ 1775/ p+28E+
77 I%id++
7@ Cf+ i%id+/ p+160+
77 $!en thugh the essa"'s title suggests that there are nl" three letters/ Bami ,la). pints ut that 'hree Kuineas
)ntains t(el!e letters/ fi!e f them re)ei!ed and se!en f them (ritten+ Cf+ ,la)./ Bami# Virginia Woolf as
Feminist/ 2005/ pp+@6F70+
100 *lf/ Virginia# Three Guineas/ 1758/ p+206+
Kathmann 20
nt part f s)iet" as su)h; the" ha!e n influen)e+ 'hus/ the" frm their (n s)iet" (ith their (n
means %ased n their femininit" and their strengths+ $!en thugh their gals are the same it is
impssi%le t rea)h the gals (ith the same means+ -ining the men's anti?(ar s)iet" (uld %e
e4ui!alent t a))epting and/ e!entuall"/ adpting the male mdes f thught+ 'he (man/ (ith
presuma%l" different strengths/ (uld %e fr)ed t assimilate t man's (a" f (r.ing/ thus
negle)ting her (n strengths+ 'he man di)tates the means and the (man )pies them (ithut an"
further/ pssi%l" ne(/ intelle)tual input+ 2ere/ *lf )learl" demands (hat ,raidtti des)ri%es as
female emp(erment %" refrmulating female identit"+ > female su%1e)ti!it" needs t %e
)nstituted %efre (men )an parti)ipate as e4uall" respe)ted figures in s)iet"+ Bt nl" is the
gal the same/ %ut the means are/ t# Strengthening female )hara)teristi)s and emp(ering (men
%" refusing t adpt mas)uline mdes f thught+
,ut as a result the ans(er t "ur 4uestin must %e that (e )an %est help "u t pre!ent (ar nt %" repeating
"ur (rds and fll(ing "ur methds %ut %" finding ne( (rds and )reating ne( methds+ *e )an %est
help "u t pre!ent (ar nt %" 1ining "ur s)iet" %ut %" remaining utside "ur s)iet" %ut in )?peratin
(ith its aim+
101
>t this pint/ *lf's thin.ing e!identl" resem%les that f )ntemprar" se0ual differen)e therists+
<ifferen)es shuld %e a))entuated rather than denied and suppressed/ sin)e suppressin (uld nl"
en)urage male dminatin+ *ith regard t ,raidtti's three le!els f differen)es/ it )uld %e said
that *lf (ants t m!e a(a" frm the first le!el (here mas)ulinit" is the uni!ersal/ (hereas
femininit" is the ther/ a m!e (hi)h (as diffi)ult at the time+ 9'he anal"sis f the first le!el f
se0ual differen)e )ame t %e )hallenged nt nl" %e)ause f )hanging pliti)al and intelle)tual
)nte0ts %ut als %e)ause f re!lutins internal in the feminist m!ement itself+:
102
'his is
,raidtti/ e0plaining that le!el t( and three f her mdel f se0ual differen)e (ere %asi)all"
impssi%le t esta%lish and distri%ute D and %asi)all" un.n(n in the first pla)e D %efre )ertain
)hanges had ta.en pla)e+ 'hat is (hat %e)mes e!ident (hen reading *lf's essa"s# 'he ,ritish
authr (as sear)hing fr in?depth anal"ses f the )mple0 female %eing/ that is t sa" f an image
f (men that ges far %e"nd the woman as the other+ 'he re4uired )hanges ,raidtti tal.s a%ut
))urred mainl" after *lf's death/ (hi)h is (h" *lf had su)h diffi)ulties finding (hat she (as
l.ing fr/ namel" (men (riting fi)tin on (men as (men/ as ppsed t men (riting fi)tin
n (men/ r (men (riting fi)tin n (men %ut tr"ing t (rite as men+ Woman as the other as
in ,raidtti's mdel )an hardl" %e e0pe)ted t frmulate a detailed stud" f the female human
%eing+
Kathmann 21
LIMf (men stp %eing )nfined t the eternal 9ther: and LNM finall" gain the right t spea./ t theri3e/ t
!te/ t g t uni!ersit" D then it is nl" a 4uestin f time %efre the ld image f *man/ (hi)h (as
)reated (ithut )nsulting the e0perien)e f real?life (men/ (ill ha!e t %e repla)ed %" a mre ade4uate
ne+
108
'hese are ,raidtti's (rds+ 2(e!er/ the" des)ri%e Virginia *lf's struggles mre than thse f
mst f the (men tda"+
105
Unli.e ,raidtti and ther )ntemprar" feminist therists/ *lf and
the (men f her time had 1ust gained the right t !te D in Kreat ,ritain at least D and there (ere
still restri)tins regarding (men's admissins t uni!ersit"/ (hi)h is a )entral pint f )riti)ism in
A Room of One's Own as (ell as in Three Guineas+ *lf and her )ntempraries (ere stu). (ith
the 9ld image f *man:; the (riter (as a)ti!el" sear)hing fr a 9real?life: (man+ *hat she (as
l.ing fr in a (man is (hat )an %e fund in *lf herself+ 'he authr anal"3ed (manhd and
)riti)i3ed (hat she fund/ r rather/ (hat she did nt find %e)ause it did nt e0ist/ "et+
In A Room of One's Own *lf stresses the imprtan)e f differen)e %" sa"ing that 9LitM
(uld %e a thusand pities if (men (rte li.e men/ r li!ed li.e men/ r l.ed li.e men/ fr if
t( se0es are 4uite inade4uate/ )nsidering the !astness and !ariet" f the (rld/ h( shuld (e
manage (ith ne nl"= Hught nt edu)atin t %ring ut and frtif" the differen)es rather than the
similarities=:
10E
2ere/ nt nl" the )n)ept f differen)e is underlined %ut als the imprtan)e f
edu)atin fr e+er( human %eing+ *h" )p" men if there is s mu)h mre than the steret"pi)all"
mas)uline (a" f thin.ing and a)ting= *lf sees great ptential in female mdes f thught/ n)e
the" are utlined and respe)ted as e4ual; e4ual nt in the sense f the same %ut f same +alue+ 'he
4ute frm 1727 )uld as (ell ha!e %een frm an essa" %" ,raidtti; the t( essa"ists ha!e !er"
similar thughts )n)erning female emp(erment and h( t a)hie!e it+ *hen appl"ing ,raidtti's
mdel t *lf's 4ute/ again/ it %e)mes !er" )lear that *lf is see.ing an image f the (man
%e"nd the therist's first le!el f se0ual differen)e+ 2er ntin f 9similarities: is a )riti4ue f
(men ha!ing t ad1ust t the )hara)teristi)s f men/ f %e)ming similar t men/ (hi)h is the
)ru)ial pint# *men are e0pe)ted t ad1ust t men and %" n means !i)e !ersa+ Hn the ne hand/
*lf re)gni3es the differen)es %et(een the se0es %ut n the ther hand she is nt (illing t stp
there %ut demands that )hanges ta.e pla)e+
$!en thugh A Room of One's Own is predminantl" )n)erned (ith the tpi) f (men and
fi)tin/ it is impssi%le t dis)uss (men's rle in literature in islatin/ that is/ (ithut nting the
!erall situatin f (man in s)iet"+ *lf re)gni3es the rle f (men as mentined a%!e;
e4ualit" is nt gi!en/ (man is the ther+ 'hus/ her essa" des nt remain a (r. n (men and
108 ,raidtti/ Rsi# Nomadic u!"ects, 1775/ p+251+
105 2(e!er/ e!en n(ada"s sme )untries ha!e nt "et intrdu)ed the right t !te fr (men+ In sme parts f the
(rld/ (men tda" ha!e fe(er rights than (men in the *estern (rld had at the time f *lf+
10E *lf/ Virginia# A Room of One's Own/ 1757/ p+182+
Kathmann 22
fi)tin merel" %ut turns int a )riti)al nte n s)iet" and patriar)h"+ 2a!ing inherited fi!e hundred
punds a "ear frm an aunt/ the narratr states# 9I need nt flatter an" man; he has nthing t gi!e
me+:
106
'his senten)e is true in man" (a"s/ %!iusl" nt nl" )n)erning (riting+ > (man (ith
an in)me f her (n is independent/ she des nt ha!e t fll( the traditinal rle mdels f the
se0es and get married t a man/ %e)me a mther and huse.eeper/ and )nse4uentl" remain
nthing %ut the other+ She can d all f the a%!e %ut she is nt forced t d s+ *ith mne"/ her
pprtunities %e)me greater and mu)h mre di!erse+ 2en)e/ mne" als )hanges the di)htm" f
man/(man/ it all(s (men t thin. fr themsel!es# 9In shrt/ she need nt a)4uies)e; she )an
)riti)i3e+ >t last she is in pssessin f an influen)e that is disinterested+:
107
Hpinins are n lnger
%ased n (hat men thin.+
&rmulating pinins and in!estigating pliti)s t a)4uire a )ertain pint f !ie( is )ertainl"
ne imprtant step t(ards %e)ming a female feminist su%1e)t/ t put it (ith ,raidtti's (rds+
<es this mean that the pr)ess mentined a%!e is the (a" ut f patriar)h"= <es mne" alne
)hange e!er"thing= Is it reall" that eas"= Bt all (men inherited mne" as *lf did/ in fa)t the
num%er f (men (h (ere finan)iall" independent (as !er" limited+ Mne" )annt %e the
starting pint+ In rder t %rea. ut f this rder/ (men need t %e edu)ated and earn their (n
mne"/ the" ha!e t %e a%le t li!e independentl" f men+ 'hus/ nt mne"/ %ut the means t earn
mne" D hen)e edu)atin D is the starting pint fr (men t %e)me nt nl" (riters f fi)tin %ut
su%1e)ts as ppsed t %1e)ts in the first pla)e+
In 9'he Su%1e)t in &eminism:/ Rsi ,raidtti des nt fail t emphasi3e the imprtan)e f
edu)atin fr (men in a time (hen edu)atin is nt a 4uestin f se0 an"mre+ She e0pli)itl" puts
*lf's pprtunities in )ntrast t the pssi%ilities (men ha!e tda" and thus underlines the
)hanges that ha!e ta.en pla)e+ 2(e!er/ (hat gd is the right t earn a li!ing if (men are nt
empl"ed and if s/ re)ei!e pr finan)ial )mpensatins fr their (r.= In 1727/ *lf's essa"
had a )lear and serius tne+ In 178@/ her tne %e)ame plemi)al+ *men (ere all(ed t attend
uni!ersities and the" had the right t ma.e a li!ing n their (n+ 'he" (ere all(ed t (r. and t
(n prpert" D in ther"+ 'he realit" (as different/ (hi)h is strngl" )riti)i3ed %" *lf in Three
Guineas# 9It is true that (men )i!il ser!ants deser!e t %e paid as mu)h as men; %ut it is als true
that the" are nt paid as mu)h as men+ 'he dis)repan)" is due t atmsphere+:
10@
*men (r.ed
utside f the dmesti) sphere %ut )uld nt li!e ff f their (r. as the" did nt re)ei!e e4ual
pa"ment+ 'he 4ute frm 178@ )uld as (ell ha!e %een frm tda"/ as it des)ri%es a phenmenn
that is n( referred t as the gender pa" gap+ 'he 9atmsphere: mentined here lin.s the se0es'
106 *lf/ Virginia# A Room of One's Own/ 1757/ p+E7+
10@ I%id+/ p+7E+
Kathmann 28
ine4ualit" t fas)ism+ In the fas)ist states f Kerman" and Ital"/ the rles f (men (ere )learl"
defined as %eing respnsi%le fr the )hildren and the husehld+ 'he patriar)hal stru)tures f
fas)ism are inherent in a smaller sphere e!er"(here and *lf argues that fas)ism shuld nt nl"
%e fught in ther )untries %ut in the smaller and e!er"da" spheres at hme/ t+
107
'his is *lf's
e0planatin f (h" (men earn less mne" than men+ It is a plemi)al e0planatin %ut in its )re it
)ertainl" %ears a reasna%le amunt f truth# >s lng as (men are shut a(a" as mthers and (i!es
%" s)iet" and traditin it is useless t e0pe)t e4ual pa"+ ,raidtti e0plains the rle f (men n the
la%r mar.et tda" as fll(s#
I thin. that the misg"nist fa%ri) f ur )ulture is su)h that the feminine is drained a(a" in step (ith its
prmtin in terms f the s)i?e)nmi) and dis)ursi!e stru)tures+ >d!an)ed )apitalist s)iet" (uld e!en
%e read" D e0)ept/ f )urse/ in the )nte0t f se!ere e)nmi) re)essin D t pen the drs f fa)tries/
ffi)es/ uni!ersities/ sme la%ratries/ the arm"/ and/ re)entl" in &ran)e/ the >)adSmie &ranTaise t (men/
as lng as the" )nfrm t esta%lished nrms+
110
'his sh(s that e!en thugh (men tda" ha!e t fa)e fe(er %sta)les n the la%r mar.et than in
the 1780s/ the pr%lems still )n)ern the same me)hanisms+ *men seem t %e (el)me int the
fr)e/ (hi)h appears t %e a great prgress )mpared (ith the situatin in the first half f the 20
th
)entur"+ Hn the surfa)e/ (men ha!e the same pprtunities as men and these pprtunities are nt
nl" f thereti)al nature %ut man" (men ha!e rea)hed psitins frmerl" restri)ted t men+
'da"/ (men ften (r. side %" side (ith and e4ual t men+ 2(e!er/ and this is (hat the
therist underlines and )riti)i3es/ the pri)e (men ften ha!e t pa" is that f their !er" (n female
identities+ *men are a))epted n the la%r mar.et as e4ual if the" adapt t the rules men ha!e
esta%lished %efre (men (ere )mmn as graduates and trainees+ >))rding t ,raidtti/ the
(rld f e)nmi)s is still !er" mu)h male?dminated; (men are left ut if the" d nt )nfrm+
'he pr%lems pinted ut %" the therist and the n!elist are thus !er" mu)h ali.e; %th re)gni3e
that the male D r the male mde f thught D is the uni!ersal+ ,th )riti4ues underline the la). f
re)gnitin f (men's )apa%ilities+ *lf's plemi) pi).s up n the %!ius ine4ualities (hereas
,raidtti pints t the mre su%tle ine4ualities that are n(ada"s ften )ele%rated as e4ualit" f the
se0es+
In her 1771 %. /atterns of %issonance ,raidtti dedi)ates ne )hapter t sme mre radi)al
feminist m!ements (ithin the ther" f se0ual differen)e+ Hne f thse m!ements is that f
l':criture f:minine. 'he term/ (hi)h translates as feminine writing/ is des)ri%ed as fll(s# 9'he
st"le .n(n as feminine/ )hara)teri3ed %" disruptins f s"nta0 leading t the distur%an)e f
107 Cf+ *lf/ Virginia# Three Guineas/ 1758/ pp+77?7@+
110 ,raidtti/ Rsi# /atterns of %issonance. A tud( of Women in &ontem'orar( /hiloso'h(. 'rans+ $li3a%eth Kuild+
Cam%ridge# Alit" Aress/ 1771/ p+160+
Kathmann 25
meaning/ tends t e0press the %d" understd as a )ultural )unter?te0t/ in rder t de)de the
%lan.s in language and t e0press se0ual differen)e+:
111
2SlUne Ci0us is )nsidered the funder f
the m!ement and ,raidtti des nt hesitate t refer t her ideas as %eing sme(hat )ntradi)tr"+
2(e!er/ and despite the )riti)ism e0pressed in her earlier %./ ,raidtti partl" represents the idea
f l':criture f:minine in her intrdu)tin t Nomadic u!"ects/ (here she demands that feminist
(riters d nt %lindl" fll( male (riters and their mas)uline st"le f thereti)al (riting that has
lng %e)me the standard in the a)ademi) field+
112
>)ademi) dis)urse is per)ei!ed as a uni!ersal
standard fr the high thereti)al st"le e!en thugh it has %een esta%lished %" male (riters nl"/ (ith
female (riters ad1usting t this st"le# 9LMMst uni!ersit" (men ha!e %een trained t spea. t and
in the language f man# the fetishi3ed/ false uni!ersal mde f *estern humanism+:
118
,raidtti
ad!)ates a shift a(a" frm this adptin f the mas)uline st"le/ meaning %th the a)tual st"le f
(riting and the )ntents f men's (riting+ She refers t a)ademi) te0ts as (ell as t literature in
general+ *ithut defending the idea f :criture f:minine in its entiret"/ ,raidtti's statements
nnetheless e0press a )ertain supprt fr this rather radi)al m!ement+
Virginia *lf )uld nt pssi%l" ha!e (ritten a%ut a feminine mde f (riting in a)ademi)
)ir)les/ merel" %e)ause %a). then (men (ere %arel" e!er represented in the a)ademi) (rld+
Instead/ *lf )n)entrates n the stud" f (men's (riting %" reading earl" (r.s %" female
(riters su)h as >nne &in)h/ -ane >usten/ and Charltte ,rntQ+ It %e)mes )lear that (men ften
(rite a%ut their resentment )n)erning the la). f e4ual rights and the %elittlement the" ha!e t
endure frm the male se0+ >))rding t *lf/ -ane >usten (as the first t (rite (ithut anger
dminating her st"le and )ntents; this (as nt true fr Charltte ,rntQ/ (h herself (as present in
e!er" ne f her )hara)ters+ 'he reasn fr this is said t %e (man's la). f life e0perien)e gained
%" tra!eling r a)4uainting neself (ith strangers/ aspe)ts f life that )an %e used in fi)tin and are
highl" %enefi)ial (hen des)ri%ing pla)es and peple+ 2(e!er/ these pri!ileges (ere granted t
men nl"; !er" fe( (men )ame t e0perien)e su)h ad!entures+ >%ut Charltte ,rntQ *lf
(rites that 9LsMhe had altered her !alues in deferen)e t the pinin f thers+:
115
'he ldest f the
,rntQ sisters tried t (rite li.e a man/ a pr1e)t that (as %und t fail as the (riter la).ed the
e0perien)e f a man+ She reali3ed this/ (hi)h then resulted in anger t %e read %et(een the lines f
her n!els+
11E
*hile *lf dis)usses sme ppular female authrs f the past/ she als intrdu)es
and ela%rates n a fi)titius (riter named Mar" Carmi)hael+ *lf )reates this imaginati!e authr
as smene (h manages t (rite un)ns)ius f her se0+ Carmi)hael's st"le f (riting is des)ri%ed
111 ,raidtti/ Rsi# /atterns of %issonance/ 1771/ p+287+
112 Cf+ ,raidtti/ Rsi# Nomadic u!"ects/ 1775/ pp+27?80+
118 I%id+/ p+87+
115 *lf/ Virginia# A Room of One's Own/ 1757/ p+112+
11E Cf+ i%id+/ p+111+
Kathmann 2E
as distur%ing se4uen)es and %rea.ing senten)es/ as (ell as )ntaining a )ertain la). f smthness+
2er fi)titius )ntents ha!e nt %een present as su)h in literature %efre/ as she (rites n the
friendship %et(een t( (men+
116
*lf in!ents this persna/ a female (riter li.e her des nt
seem t e0ist in realit"+ 'he imaginar" authr Carmi)hael has a different st"le as (ell as different/
nn?male tpi)s+ *lf's statements n (men's (riting here resem%le ,raidtti's definitin f
l':criture f:minine a%!e# %rea.ing a senten)e here is similar t the 9disruptins f s"nta0:
117
there+
Virginia *lf %ases her ideas n the )lse?reading f se!eral female (riters' (r.s D and n a
fi)titius n!el D (hereas ,raidtti has re)urse t the philsphies de!elped %" thin.ers and
thereti)ians/ %th male and female+ <espite the different appra)hes represented %" *lf and
,raidtti/ the similarities are gi!en+ *lf's stud" f the imaginar" Mar" Carmi)hael's n!el/
h(e!er/ results in the (rds 9she had LNM mastered the first great lessn; she (rte as a (man/
%ut as a (man (h has frgtten that she is a (man/ s that her pages (ere full f that )urius
se0ual 4ualit" (hi)h )mes nl" (hen se0 is un)ns)ius f itself+:
11@
'his 4ute deser!es t %e
dis)ussed n t( le!els+
&irst f all/ the authr mentined here is a prdu)t f imaginatin and s is the authr's n!el+
'hus/ the st"le that *lf praises here is li.e(ise a prdu)t f her imaginatin+ Hn the ne hand
this means that it did nt e0ist/ "et D ther(ise *lf (uld pr%a%l" ha!e mentined a real
authr's st"le at this pint+ Hn the ther hand/ the female (riter (h is un)ns)ius f her se0 is
)nsidered the ideal female (riter+ 'his des nt supprt a female st"le f (riting; the (riting is nt
feminine+ 'he (riter is a (man %ut the reader )annt tell+ <es this/ then/ mean that the st"le is
neutral r f uni!ersal and thus mas)uline nature= *hat *lf means here is merel" that her
imaginar" female (riter Carmi)hael (rites (ithut the relati!el" shrt female traditin in mind+
She des nt %e" an" standards set %" ther (men %efre her; she is nt restri)ted %" un(ritten
la(s f st"le+ In this respe)t/ *lf's remar.s %" n means )nfrm (ith the :criture f:minine
m!ement/ (here female (riters d nt frget that the" are (men/ %ut 4uite the ppsite#
>))rding t the :criture f:minine m!ement/ a female (riter's identit" is frmed %" te0ts f ther
female authrs+
117
'hus/ it is %!ius that this m!ement (uld ha!e %een a utpian pr1e)t in
*lf's time+ 2( )uld the (men presented in A Room of One's Own pssi%l" ha!e frmed their
identities as (riters thrugh ther female (riters %efre them= Su)h (riters %arel" e0isted/ r the"
did nt get pu%lished/ and the %asis the" (ere ffered (as t small t identif" (ith slel"+ *men
then had either men t identif" (ith r the" had t (al. d(n their (n paths %" themsel!es+
11@ *lf/ Virginia# A Room of One's Own/ 1757/ p+150+
117 Cf+ ,raidtti/ Rsi# /atterns of %issonance/ 1771/ p+287+
Kathmann 26
2en)e/ 2SlUne Ci0us' :criture f:minine as presented %" ,raidtti (as nt pssi%le at the time f
*lf+ 2(e!er/ the idea f sme .ind f feminine st"le f (riting (as present in *lf's mind/
and e!en mre s# *lf (as l.ing fr a strng and une0pe)ted st"le f (riting %" a female+
&urthermre/ *lf spea.s f the 9se0 LthatM is un)ns)ius f itself/:
120
(hereas Ci0us is
9psiting a se0uall"?differentiated un)ns)ius and an alternati!e female s"m%li)+:
121
'hese t(
phrases are 4uite the ppsite t ne anther+ Ci0us re)gni3es an un)ns)ius that is mar.ed %"
se0ual differen)e; *lf re4uests that se0 %e un)ns)ius f itself/ (hi)h/ t put it differentl"/
means that the un)ns)ius shuld %e unmar.ed %" se0+ 'his is an interesting remar. %" *lf as it
des nt entirel" )nfrm (ith (hat she has said earlier in the te0t/ spea.ing frm a )ntemprar"
feminist ther" pint f !ie(/ that is+ Hn the ne hand/ *lf demands female emp(erment
thrugh strengthening female )hara)teristi)s/ %ut n the ther hand/ her ideal female (riter is
un)ns)ius f her (n se0+ ' *lf/ h(e!er/ this is nt a )ntradi)tin+ Cnsidering that the
(riters she mentins in A Room of One's Own suppsedl" ha!e a distin)ti!el" feminine st"le
althugh the" la). life e0perien)e utside f the dmesti) sphere/ she )learl" fresees the
pprtunities (men shuld %e gi!en; pprtunities that )uld pssi%l" and pr%a%l" lead t a
different st"le f (riting (ith different and mre uni!ersal tpi)s D uni!ersal in the nn?dmesti)
and mre di!erse sense f the (rd/ nt in the sense it is used %" feminists n(ada"s/ namel" as the
male as uni+ersal+
2en)e/ )n)erning the :criture f:minine idea/ the similarities %et(een ,raidtti and *lf
remain rather %lurr"+ ,raidtti des nt psitin herself !er" !ehementl"/ she des nt entirel" agree
(ith Ci0us' thughts %ut she des nt dismiss them altgether/ either+ 'he therist demands and
en)urages )hanges in (men's (riting/ espe)iall" in a)ademi) )ir)les/ (hi)h ha!e %een dminated
%" men fr a lng time+ *lf li.e(ise re4uests )hanges in the st"le f (men's (riting/ r rather/
an a)tual esta%lished and ne( st"le in the first pla)e/ a pr)ess that re4uires time and (men (h
are (illing and eager t (rite+
) Feminist theor, be,ond the se-es
).! 2udith 0utler3 4$erforming gender5
In Gender Trou!le) Feminism and the u!+ersion of ,dentit( -udith ,utler/ the >meri)an gender
therist and 9)?funder: f 4ueer ther"/ presents her pst?mdern ideas n feminism and
distan)es herself frm the )mmn )ategries f man and (man/ hen)e the feminist theries that
Kathmann 27
are %ased n se0ual differen)e as des)ri%ed a%!e+
' %egin (ith/ she )riti)i3es the term woman and the diffi)ulties that )me (ith it as (men
are the su%1e)ts f feminism %ut are ften depi)ted as a (hle and thus t ne?sided+ She pints
ut that 9LiMf ne 9is: a (man/ that is surel" nt all ne is; LNM gender interse)ts (ith ra)ial/ )lass/
ethni)/ se0ual/ and reginal mdalities f dis)ursi!el" )nstituted identities;:
122
(men are nt all
the same r similar nl" %e)ause the" all ha!e e0perien)ed ppressin f sme srt+ If a su%1e)t f
feminism is e0pe)ted t %e frmulated as a sta%le figure/ as suggested %" sme feminist therists
%efre/ this frmulatin resem%les sme .ind f definitin/ (hi)h )uld easil" ser!e as a manual+
*he!er des nt )nfrm (ith this manual is thus nt )nsidered a su%1e)t f feminism+ ,utler
finds this !er" pr%lemati) and as.s# 9*hat sense des it ma.e t e0tend representatin t su%1e)ts
(h are )nstru)ted thrugh the e0)lusin f thse (h fail t )nfrm t unsp.en nrmati!e
re4uirements f the su%1e)t=:
128
>))rdingl"/ narr(ing d(n a su%1e)t's identit" in rder t re)ei!e
ne sta%le su%1e)t is a restri)ti!e measure that is %und t fail as it (ill nt represent all (men+ If a
h"ptheti)al sta%le su%1e)t represents the ma1rit" f (men/ this (uld still mean that these
(men (uld nl" %e a%le t m!e (ithin a )ertain sphere r a )ertain spe)trum/ (hi)h )nfrms
(ith said identit"+ >part frm this/ a ma1rit" impli)ates a minrit"/ (hi)h (uld %e e0)luded %"
%eing different+ 'hus/ )nstituting ne su%1e)t f feminism is a restri)tin t feminist pliti)s/
(hi)h/ in turn/ ges against its !er" (n mti!atins+ 'his resem%les ,raidtti's ntin f
nmadism t the e0tent that %th therists )laim that the term woman is ften t fi0ed and ne?
sided+ 'he differen)e %et(een ,utler and ,raidtti is that t ,utler the (rd woman is nt
ne)essaril" )nfined t peple (ith female genitalia+ ,raidtti still m!es (ithin the %inar" f man.
and (man; %th ntins depend n the indi!idual's se0+ 'hus/ e!en if woman is defined in the
%radest sense it still manages t e0)lude )ertain peple+
,utler then pr)eeds %" ta.ing n a )ntr!ersial psitin/ 4uestining the distin)tin f se0
and gender+ Regarding se0/ she (nders (hat it is that defines se0 in the first pla)e/ and argues that
se0 itself might D thrughut s)ientifi) dis)urses D 1ust as (ell %e )nstru)ted as gender+
125
9Is
there a histr" f h( the dualit" f se0 (as esta%lished/ a genealg" that might e0pse the %inar"
ptins as a !aria%le )nstru)tin=:
12E
Cuestining the )ategr" f se0 means t 4uestin the
122 ,utler/ -udith# Gender Trou!le/ 2006/ p+5+
128 I%id+/ p+@+
125 Cf+ i%id+/ p+11+
>t first sight/ ,utler's suggestin that there are mre than t( se0es might seem strange t the reader+ 2(e!er/ later
in the te0t/ she gi!es an e0ample f (hen the suppsed gi!en %ilgi)al se0 must %e 4uestined# 9'ransse0uals ften
)laim a radi)al dis)ntinuit" %et(een se0ual pleasures and %dil" parts+ Ver" ften (hat is (anted in terms f
pleasure re4uires an imaginar" parti)ipatin in %d" parts LNM that ne might nt a)tuall" pssess/ r/ similarl"/
pleasure ma" re4uire imagining an e0aggerated r diminished set f parts+: I%id+/ p+76+
12E I%id+/ p+7+
Kathmann 2@
differen)e %et(een se0 and gender as (ell+ If se0 is n lnger a %ilgi)al definite essential t
mar.ing a man as male and a (man as feminine then the differen)e %et(een ,utler's
argumentatin and that f the se0ual differen)e therists %e)mes )lear+ 'he ther" f se0ual
differen)e is %ased n the assumptin that se0 is a gi!en/ that it is a %ilgi)all" )n)rete sign
defining (hether ne is a man r a (man/ assuming that there e0ists a %inar" s"stem f the se0es/
namel" that f the female and that f the male+ ,utler e0plains that this s"stem f the t( se0es
ne)essitates and assumes heterse0ualit"/ thus the .ind f reprdu)ti!e se0ualit" that re4uires 9a
%inar" relatin in (hi)h the mas)uline term is differentiated frm the feminine term/ and the
differentiatin is a))mplished thrugh the pra)ti)es f heterse0ual desire+:
126
Cn)erning the
definitin f gender/ ,utler )riti)i3es the ntin that there are nl" t( genders+ If gender is a s)ial
)nstru)t that is independent f se0 then (h" are there nl" t( genders/ the female and the male=
*h" des a %inar" gender s"stem e0ist if gender des nt )nfrm (ith se0= Shuld there nt %e
numerus genders instead f nl" t(=
127
<istinguishing %et(een se0 and gender is thus
unne)essar" as %th are )nstru)ted a))rding t the same %inar" s"stem and hen)e there is n
differen)e/ unless the term gender is %eing refrmulated+
Kender identit" and perfrmati!it" is dis)ussed in detail in the third and last )hapter f
Gender Trou!le (hen the 17
th
)entur" interse0 persn 2er)uline ,ar%in's se0/ gender/ and identit"
%e)me the f)us f attentin+ 2er)uline (as determined as a female %" %irth e!en thugh
%ilgi)all"/ s/he had female as (ell as male attri%utes+
12@
S/he .ept a 1urnal in (hi)h s/he
)hrni)led h/er life/ espe)iall" h/er emtins and rea)tins frm and t(ards ther peple+ >s an
adult/ s/he fell in l!e (ith a female fell( tea)her/ resulting in a relatinship %et(een the t(
l!ers+ >rund the same time/ .n(ing that s/he (as different/ 2er)uline entrusted h/erself t
d)trs and a %ishp/ (h then made h/er )hange h/er se0 %efre the la(/ regarding h/er feelings fr
a (man as an indi)atr fr h/er maleness+ Hffi)iall"/ s/he (as n( a man/ h(e!er/ s/he (as
fr)ed t lea!e h/er l!er and 4uit h/er 1%+ >t the age f thirt"/ 2er)uline )mmitted sui)ide/
lea!ing h/er 1urnals %ehind+
127
,utler in)rprates this )ase as an e0ample f gender )nfusin
)aused %" s)ial nrms#
S/he herself presumes at !arius pints that h/er %d" is the )ause f h/er gender )nfusin and h/er
transgressi!e pleasures/ as if the" (ere %th result and manifestatin f an essen)e (hi)h smeh( falls
utside the natural/metaph"si)al rder f things+ ,ut rather than understand h/er anmalus %d" as the )ause
126 ,utler/ -udith# Gender Trou!le/ 2006/ p+81+
127 Cf+ i%id+/ p+7+
12@ In the fll(ing/ 2er)uline (ill %e referred t as Vs/he9/ (hi)h is als ,utler's pra)ti)e (hen dis)ussing the
hermaphrdite's )ase/ and (hi)h )rrespnds (ith the une4ui!)al se0ual attri%utes f the su%1e)t+ 'he pssessi!e
frm (ill %e 9h/er:+
127 Cf+ ,utler/ -udith# Gender Trou!le/ 2006/ pp+127?18@+
Kathmann 27
f h/er desire/ h/er tru%le/ h/er affairs and )nfessin/ (e might read this %d"/ here full" te0tuali3ed/ as a
sign f an irresl!a%le am%i!alen)e prdu)ed %" the 1uridi)al dis)urse n uni!)al se0+ In the pla)e f
uni!)it"/ (e fail t dis)!er multipli)it" LNM+
180
'he insisten)e n nl" t( pssi%le genders that are %ased n nl" t( se0es e0)ludes a great
num%er f peple frm %eing )nsidered and treated %" the nrms+ In 2er)uline's )ase/
heterse0ualit" (as the nl" pssi%ilit" and hmse0ualit" nt e!en )nsidered/ thus 2er)uline's
se0 (as )hanged ffi)iall" t male nl" %e)ause s/he l!ed a (man+ 'his )ase des nt nl" sh(
h( diffi)ult it )an %e t determine the )ategr" f se0 %ut/ furthermre/ it illustrates that there must
%e mre genders than nl" the mas)uline and the feminine+ 2er)uline's mind (as distur%ed %e)ause
s/he (as una%le t refer t either gender; s/he (as nt entirel" mas)uline/ nr (as s/he )learl"
feminine+ *ith this stud" f the interse0 persn 2er)uline/ ,utler pints at ne main differen)e
%et(een her theries and thse f the se0ual differen)e therists# Se0ual differen)e therists assume
that peple are a(are f their se0es and their genders/ f (hi)h there are t(/ respe)ti!el"+
,utler understands the theries %ased n differen)e as a retrgrade step#
&eminist )riti4ue ught t e0plre the ttali3ing )laims f a mas)ulinist signif"ing e)nm"/ %ut als remain
self?)riti)al (ith respe)t t the ttali3ing gestures f feminism+ 'he effrt t identif" the enem" as singular in
frm is a re!erse?dis)urse that un)riti)all" mimi)s the strateg" f the ppressr instead f ffering a
different set f terms+
181
,utler )riti)i3es feminism fr assuming ppressin %" men in e!er" )ulture (ith the aim t appl"
feminist ideas t all )ultures (ithut )nsidering reginal differen)es+ >gain/ the )laim f unit" is a
diffi)ult and unrealisti) ne that nl" hinders feminist pliti)s t a degree f imm%ilit"+ *h"
shuld all (men unite nl" %e)ause the" suppsedl" ha!e the same se0= 'hese means are referred
t as 9)lni3ing/: (hi)h/ in turn/ is an ppressi!e %eha!ir+ Shuld feminist pliti)s empl"
ppressi!e methds althugh ppressin (as the means used t mar. (men ff as inferir in the
past= 'hese pliti)s seem )ntradi)ting/ as (men's identities )annt %e united %ased n se0ual
differen)e nl"+ &urthermre/ ,utler 4uestins the imprtan)e f unit" (ithin feminist pliti)s/
indi)ating that unit" demands a )mmn identit" (ithut e!en %eing a%le t m!e a(a" frm the
4uestin f identit"/ (hi)h is a )mple0 and ne!er?ending ne as identities )an %e refrmulated
endlessl"+
Restri)tins n genders and identities %" means f a )mpulsr" heterse0ualit" nl" supprt
e0)lusin and den" multipli)it"/ a pra)ti)e (hi)h ges against the pliti)s f feminism and thus
needs t %e re)nsidered+ ,utler's slutin t this pr%lemati) is %ased n her ther" f
180 ,utler/ -udith# Gender Trou!le/ 2006/ p+18E+
181 I%id+/ p+1@+
Kathmann 80
perfrmati!it"/ the idea f gender %eing perfrmati!e/ that is+ *rds are a)ts that are perfrmed/
the" ha!e a )nse4uen)e/ and as su)h these spee)h a)ts frmulate and )nstru)t gender if perfrmed
repeatedl"+ 'his had happened in the past (hi)h is h( the gender rles ha!e %een esta%lished in
the first pla)e#
'he rules that g!ern intelligi%le identit"/ i+e+/ that ena%le and restri)t the intelligi%le assertin f an 9I/: rules
that are partiall" stru)tured alng matri)es f gender hierar)h" and )mpulsr" heterse0ualit"/ perate
thrugh re'etition+ Indeed/ (hen a su%1e)t is said t %e )nstituted/ that means simpl" that the su%1e)t is a
)nse4uen)e f )ertain rule?g!erned dis)urses that g!ern the intelligi%le in!)atin f identit"+
182
'hus/ gender has al(a"s %een perfrmati!el" prdu)ed/ f )urse/ %ut it has %een s (ithin the
frame f )mpulsr" heterse0ualit"+ B(/ if this is h( identit" (as frmulated in the past/ then it
)an as (ell %e refrmulated in fa!r f multipli)it" %" fun)tining %e"nd the restri)tins f the
%inar" s"stem+ Kender as a s)ial )nstru)t is prdu)ed %" repeated perfrmati!e a)ts and in rder
t rene( and refrmulate gender it is pssi%le and/ a))rding t ,utler/ therefre ne)essar" t
)hange the e0isting attri%utes that are n( strngl" ass)iated (ith the se0es+
188
9'here is n gender
identit" %ehind the e0pressins f gender; that identit" is perfrmati!el" )nstituted %" the !er"
9e0pressins: that are said t %e its results+:
185
Hne )annt !e a gender %ut ne )an 'erform gender/
(hi)h ultimatel" )nstitutes an identit"/ h(e!er/ an identit" that is nt fi0ed as gender is
perfrmed !er and !er/ resulting in all(ing identit" t %e su%1e)t t )nstant )hange+
18E

).# an 0utlerian thoughts be found in Virginia Woolf's %riting(
Reading Virginia *lf's essa"s (ith ,utler's theries in mind is/ needless t sa"/ !er" different
frm reading *lf (ith ,raidtti at the %a). f ne's head+ ,raidtti aims at emp(ering the
female feminist su%1e)t D an aim that is %!iusl" shared %" *lf D (hereas ,utler is 4uestining
the !er" fundamental philsphi)al ntins f se0/ gender/ and (man+ $!en thugh it seems less
%!ius/ it is nnetheless interesting t ma.e a )nne)tin %et(een ,utler's ther"?laded ideas and
the (ritings f Virginia *lf+
In A Room of One's Own/ *lf )mes t the )n)lusin that a (man's mind )annt e0ist
)reati!el" (ithut sme prtin f maleness/ and that in turn/ a man's mind )annt %e prdu)ti!e t
its fullest (ithut a )ertain amunt f femaleness inherent+ ,th se0es re4uire %th genders#
182 ,utler/ -udith# Gender Trou!le/ 2006/ p+17@+
188 Cf+ i%id+/ pp+88?85+
185 I%id+/ p+85+
18E Cf+ i%id+/ p+171+
Kathmann 81
LIMt is fatal fr an"ne (h (rites t thin. f their se0+ It is fatal t %e a man r (man pure and simple; ne
must %e (man?manl" r man?(manl"+ L+++M >nd fatal is n figure f spee)h; fr an"thing (ritten (ith that
)ns)ius %ias is dmed t death+ It )eases t %e fertili3ed+ LNM Sme )lla%ratin has t ta.e pla)e in the
mind %et(een the (man and the man %efre the art f )reatin )an %e a))mplished+
186
>t first/ she )laims that ne shuld %e un)ns)ius f ne's se0/ (hi)h is then redeemed %" sa"ing
that a )m%ined )ns)iusness f the t( se0es is ne)essar" fr full )reati!it"+ 'he first statement
(uld )nfrm (ith ,utler's )riti)ism t(ards se0 as %eing )nsidered ne f the main
determinants f ne's identit"+ Bt t thin. f ne's se0 is thus a ,utlerian ideal/ all(ing identities
t %e)me less fi0ed and mre di!erse+ 'he )rre)tin stated fll(ing the thught f se0?
independen)e/ h(e!er/ is nt similar (ith (hat ,utler stands fr+ *hen *lf spea.s f man?
(manl" and (man?manl" minds it )an %e said that she uses the idea f se0 and gender as it is the
nrm tda"# ;an and woman referring t the %ilgi)al se0es/ womanl( and manl( referring t the
s)iall" )nstru)ted genders f the su%1e)ts+ 'he %ilgi)al se0 is the pint f departure/ it is the
determinant %ut nt the nl" identit"?gi!ing fa)tr+ >))rdingl"/ a man nt nl" can %ut is re<uired
t partl" !e the ppsite gender+ 2e has t %e (manl" t a )ertain e0tent in rder t %e full"
prdu)ti!e in the field f fi)tin?(riting+ Hn the ne hand/ this indi)ates that a man )an %e (manl"
and thus nt nl" manl"/ (hi)h/ at first sight/ is similar (ith (hat ,utler sa"s/ as she )riti)i3es the
ntin that men are al(a"s ass)iated (ith mas)ulinit" and (men (ith femininit"/ thus resulting
in se0 and gender %eing the same+
187
*lf seemingl" %rea.s (ith this ntin sa"ing that %th se0es
)an and must ha!e %th genders+ 2(e!er/ *lf is still m!ing (ithin the heterse0ual matri0 %"
simpl" re!ersing the rder# 'here must still %e a pint f departure %" sa"ing that a %ilgi)al
(man must ha!e male mdes f thin.ing+ 'his male mde f thin.ing re4uires an rigin that is
)learl" lin.ed (ith an esta%lished and fi0ed mas)ulinit" in s)iet"+ Interestingl" enugh/ *lf als
ma.es use f the (rd fertili=ed > a term )learl" )nne)ted t the heterse0ual matri0 and its
reprdu)ti!e aim D indi)ating that a gd pie)e f (riting demands sme .ind f mther and father+
'his terminlg" f reprdu)tin/ as (ell as the idea f t( genders resulting in )mpletin/ is used
earlier in the essa" (hen *lf (nders
(hether there are t( se0es in the mind )rrespnding t the t( se0es in the %d"/ and (hether the" L+++M
re4uire t %e united in rder t get )mplete satisfa)tin and happiness= >nd I (ent n amateurishl" t s.et)h
a plan f the sul s that in ea)h f us t( p(ers preside/ ne male/ ne female; and in the man's %rain the
man predminates !er the (man/ and in the (man's %rain the (man predminates !er the man+ 'he
nrmal and )mfrta%le state f %eing is that (hen the t( li!e in harmn" tgether/ spirituall" )?perating+
If ne is a man/ still the (man part f his %rain must ha!e effe)t; and a (man als must ha!e inter)urse
(ith the man in her+ LNM It is (hen this fusin ta.es pla)e that the mind is full" Lfertili3edM and uses all its
fa)ulties+
18@

186 *lf/ Virginia# A Room of One's Own/ 1757/ pp+1E6?1E7+
187 Cf+ ,utler/ -udith# Gender Trou!le/ 2006/ p+1E2+
18@ *lf/ Virginia# A Room of One's Own, 1757/ pp+157?15@+
Kathmann 82
>gain/ the 9se0es in the mind: )an %e referred t as gender/ (hereas the 9se0es in the %d": are
meant t dente se0+ 2ere/ it %e)mes espe)iall" )lear that a %ilgi)al (man )annt %e
predminantl" mas)uline/ sin)e her %ilgi)al female se0 is dminant and g!erns her mind+ >
prtin f mas)ulinit" is appre)iated and e!en ne)essar" %ut a %ilgi)al (man )an nl" %e f the
mas)uline gender t a )ertain/ limited e0tent; the ma1rit" f the mind is still feminine+ ,th
genders are re4uired t ha!e sme .ind f 9inter)urse: in rder t IreJprdu)e ideas+ 'his
empl"ment f reprdu)ti!e terminlg" and the ideali3atin f heterse0ualit" is/ in itself and
)nsidering the time f its appli)atin in the 1720s/ nt !er" surprising+ 2(e!er/ *lf intrdu)es
these theries %" sa"ing that the %elief in heterse0ualit" as %eing the mst satisfa)tr" f all
ptins is 9irratinal/: thus impl"ing that this %elief needs t %e re)nsidered+
187
2en)e/ *lf's
initial )n)erns and %ser!atins )an %e interpreted as ,utlerian+ 'he slutins and ela%ratins t
said )n)erns/ h(e!er/ are %" n means ,utlerian %e)ause the" still (r. stri)tl" (ithin the
heterse0ual frame f mind/ (ith a terminlg" that is entren)hed in this frame+ *lf's thughts
enhan)e the idea f multipli)it"/ %ut nt t the e0tent that ,utler demands it+
150

$!en thugh the 4utes a%!e suggest that *lf nl" empl"s thughts %ased n
heterse0ualit" in A Room of One's Own/ she des/ in fa)t/ m!e %e"nd that matri0 %" in!enting
the fi)titius n!el -ife's Ad+entures %" the e4uall" fi)titius (riter Mar" Carmi)hael+ 'he n!el
des)ri%es the hmse0ual relatinship %et(een Hli!ia and Chle/ thus suggesting an alternati!e t
the nrmati!e man?(man relatinship+ *lf des nt e0pli)itl" state that the (men ha!e a
se0ual relatinship %ut her intrdu)tr" (rds )learl" hint at this assumptin+
151
>t this pint/
hmse0ualit"/ as (ell as %ise0ualit" D ne f the (men is married t a man D ser!es as a )unter?
prpsitin t the esta%lished %inar" f man and (man+ Usuall"/ (men (ere prtra"ed as (i!es
and l!ers f men#
It (as strange t thin. that all the great (men f fi)tin (ere/ until -ane >ustenWs da"/ nt nl" seen %" the
ther se0/ %ut seen nl" in relatin t the ther se0+ >nd h( small a part f a (manWs life is that; and h(
little )an a man .n( e!en f that (hen he %ser!es it thrugh the %la). r rs" spe)ta)les (hi)h se0 puts
upn his nse+
152
'he )riti4ue des %" n means nl" )n)ern the fa)t that (men in literature (ere merel" depi)ted
as )unterparts t men+ *lf further pints ut that relatinships amng (men (ere presented as
ri!aling and/r t simple in general; usuall"/ (men (ere seen in relatin t men+ 2eterse0ualit"
150 *lf des/ h(e!er/ ela%rate n the idea f s(it)hing %et(een genders in her n!el Orlando+ &r further reading
see *lf/ Virginia# Orlando) A *iogra'h(. Lndn# 2garth Aress/ 17E5+
152 I%id+/ p+125+
Kathmann 88
thus predminates/ (hi)h is (h" *lf intrdu)es a different )n)ept/ resulting in different
)hara)teri3atins/ thus leading t mre )mple0 identities/ and prpsing e4uall" mre )mple0
genders/ indeed/ different genders+ In a s)iet" f 9)mpulsr" heterse0ualit":
158
/ as ,utler (uld
put it/ the relatinship %et(een Chle and Hli!ia is presented as smething that 1ust 9happenLsM:
155

smetimes+ 'his ntin indi)ates a nn)halan)e that e!.es a )ertain naturalness t(ards nn?
heterse0ual relatinships+
15E
&ll(ing her intrdu)tin f the female )uple/ *lf re!eals (hat
,utler )nfirms man" de)ades later/ namel" that utside the heterse0ual matri0/ peple %eha!e
differentl" frm (ithin that nrmati!e matri0+ 'his/ f )urse/ is ,utler's terminlg" applied t
*lf's essa"/ %ut it (r.s nnetheless+ Kender rles )hange and the mntn" f (men's
prtraits in literature that *lf )mplains a%ut suddenl" has t disappear/ as this mntn" (as
the result f esta%lished steret"pes f (men in relatin t men+ *hen n man is present and the
t( (men d nt tal. a%ut men r their relatins t men/ the (riter is fr)ed t dra( a mre
)mple0 pi)ture f (men+ Hther fa)trs and interests %e)me pre!alent and frmati!e+
Later in the te0t/ *lf admits that she 9ften li.eLsM (men/:
156
fll(ed %" naming the
female )hara)teristi)s she appre)iates/ (hi)h are generall" nt depi)ted in literature+ B(/ this )an
%e interpreted simpl" as )mplimenting the female se0+ 2(e!er/ )nsidering that *lf herself
had a l!e relatinship (ith Vita Sa).!ille?*est/
157
this statement )uld 1ust as (ell %e a supprti!e
argument fr identities frmed utside the heterse0ual matri0# *lf as a (man sees anther
(man nt as a )unterpart fr a man %ut as a persn (h is mre )mple0 than the steret"pes
presented in general+
Bt nl" des *lf prpse relatinships ther than heterse0ual nes (ith different
identities in her essa"+ >t ne pint she ma.es a remar. )n)erning the se0es/ sa"ing that 9(e ha!e
t mu)h li.eness as it is/ and if an e0plrer shuld )me %a). and %ring (rd f ther se0es
l.ing thrugh the %ran)hes f ther trees at ther s.ies/ nthing (uld %e f greater ser!i)e t
humanit" LNM+:
15@
'he pssi%ilit" f ha!ing mre than t( se0es/ thus %rea.ing ut f the %inar"
s"stem f the se0es and there(ith the heterse0ual matri0/ is merel" h"ptheti)al and nt a serius
)nsideratin+ *hat is em%ra)ed and (el)med here is first and fremst the )mple0it" f
I(Jman.ind+ ' mu)h 9li.eness: is a negati!e/ di!ersit" is an ideal that is ne)essar" and
)mplimentar" fr e!er"ne+ *lf's referen)e t 9ther se0es: here is nt a )riti4ue f the
158 ,utler/ -udith# Gender Trou!le, 2006/ p+25+
15E ,esides/ e0pli)it representatins f les%ian relatinships in n!els ften led t s)andals at the time as (as the )ase
(ith Rad)l"ffe 2all's The Well of -oneliness in 172@/ ne "ear %efre the pu%li)atin f A Room of One's Own.
156 *lf/ Virginia# A Room of One's Own, 1757/ p+167+
157 Cf+ ,ell/ Cuentin# Virginia Woolf) A *iogra'h(/ Vl+ II/ 1778/ p+117+
15@ *lf/ Virginia# A Room of One's Own, 1757/ p+182+
Kathmann 85
di)htm" f se0 %eing predis)ursi!e/ as it is in ,utler/
157
%ut an affirmatin f therness in general+
$!en thugh her idea des nt entirel" )nfrm (ith ,utler's 4uestining f the e0)lusinar" %inar"
s"stem f the se0es/ it is still remar.a%le that at su)h an earl" stage in histr" this prgressi!e
thught is used as a rhetri)al instrument (hen praising se0ual di!ersit"/ amng ther things+
In the first )hapter f A Room of One's Own/ the sight f a Man0 )at appearing n the la(n is
des)ri%ed as a )urisit" ta.ing the narratr's mind ff the lun)hen part"+ >))rding t the H0frd
$nglish <i)tinar"/ the Man0 Cat is 9a %reed f dmesti) )at ha!ing n tail r an e0tremel" shrt
ne/ riginating n the Isle f Man+:
1E0
In the essa"/ the en)unter (ith the )at is depi)ted as
fll(s#
L'Mhe Man0 )at/ (h did l. a little a%surd/ pr %east/ (ithut a tail/ in the middle f the la(n+ *as he
reall" %rn s/ r had he lst his tail in an a))ident= 'he tailless )at/ thugh sme are said t e0ist in the Isle
f Man/ is rarer than ne thin.s+ It is a 4ueer animal/ 4uaint rather than %eautiful+ It is strange (hat a
differen)e a tail ma.es LNM+
1E1
'he ph"si)al pe)uliarit" f the missing tail is (hat pu33les the spe)tatr+ 'he )at is said t %e a he
(h is (al.ing n the la(n/ presuma%l" the sphere (here nl" males are all(ed/ as 4uted a%!e
in the anal"sis f *lf and ,raidtti+ 2(e!er/ the male )at is missing its tail/ a s"m%l f the
phallus/ and (ithut this mar.ing phallus it is (al.ing n a grund that ser!es as an e0)lusi!e
en!irnment fr males+ 'his !erall )nfusin f ph"si)al anmalusness Ithe )at des nt appear
t %e male in the first pla)eJ and the sme(hat %eha!iral a%nrmalit" Ias presented t the
spe)tatr's e"eJ )an %e interpreted as a )nfusin f the %d" and the mind+ Is the )at reall" male r
female= It is nl" missing its tail and thus its phalli) s"m%l/ e!en thugh this phalli) s"m%l is nt
the phallus/ the male genitalia/ itself+ Hnl" the s"m%l is missing %ut still this animal is )nsidered
t %e 94uaint: and as su)h %i3arre and interesting/ %ut a%nrmal nnetheless+ 'he )at prtra"ed here
simpl" l.s different+ ," strlling in the area meant fr males/ it is )ertainl" %eha!ing )rre)tl"/ s
t spea.+ 'he animal )auses )nfusin %e)ause it is tailless/ (hi)h is nt e4ual t la).ing the se0?
defining genitalia; thereti)all"/ it )uld as (ell %e female sin)e female Man0 )ats are %rn tailless/
t+ 'he phalli) s"m%l/ h(e!er/ seems t %e e4uall" imprtant as the genitalia as it is the mre
%!ius ph"si)al )hara)teristi)+ ,esides/ the )at is pitied and des)ri%ed as a rare minrit"+ 'he
des)riptin f the Man0 )at is interesting n man" le!els+ It appears fr n apparent reasn+ 'he )at
is referred t as male+ 'he strangeness results frm la).ing the phalli) s"m%l and nt frm a la).
f the genitalia+ <espite the ph"si)al a%nrmalit" it %eha!es in the right (a"+ 'he 4uestin that
157 Cf+ ,utler/ -udith# Gender Trou!le/ 2006/ pp+@?10+
1E0 PMan0/ ad1+ and n+P+ O#% Online+ Mar)h 2012+ H0frd Uni!ersit" Aress+ 1E >pril 2012+
1E1 *lf/ Virginia# A Room of One's Own, 1757/ p+20+
Kathmann 8E
emerges is# *hat des the )at stand fr= 'he features and )hara)teristi)s/ s t spea./ applied t a
human %eing (uld result in a man (h is missing the utside appearan)e f a male %ut %eha!es in
a steret"pi)all" mas)uline (a" nnetheless+ 'he %ilgi)al se0 is un.n(n and nl" indi)ated %"
the use f the prnun he. B(/ (h is this metaphri)al persn= Is it a man desiring t %e a
(man= Is it a (man in a )astrated man's %d"= Is the lss f the tail in)idental r geneti)= Is the
se0 r the gender identit"?gi!ing= Is his e0isten)e %th ph"si)all" and )ulturall" uni!)al= In an
essa" n allusins in A Room of One's Own/ >li)e &0 suggests that *lf herself identified (ith
the )at/ the la). f the tail %eing an indi)atin f )astratin+
1E2
She pints at Cuentin ,ell's remar.
that the mem%ers f the Stephen famil" 9(ere %rn (ith little tails se!en in)hes lng: and that the"
all had a strng affinit" t (riting# 9,ut the" (rte li.e men (h are used t presenting an
argument/ (h (ant t ma.e that argument plain %ut fr)i%le+:
1E8
<id the frmer Stephen/ n(
*lf/ %e)me su%1e)t t )astratin resulting in a persn (h la).s male ph"si)al features %ut (h
has male )hara)teristi)s= Hr did the )astratin lead t a (a" f (riting that e!entuall" differed frm
the male Stephen traditin f (riting= *as the )astratin geneti) r )aused %" )ertain
)ir)umstan)es= Refrmulated/ this )mes d(n t the 4uestin# Is the )astratin f %ilgi)al r
)ultural nature/ and in either )ase/ des it matter at all= 'hus/ the %ser!atin f the Man0 )at
presented here is a great e0ample f gender and se0 )nfusin as des)ri%ed %" ,utler in her )hapter
n the interse0 persn 2er)uline+ 'he Man0 )at as (ell as 2er)uline fail t meet the nrm+ 'he" are
said t %e 4uaint/ rare/ pe)uliar/ and 4ueer+ >re these pe)uliarities )aused %" nature r %" )ulture=
'he Man0 )at is nt the nl" rather strange )reature in *lf's essa"+ >t ne pint/ *lf
spea.s f the pe)uliarities inherent e4uall" in %th se0es/ male and female# 9Life fr %th se0es L+++M
is arduus/ diffi)ult/ a perpetual struggle+ LNM Mre than an"thing/ perhaps/ )reatures f illusin as
(e are/ it )alls fr )nfiden)e in neself+:
1E5
'he phrase f interest here is the shrt em%edded
9)reatures f illusin as (e are/: the prnun indi)ating a )nflatin f %th se0es+ 'he .e" (rd is
9illusin+: Stri)tl" spea.ing/ an illusin is the 9fa)t r )nditin f %eing de)ei!ed r deluded %"
appearan)es/ r an instan)e f this; a mental state in!l!ing the attri%utin f realit" t (hat is
unreal; a false )n)eptin r idea+:
1EE
*hen *lf )laims that men and (men are )reatures f
illusin then it )an %e said that/ t her/ e!er"thing that surrunds the s"stem f the t( se0es is t
sme e0tent made up and nt real+ >n illusin ma.es ne %elie!e in smething %" means f
smething else+ Men and (men as )reatures D anther interesting (rd )hi)e D present a
de)epti!e !ersin f realit"+ Aerhaps this illusin has %e)me realit" %ut it remains de)epti!e
1E2 Cf+ &0/ >li)e# 9Literar" >llusin as &eminist Criti)ism in '> Rm f Hne's H(n'+: /hilological ?uarterl(/ 68
I17@5J/ p+15@+
1E8 ,ell/ Cuentin# Virginia Woolf) A *iogra'h(, Vl+ I/ 1778/ pp+1@?17+
1E5 *lf/ Virginia# A Room of One's Own, 1757/ p+E2+
1EE Pillusin/ n+P+ O#% Online+ Mar)h 2012+ H0frd Uni!ersit" Aress+ 16 >pril 2012+
Kathmann 86
nnetheless+ *hat/ then/ are the means f this illusinar" per)eptin= 2( (as this illusin
)nstru)ted and h( is it maintained= &rm a ,utlerian pint f !ie(/ the ans(er (uld %e#
'hrugh repetitin+
L*Mhen the su%1e)t is said t %e )nstituted/ that means simpl" that the su%1e)t is a )nse4uen)e f )ertain
rule?g!erned dis)urses that g!ern the intelligi%le in!)atin f identit"+ 'he su%1e)t is nt determined %"
the rules thrugh (hi)h it is generated %e)ause signifi)atin is not a founding act, !ut rather a regulated
'rocess of re'etition that %th )n)eals and enfr)es its rules pre)isel" thrugh the prdu)tin f
su%stantiali3ing effe)ts+
1E6

'he pr)ess des)ri%ed %" ,utler is nt nl" )n)ealing and hen)e an illusin t sme e0tent/ %ut it
is als su%1e)t t )hange+ If the illusin mentined %" *lf is the result f the .ind f repetitin
,utler %ser!es/ then the illusin is nt sta%le and the 9)reatures: in *lf are nt/ either+ 2(e!er/
the 4uestin remains if the illusin is still an illusin after a pssi%le )hange+ *lf des nt use
this term as a )riti4ue %ut simpl" as an %ser!ing assertin+
In Three Guineas/ *lf demands that (men shuld start %eha!ing differentl" in rder t
pre!ent (ar and t intrdu)e a pea)eful alternati!e t patriar)h"+ 'his feminist gal )an %e rea)hed
9%" finding ne( (rds and )reating ne( methds/:
1E7
a )all fr a)tin that ,utler (uld pr%a%l"
agree (ith/ at first glan)e/ that is+ *lf's statement resem%les ,utler's insisten)e n gender
refrmulatin thrugh repeated a)ts/ e!en thugh ,utler underlines that gender perfrmati!it" des
nt re4uire 9a 9der %ehind the deed/: %ut that the 9der: is !aria%l" )nstru)ted in and thrugh the
deed+:
1E@
>t first sight/ the t( feminists seem t %e n )mmn grund+ 2(e!er/ it is nt %"
)han)e that *lf's )all fr a)tin has %een 4uted a%!e/ (hen )mpared t ,raidtti+ *lf's
means are strngl" %ased n that f se0ual differen)e# *men shuld start %eha!ing in a (a" that
demnstrates t men Iand (menJ the dangers that result frm patriar)h"; men and (men d nt
)perate+ >nd that is pre)isel" (hat ,utler is ppsed t+ ' her/ gender refrmulatin must
happen independent frm se0 and stri)t )ategries+
>nther aspe)t that differs signifi)antl" %et(een *lf and ,utler is the 4uestin f identit"+
,utler's pint f !ie( suggests numerus identities/ depending n the definitin f se0 and gender/
and n the interrelatin f the t(+ 'he idea %ehind her ther" is t %rea. the heterse0ual matri0/
(hi)h ser!es as nrmati!e/ and (hi)h is restri)ti!e t(ards gender identities+
'he )ultural matri0 thrugh (hi)h gender identit" has %e)me intelligi%le re4uires that )ertain .inds f
9identities: )annt 9e0ist: Y that is/ thse in (hi)h gender des nt fll( frm se0 and thse in (hi)h the
1E6 ,utler/ -udith# Gender Trou!le/ 2006/ p+17@+
1E7 *lf/ Virginia# Three Guineas/ 1758/ p+260+
1E@ ,utler/ -udith# Gender Trou!le/ 2006/ p+17E+
Kathmann 87
pra)ti)es f desire d nt 9fll(: frm either se0 r gender+
1E7
2er )riti)ism pints at the e0)lusinar" pra)ti)e f )mpulsr" heterse0ualit"+ Aeple (h fail t
meet the nrm suppsedl" la). identities+ $mphasis is put n 9identities/: in the plural+ In Three
Guineas/ Virginia *lf esta%lishes t( identities/ that f man and (man+ *hen she refuses t
1in an e0)lusi!el" male s)iet"/ she argues that 9LfMr %" s ding (e shuld merge ur identit" in
"urs/: a pr)ess (hi)h needs t %e a!ided+
160
Clearl"/ 9ur identit": is the singular identit"
inherent in (men/ (hereas 9"urs: is presuma%l" the singular identit" inherent in men+ 'hse t(
identities shuld nt %e mi0ed %ut .ept apart+ *lf des dis)uss the andrg"nus ideal (ith a man?
(manl" and a (man?manl" mind %ut the man is still predminantl" male and the (man mstl"
female+ ," e0plaining the ideal f andrg"n" *lf still empl"s terms inherent in the %inar"
s"stem+ ' *lf/ identit" is limited (hile fr ,utler it is multiple+ 'he ne is %ased n the %inar"
ppsitin f the se0es/ the ther is the result f a re1e)tin f this ppsitin+ 'he t( psitins
presented here remain rather )nfli)ting+
6 A debate on Woolf's feminism
Bt nl" *lf herself (as s.epti)al )n)erning her feminism+ <ue t her missin f se!eral/
highl" rele!ant feminist tpi)s/ sme feminist )riti)s are relu)tant t put *lf's (r. in the
)ategr" f feminist (riters+ Bami ,la). defends *lf's feminism %" sa"ing that 9she )ared mst
a%ut L+++M the larger s)ial stru)tures that )ause the %attles:
161
nl" t admit later that *lf (as
indeed !er" relu)tant t f)us n se0ualit"/ ra)e and )lass issues+
162
'he first missin )an %e
e0plained %" the se0ual a%use *lf had t endure in her )hildhd and teenage "ears+ 'he la). f
f)us n ra)e issues is des)ri%ed as the result f the limited num%er f immigrants in $ngland
during *lf's lifetime+
168
*lf (as nt e0psed t peple f different ra)es and/ thus/ did nt ta.e
the aspe)t f ra)e int )nsideratin+ 'his ma" %e true t sme e0tent %ut at the same time/ ,la).'s
reasning )an %e interpreted as nai!ete and sheer ignran)e n *lf's part+ Cnsidering the aspe)t
f )lass as related t feminism/ *lf/ herself a mem%er f the upper?middle )lass/ ften had a
rather distrted image+ Bami ,la). all(s and 1ustifies )riti)ism frm feminists 9%e)ause L*lfM
des nt anal"3e the spe)ifi) gender disa%ilities f (r.ing?)lass (men D their disad!antages
1E7 ,utler/ -udith# Gender Trou!le/ 2006/ p+25+
162 Cf+ i%id+/ p+1@2+
168 Cf+ i%id+/ p+170+
Kathmann 8@
relati!e t their (n men+:
165
*hile the (r.ing )lass mem%ers f the *men's C?perati!e Kuild
(ere pting fr (men's litera)" in the first pla)e/ *lf (as a pu%lished (riter f fi)tin and nn?
fi)tin+
16E
She did nt g int detail (ith regards t the needs f (r.ing?)lass (men+
,raidtti appra)hes the dis)repan)" %et(een *lf's aspiratins and thse f the (men f
the l(er )lasses differentl"+ *lf indeed had man" pri!ileges denied t (men f ther )lasses
%ut the !ast differen)es )n)erning the (men's pprtunities and thse f *lf did nt affe)t her
arguments+
L+++M *lf stated that fr an( (man t %e a%le t turn her interest in the arts and espe)iall" in literature int
a sur)e f in)me/ sme general and !er" )n)rete s)ipliti)al pre)nditins (uld ha!e t %e fulfilled+
'his is true fr an" (man D that is t sa"/ fr all (men D nt nl" the fe( pri!ileged nes+ In ther (rds/
the )ategr" Woman/ despite all the differen)es that a)tuall" e0ist amng indi!idual (men/ is !er" )learl"
identifia%le as suffering frm )mmn/ )ulturall" enfr)ed assumptins+
166
,raidtti )learl" f)uses n the )ategr" f (men as the )mmn grund and dismisses the
imprtan)e f )lass+ 'he (r.ing )lass (men (uld surel" %enefit frm s)ipliti)al )hanges
ena%ling them t li!e ff f their (n literar" aspiratins %ut (as this D (men's edu)atin (ith the
aim t ha!e an in)me %ased n ne's (riting D their mst urgent gal at the time= >s ,la). has
pinted ut/ the first and fremst gal (as t %e a%le t read and (rite at all+ 'hus/ edu)atin (as
f great imprtan)e t them as it (as t *lf %ut their pr%lems (ere mre se!ere and
fundamental+
167
Bnetheless/ ,raidtti has a pint (hen she )laims that/ regardless f the
differen)es %et(een the )riti)al feminist (riter *lf and (men (ith ther %a).grunds/ *lf
see.s s)ipliti)al )hanges fr all (men ali.e+ ," stating that all (men are t sme e0tent
affe)ted %" 9)mmn/ )ulturall" enfr)ed assumptins/: ,raidtti manifests and 1ustifies *lf's
feminism and defines it as pertaining t all (men %e)ause woman as the )mmn grund is the
mst imprtant and fundamental )ategr" in feminism+ ' ,raidtti and ,la). ali.e/ there is n
du%t that Virginia *lf (as a feminist (riter/ %th f them stating that A Room of One's Own as
(ell as Three Guineas are (r.s that )learl" pr!e the (riter's in!l!ement (ith feminism+
16@

,la)./ h(e!er/ is a(are f the ptential diffi)ulties *lf's feminism fa)es+ In the )nte0t f
dis)ussing the )ntr!ersial Three Guineas/ in (hi)h *lf %lames patriar)h" fr the (ars and
lin.s (manhd (ith pea)e/ ,la). re)gni3es that 9Virginia *lf's feminism is f a srt still nt
165 ,la)./ Bami# Virginia Woolf as Feminist/ 2005/ p+1@7+
16E Cf+ i%id+/ p+1@@+
167 In *lf's shrt str" 9> S)iet"/: pu%lished in 1721/ the female prtagnists f)us n the imprtan)e f litera)"
fr (men+ 'hus/ (men's a%ilit" t read (as f great imprtan)e t *lf man" "ears %efre her t( essa"s (ere
pu%lished+ &r further reading see *lf/ Virginia+ 9> S)iet"+: The &om'lete horter Fiction of Virginia Woolf. $d+
Susan <i).+ Lndn# 2garth Aress/ 17@E+
16@ Cf+ ,raidtti/ Rsi# Nomadic u!"ects/ 1775/ pp+282?288+
Cf+ ,la)./ Bami# Virginia Woolf as Feminist/ 2005/ pp+7F112+
Kathmann 87
easil" a))epted tda"+:
167
'he >meri)an feminist )riti) $laine Sh(alter is ne f the mst hstile literar" )riti)s f
Virginia *lf's feminism and finds it pr%lemati) and false that *lf is n(ada"s )lassified as a
feminist+ 2er )riti4ue is partl" %ased n *lf's statements n the ideal f the andrg"nus mind in
A Room of One's Own+ > mind )ntaining %th female and male p(ers is a utpia leading t
)nfusin+ Sh(alter e4uals maleness (ith aggressin and femaleness (ith nurturan)e and
pr)eeds t )laim that *lf )uld nt pssi%l" ha!e su))eeded in a)4uiring andrg"n" as the
status f (manhd (uld nt ha!e all(ed this+
170
>s a supprti!e argument fr her dismissal f
andrg"n"/ Sh(alter uses the figures f the ,lms%ur" grup#
*hen (e thin. a%ut the 1"/ the genersit"/ and the a%sen)e f 1ealus" and dminatin attri%uted t
,lms%ur"/ (e shuld als remem%er the !i)tims f this emtinal utpia# Mar. Kertler/ <ra Carringtn/
Virginia *lf+ 'he" are the failures f andrg"n"; their sui)ides are ne f ,lms%ur"'s representati!e art
frms+
171
2ere/ Sh(alter des nt hesitate t lin. andrg"n" (ith sui)ide+ 'his is a )ntr!ersial )nne)tin
t %e made+ ,esides/ the painter Mar. Kertler is generall" nt mentined as a mem%er f the
,lms%ur" grup as he (as nl" lsel" )nne)ted (ith them+
172
<ra Carringtn )mmitted
sui)ide after a phase f depressin+
178
Virginia *lf's sui)ide is li.e(ise ass)iated (ith mani)?
depressi!e perids+ If these depressins (ere )nne)ted t an andrg"nus mind r lifest"le
remains 4uestina%le and the suggestin merel" appears li.e an attempt t stigmati3e the )n)ept f
andrg"n"+ Sh(alter's argumentatin is )ertainl" nt fla(less at this pint as she empl"s
assumptins that are nt pr!en and in the end simpl" false+
>%ut *lf's andrg"n" Sh(alter states that it 9(as the m"th that helped her e!ade
)nfrntatin (ith her (n painful femaleness and ena%led her t )h.e and repress her anger and
am%itin+:
175
'he )riti) refers t the )n)ept f the )m%inatin f mas)ulinit" and femininit" as a
means f es)ape frm ha!ing t esta%lish a )lear se0ual identit"+ 'he andrg"nus ideal as the !er"
ppsite f feminism is ne f the reasns (h" Sh(alter dismisses *lf and espe)iall" A Room
of One's Own as anti?feminist#
$!en in the mment f e0pressing feminist )nfli)t/ *lf (anted t trans)end it+ 2er (ish fr e0perien)e
(as reall" a (ish t frget e0perien)e+ In the 1720s/ as her fi)tin m!ed a(a" frm realism/ her )riti)ism
170 Cf+ Sh(alter/ $laine# A -iterature of Their Own/ 1777/ pp+268?265+
171 I%id+/ pp+265?26E+
172 Cf+ Ri)hardsn/ $li3a%eth A+# A *looms!ur( ,conogra'h(+ *in)hester# St+ Aaul's ,i%ligraphies/ 17@7/ p+2+
Cf+ Rsen%aum/ S+A+# The *looms!ur( Grou'. Lndn# Crm 2elm/ 177E/ pp+ii?iii+
178 Cf+ Ca(s/ Mar" >nn# Women of *looms!ur(. Virginia, Vanessa, and &arrington, pp+117?117+
175 Sh(alter/ $laine# A -iterature of Their Own/ 1777/ p+265+
Kathmann 50
and her thereti)al prse m!ed a(a" frm a tru%led feminism t(ard a )n)ept f andrg"n"+
17E
&eminism and andrg"n" )ntradi)t ea)h ther and )annt pssi%l" %e )m%ined a))rding t
Sh(alter+ 'hus/ *lf is either a feminist r in fa!r f the andrg"nus idea %ut she )annt
pssi%l" ad!)ate %th thughts+ 2(e!er/ in her earlier essa"/ *lf )ertainl" des nt merel"
f)us n the unin f mas)ulinit" and femininit" in the mind+ 2er (ell?.n(n demand that (men
shuld ha!e a rm f their (n as (ell as mne" fr self?supprt and independen)e is presented as
the essa"'s )n)lusin and it is (ithut a du%t a feminist thught+
In e$ual.Te$tual /olitics/ 'ril Mi disagrees (ith Sh(alter's depi)tin f *lf's
andrg"n" as representing her 9flight frm fi0ed gender identities+:
176
' Mi/ it is nt an es)ape
%ut rather a re)gnitin f the illusin f the %inar" s"stem f the se0es+ *lf (as nt afraid f a
female identit" %ut simpl" re1e)ted the suppsedl" fi0ed identities f the mas)uline and the
feminine as the t( nl" pssi%ilities+ Instead f adpting the steret"pi)al female identit"/ *lf
reali3ed that the nl" (a" t !er)me the esta%lished s"stem is t 4uestin it and/ )nse4uentl"/ t
refuse t parti)ipate in it %" repetitin+
177
Is Mi's e0planatin mre reasna%le than that f
Sh(alter= In Three Guineas, the narratr e0pli)itl" )alls fr a s)iet" f utsiders/ meaning that
(men shuld frm a grup in rder t fll( their interests utside the patriar)hal s"stem+ Men
and (men are )learl" separated/ (hi)h is repeatedl" stated in the essa" as a means f frmulating
a female identit" independent frm that f the male+
17@
*hate!er purpse *lf's andrg"n"
represents/ the 4uestin remains if it autmati)all" dismisses feminism+ >s alread" mentined/ fr
Sh(alter/ *lf's ideas n the andrg"nus mind are )n)mitant (ith anti?feminism+ In )ntrast
t that/ Mi is f the pinin 9that a ther" that demands the de)nstru)tin f se0ual identit" is
indeed authenti)all" feminist;:
177
her detailed definitin f *lf's feminism (ill %e dis)ussed later
in the te0t+ Cn)erning andrg"n"/ the )n)ept is ultimatel" seen as the epitme f anti?feminism
%" ne and authenti) feminism %" the ther+
Sh(alter furthermre )riti)i3es *lf fr refusing t (rite e0pli)itl" n the feminist tpi) f
female se0ualit"+ *hile Bami ,la). 1ustifies this missin as %eing mst li.el" the result f
*lf's se0ual a%use/ Sh(alter ges as far as t 4uestin the a%use in the first pla)e+ She des s
in a !er" %rief paragraph and in a rather su%tle manner %" 4uting the re!ie(er Krdn 2aight/ (h
attri%uted *lf's diar" entries n the a%use t her !i!id imaginatin+
1@0
Sh(alter des nt disagree
17E Sh(alter/ $laine# A -iterature of Their Own/ 1777/ p+2@2+
176 Mi/ 'ril# e$ual.Te$tual /olitics/ 1771/ p+18+
177 Cf+ i%id+/ p+18+
17@ Cf+ *lf/ Virginia# Three Guineas/ 1758/ p+206+
1@0 Cf+ Sh(alter/ $laine# A -iterature of Their Own/ 1777/ p+267+
Kathmann 51
and suggests that
it is impssi%le t .n( e0a)tl" (hat Kerge L<u).(rth/ Virginia's half?%rther/M did/ %ut it is altgether
reasna%le t %elie!e that his attentins (ere a terrif"ing sign t Virginia that peple 2new a%ut her/ that her
)hanged state (as a signal t men+
1@1
*lf is presented as the a)ti!e persn %" Sh(alter; it is her %d" that )hanged and it is she (h
is sending signals+ Aresuma%l"/ Sh(alter sa"s <u).(rth nl" rea)ted t her %dil" )hange+ 'he
a%use f Virginia as a si0?"ear?ld is nt mentined here+ Se0ual a%use at su)h an earl" age )an
hardl" %e pinned d(n t sme 9)hanged state: f the %d"+ *hat fll(s is an attempt t e0plain
*lf's reser!ed attitude t(ards se0ualit" as an a)t f (illful repressin+ Se0ual a%use is nt
)nsidered as a pssi%le reasn fr her reser!atins+ *lf is presented as a (man (h refuses t
a))ept her (manhd and (h tries t fight it %" repressing e!er"thing that )uld pssi%l" %e
identified as feminine+ Sh(alter lin.s *lf's %rea.d(ns (ith her suppsed diffi)ulties t attain a
female identit"+ She )reates a time?line and states that the first ma1r %rea.d(n )in)ides (ith the
nset f menstruatin as (ell as (ith the death f *lf's mther+ 'he latter is nt an un)mmn
reasn fr a mental %rea.d(n+ 'he frmer/ h(e!er/ is (hat Sh(alter puts emphasis n+ ' her/
the )risis )aused %" *lf's first menstruatin is a sign f the (riter's flight frm female identit"+
'he )nfusin that results frm the fight f a female identit" is (hat suppsedl" )aused the
%rea.d(n (hen *lf (as thirteen "ears ld+ >dditinall"/ Sh(alter states that 9LaMnther
s"mptm n( understd as an aspe)t f female adles)ent trauma is anore$ia ner+osa/ r (illful
self?star!atin+:
1@2
'his is fll(ed %" s)ientifi) 4utes pr!ing that the nset f menstruatin and
the )hange f the %d" )an )ause anre0ia and ther eating disrders+
Stephen 'rm%le" e0plains *lf's temprar" a!ersins t fd 4uite differentl" and in dire)t
)ntrast t Sh(alter+ >))rding t 'rm%le"/ *lf's anre0ia 9des nt in!l!e a re1e)tin f her
(n femininit" LNM+ *hat is mre pr%a%le is that she is re1e)ting male se0ualit"/ r its effe)t n
her+:
1@8
>pparentl"/ her anre0i) phases (ere in ne (a" r the ther )nne)ted t se0ualit" and it is
nearl" impssi%le t tell (h is ultimatel" right/ Sh(alter r 'rm%le"+ 'rm%le"/ h(e!er/ pints
ut that 9the e0planatin fr Virginia's )nditin is nt t %e fund in a %rad s)ial perspe)ti!e/ %ut
in a uni4ue persnal ne+:
1@5
'his statement refuses t a))ept the general assumptin that (men
star!e themsel!es due t the fashin di)tates f s)iet" as the reasn f *lf's anre0ia+ >))rding
t 'rm%le"/ *lf's eating disrder (as mre )mple0 and nt due t a repressin f her
1@1 Sh(alter/ $laine# A -iterature of Their Own/ 1777/ p+267+
1@2 I%id+/ p+26@+
1@8 'rm%le"/ Stephen# 'All that ummer he was ;ad' > Virginia Woolf and 9er %octors. Lndn# -un)tin ,.s/
17@1/ p+61+
1@5 I%id+/ p+62+
Kathmann 52
femininit"/ (hi)h %e)mes %!ius in her relatinship (ith Vita Sa).!ille?*est+ 2er first phase f
star!atin fll(ed Lenard's first effrts t se0uall" appra)h her; his desire (as alien t her+
'hus/ she did nt re1e)t femininit" r (men's %dies %ut men and male se0ualit"+
1@E

&r Sh(alter/ the se)nd %rea.d(n is attri%uted t the fa)t that Lenard de)ided nt t ha!e
)hildren (ith Virginia; this time/ it (as Lenard (h repressed his (ife's female identit"+ &inall"/
9LherM sui)ide in 1750 Lsi)ZM fll(ed menpause+:
1@6
'he %rea.d(ns and the sui)ide are thus
lin.ed (ith female %dil" fun)tins that made *lf a(are f her female se0ualit"/ (hi)h she
repeatedl" tried t repress+ 'hat *lf suffered frm se!ere mani)?depressi!e illness thrughut her
(hle life is nt )nsidered as the )ause fr her %rea.d(ns+ 'he 9madness: is seen as a dire)t
result f *lf's re1e)tin f female identit" %e)ause she did nt su))eed in (ithdra(ing frm her
%d"/ (hi)h reminded her f her se0+
1@7
It %e)mes )lear that Sh(alter dismisses the e0planatin f
se0ual a%use in fa!r f her ther" that *lf re1e)ted (manhd and the %dil" fun)tins that
ma.e a (man a(are f her se0ual identit"+ *lf's episdes f depressin are lsel" ass)iated
(ith her se0ualit"+ 'his !erall re1e)tin f female identit" is seen as a means t su))eed in
a)4uiring an andrg"nus mind; it is a ne)essar" step t(ards andrg"n"# 9>t sme le!el/ *lf is
a(are that andrg"n" is anther frm f repressin r/ at %est/ self?dis)ipline+ It is nt s mu)h that
she re)mmends andrg"n" as that she (arns against feminist engagement+:
1@@
'hus/ the repressin
f her se0ualit" is/ indire)tl"/ )nne)ted (ith *lf's re1e)tin f feminism+ 'he message is# If "u
d nt a))ept "ur female identit"/ "u )annt pssi%l" %e r %e)me a feminist+ >nd again/ if "u
see. fr andrg"n"/ "u are fighting feminism and ris.ing sui)ide+
It is %!ius that Sh(alter emphasi3es *lf's %igraph"; she f)uses n the n!elist's
persnal e0perien)e mre than n her (ritings t determine her feminism/ r rather/ her anti?
feminism+ If it is true that *lf denied her (n se0ualit" and her female identit" then Sh(alter
ma.es sure that she prtra"s *lf as a (man (h is highl" influen)ed %" the fun)tins f her
%d"+ 'he )riti) pr1e)ts the female %d" nt a (riter (h refused t a))ept it+ Menstruatin/ the
a%sen)e f e0perien)ed mtherhd/ and menpause suppsedl" g!erned *lf's life+
*hile Sh(alter's argumentatin fr *lf's anti?feminism is t a great e0tent %ased n
%igraphi)al aspe)ts/ r rather/ the )riti)'s interpretatins f them/ she des nt fail t dis)uss sme
f *lf's (r.s+ >%ut a passage in Three Guineas she sa"s that it pses an 9e0aggeratin LthatM
undu%tedl" pr)eeds frm L*lf'sM need t )m%at the lingering shad( f her (n father's
demands+:
1@7
Sh(alter re)gni3es persnal issues f *lf in)rprated in her (r.s+ Later/ she
1@E Cf+ 'rm%le"/ Stephen# 'All that ummer he was ;ad'/ 17@1/ pp+61?65+
1@6 Sh(alter/ $laine# A -iterature of Their Own/ 1777/ p+267+
1@7 I%id+/ p+276+
1@@ I%id+/ p+2@@+
1@7 I%id+/ p+68+
Kathmann 58
de!tes nearl" t( pages t des)ri%ing h( the (riter's e0perien)e fund its (a" int the n!el
;rs. %allowa(+
170
'his is imprtant t nte as she then pr)eeds t dis)uss A Room of One's Own+
2er main pint/ apart frm the )riti4ue f andrg"n" mentined a%!e/ is pre)isel" the la). f
genuine persnal e0perien)e in *lf's earlier essa"+ She pints ut that *lf used e0perien)e t a
minimum and e!en managed t distrt the fe( persnal ntins that are in the te0t+ &urthermre/
she attests *lf a la). f seriusness (ith regards t the essa"'s st"le+
171
>t this pint/ it seems
ne)essar" t dis)uss the genre f A Room of One's Own+ Is it merel" an essa"= <es *lf's
intrdu)tin f se!eral narratrs nt indi)ate that this essa" fun)tins n !arius le!els= '
Sh(alter/ essa"s ha!e t %e a d)umentatin f persnal pinin (ithut fi)titius elements+
Bami ,la)./ h(e!er/ pints ut that A Room of One's Own is )learl" an amalgamatin f 9fi)tin
and disguised aut%igraph"/: (hi)h %e)mes %!ius %" the man" imaginar" aspe)ts in)rprated
%" *lf+
172
*hat is less %!ius is (here t dra( the line %et(een fa)t and fi)tin+ Sh(alter
e0plains that she read the essa" merel" as a d)ument f the (riter's e0perien)e/ she studied it
9deta)hed frm its narrati!e strategies/:
178
an appra)h that 'ril Mi strngl" )riti)i3es+ >))rding
t her/ mitting the narrati!e aspe)t f the essa" means an im%alan)ed reading naturall" leading t
false interpretatins f the te0t+
175
<isregarding the narrati!e strategies %" nl" )nsidering the
)ntents )uld nt ha!e %een *lf's intentin+ >t ne pint/ Sh(alter mentins D and disappr!es
f D the )hi)e f narratin *lf made+
L<Mespite its illusins f spntaneit" and intima)"/ A Room of One's Own is an e0tremel" impersnal and
defensi!e %.+ Impersnalit" ma" seem li.e the (rng (rd fr a %. in (hi)h a narrati!e 9I: appears in
e!er" third senten)e+ ,ut a )lser l. re!eals that the 9I: is a persna/ (hm the authr )alls 9Mar" ,etn/:
and that her !ie(s are )arefull" distan)ed and depersnali3ed/ 1ust as the prnun 9ne: in the title
depersnali3es/ and e!en de?se0es/ the su%1e)t+
17E
'hus/ Mar" ,etn D ne f the fur narratrs in the essa" D is a superfluus middle?(man (h
fun)tins as a %arrier %et(een the female reader and *lf's persnal feminist pinin+ 'he narratr
stensi%l" must %e *lf herself+ Hnl" then is a trul" persnali3ed te0t guaranteed+ ,ut des this
reall" mean that A Room of One's Own fails t meet a feminist agenda= Culd the narrati!e
strategies nt ha!e a purpse= Bt nl" Mi (uld ans(er this 4uestin in the affirmati!e+ >nne
&ernald dis)usses the fun)tin f *lf's narrati!e in her arti)le 9'> Rm f Hne's H(n'/ Aersnal
Criti)ism/ and the $ssa": and )n)ludes that the intrdu)tin f the fur narratrs is/ in fa)t/ a
170 Cf+ Sh(alter/ $laine# A -iterature of Their Own/ 1777/ pp+276?27@+
171 Cf+ i%id+/ p+2@8+
172 ,la)./ Bami# Virginia Woolf as Feminist/ 2005/ pp+75?7E F 77+
178 Sh(alter/ $laine# A -iterature of Their Own/ 1777/ p+2@E+
175 Cf+ Mi/ 'ril# e$ual.Te$tual /olitics/ 1771/ p+8+
17E Sh(alter/ $laine# A -iterature of Their Own/ 1777/ p+2@2+
Kathmann 55
helpful tl rather than a %arrier+ 'he female readers )an easil" identif" (ith a persna li.e Mar"
,etn %e)ause she resem%les an ordinar( (man mre than *lf did r )uld+
176
Unli.e *lf/
her readers are nt ne)essaril" part f the upper?middle r upper )lasses/ and/ e!en mre s/ the"
are nt pu%lished authrs (ith influen)e+ ," intrdu)ing a narratr su)h as ,etn/ *lf indeed
ta.es a(a" the immediate persnal e0perien)e that Sh(alter demands %ut she manages t maintain
an intima)" that addresses the reader+ Ultimatel"/ this is the )ru)ial pint# *uld the rdinar"
readers/ espe)iall" thse f the 1720s/ ha!e appre)iated the unmediated pinin f a real %ut highl"
pri!ileged (man and her pr%lems in a patriar)hal (rld rather than a fi)tinal figure (h (as
mre li.e themsel!es= <id the readers nt .n( that it (as the ppular literar" figure *lf (h
(rte the te0t= >nd e!en mre imprtantl"# <id the" e$'ect t read the (riter's persnal
e0perien)e= &ernald pints ut that man" readers f A Room of One's Own at the time f its
pu%li)atin as (ell as tda" assume that the" ha!e read *lf's persnal pinins in the essa"/
regardless f the %!ius fa)t that *lf )hse t intrdu)e narratrs that are nt herself+
177
'he"
resem%le *lf in sme (a"s %ut the" d nt represent the (riter entirel"+ Mst readers seem t %e
a%le t read *lf's pinin e!en thugh it is nt her (n !i)e spea.ing+ 'hus/ t &ernald the
impersnal narratr is a tremendus help/ (hereas t Sh(alter/ this )hi)e f narratin is part f
(hat she refers t as the 9flight int andrg"n"/:
17@
*lf's (a" f remaining distant frm her
(ritings+
Mre!er/ Sh(alter is f the pinin that nt nl" essa"s %ut feminist (r.s in general
re4uire depi)tins f the (riter's e0perien)e+ Mi e0plains this as fll(s#
'he philsphi)al grund fr the turn t the persnal and the re1e)tin f %1e)ti!it" is the idea that
.n(ledge is 'situated'+ > famus feminist !ersin f the )laim is that .n(ledge D all .n(ledge D is
gendered/ that '(men's (a"s f .n(ing' are different frm men's LNM+
177
'he 9situated: is (hat *lf presuma%l" mits+ Baturall"/ Sh(alter is nt the nl" ne see.ing fr
the 9situated: in feminist (ritings+ Rsi ,raidtti li.e(ise ad!)ates that feminists pa" 9LaMttentin
t the situated,:
200
(hi)h/ in her pinin/ des nt mean that a (riter (h merel" f)uses n the
)ategr" f (man is an anti?feminist+ ,raidtti's thereti)al %a).grund is that f se0ual differen)e
%ut (hat is Sh(alter's thereti)al %a).grund= *hat is her pint f departure= Mi )riti)i3es
Sh(alter's %. as la).ing a thereti)al %a).grund the reader )an relate t and that )uld e0plain
176 Cf+ &ernald/ >nne# 9'> Rm f Hne's H(n'/ Aersnal Criti)ism/ and the $ssa"+: Twentieth &entur( -iterature/
50+n2 ISummer 1775J/ pp+176?177+
177 Cf+ i%id+/ p+16E+
17@ Sh(alter's )hapter n *lf is )alled 9Virginia *lf and the &light Int >ndrg"n"+:
177 Mi/ 'ril# What is a Woman@ H0frd# H0frd Uni!ersit" Aress/ 1777/ p+1EE+
Kathmann 5E
Sh(alter's pint f !ie(+ 'he nl" thereti)ian mentined in her )hapter n *lf is Kerg
Lu.[)s+ Mi pints ut that e!en thugh Sh(alter )annt %e said t %e a 9prletarian humanist:
li.e Lu.[)s/ 9there is dete)ta%le (ithin her literar" )riti)ism a strng/ un4uestined %elief in the
!alues LNM f traditinal %urgeis humanism f a li%eral?indi!idualist .ind+:
201
'his humanism/
she argues/ is the result f a patriar)hal s)iet"+ 'a.ing traditinal humanism (ith the male as its
)entral f)us as a pint f departure fr a dis)ussin f *lf's feminist am%itins is thus %und t
fail+
202
Mi's )riti4ue )n)erning Sh(alter's humanist !ie(s ma" %e 1ustified+ 2(e!er/ this des
nt mean that Sh(alter is missing a thereti)al pint f !ie( in the first pla)e+ 2er pint f !ie(
might %e )nsidered 4uestina%le %ut its e0isten)e is nt+ &urthermre/ the >meri)an )riti) ma"
ha!e failed t ma.e her (n feminist stand e0pli)it %ut it is )ertainl" pssi%le t find it %et(een the
lines+ It is self?e!ident %" her strng %1e)tin f *lf's andrg"n" that Sh(alter ad!)ates a
ther" f se0ual differen)e rather than ne that aims at a%lishing the %inar" s"stem f the se0es+
She )alls fr (men's em%diment and fr a strng f)us n the feminine and female e0perien)e+
>ll f these aspe)ts )an %e fund in ,raidtti's mdel f the three le!els f se0ual differen)es+
Sh(alter's thereti)al feminist %a).grund (ill nt %e fr)efull" defined thrugh spe)ulatin at
this pint %ut it shuld %e)me )lear that it is nt t diffi)ult t dete)t its tra)es in the te0t+
Cntrar" t Sh(alter/ 'ril Mi e0plains her thereti)al methds (ith (hi)h she attempts t
define *lf's feminism+ She empl"s -ulia Kriste!a's mdel f three different .inds f feminism+
'he first %ran)h is referred t as 9li%eral feminism/: (ith (men see.ing fr e4ualit" and 9a))ess
t the s"m%li) rder+: 'he se)nd %ran)h is )alled 9radi)al feminism/: (here the s"m%li) rder
f the first %ran)h is e0pli)itl" dismissed as it is male?dminated+ Radi)al feminists e0pli)itl" praise
femininit"+ ,th %ran)hes are %ased n the %inar" ppsitin %et(een men and (men+ 'he third
%ran)h/ (hi)h Kriste!a herself ad!)ates/ refuses t a))ept 9the di)htm" %et(een mas)uline and
feminine: and re1e)ts this ppsitin as metaph"si)al+
208
Mi seems t psitin her (n feminism
sme(here %et(een %ran)h t( and three/ sa"ing that a )m%inatin is ne)essar" fr %ran)h t(
nt t fall int the trap f se0ism %ut %e a(are f the )nstru)ted nature f gender+ ,ran)h three is
thus nt full" realisti) as (men need t %e re)gni3ed as su)h in the first pla)e fr %ran)h three t
%e)me effe)ti!e+ 'his/ h(e!er/ is merel" Mi's persnal feminist )riti4ue+ 2er definitin f
*lf's feminism is psitined mre e0pli)itl" int ne f the %ran)hes/ namel" that f %ran)h
three/ as *lf 9has understd that the gal f the feminist struggle must pre)isel" %e t
de)nstru)t the death?dealing %inar" ppsitins f mas)ulinit" and femininit"+:
205
' Mi/ *lf
202 Cf+ i%id+/ p+@+
208 >ll 4utes frm i%id+/ p+12+
205 I%id+/ p+18+
Kathmann 56
(as neither a li%eral nr a radi)al feminist %ut )learl" (ent %e"nd the mas)uline/feminine
di)htm"+ 2er assumptin is mainl" %ased n the reading f Three Guineas/ (here/ a))rding t
Mi/ Kriste!a's stage three pre!ails/ (hereas stage ne and t( are re1e)ted as dangerus %ut then
ta.en up again at the end+
20E
'his des)riptin f *lf's feminism is 4uite %lurr" as n te0tual
e0amples are gi!en+ *hen the essa"'s narratr demands )lleges (ith spe)ial )urri)ula fr (men
then this is )ertainl" a frm f radi)al feminism and des nt aim at destr"ing the %inar" s"stem f
man and (man+ >nd (hen the narratr )alls fr e4ual pa" and the same prfessinal pprtunities
fr %th men and (men/ (ith the (men aspiring the same psitins as men/ then this is )ertainl"
a li%eral feminist thught/ a))rding t the Kriste!an mdel Mi dis)usses+ 'hese aspe)ts are %" n
means minr issues in Three Guineas %ut are f great signifi)an)e t its %uild?up+ *lf's mst
)ntr!ersial %ser!atin that patriar)h" is lin.ed t (ar and femininit" t pa)ifism is "et again %"
n means a statement that a%andns the di)htm" f the mas)uline and the feminine+ It is mu)h
rather radi)al feminism/ a))rding t the definitin that Mi %rr(s frm Kriste!a+
In the end/ it %e)mes %!ius that e!en thugh Mi's definitin has a strnger sense f
ther"/ it is nl" slightl" less ne?sided than the argumentatin presented %" Sh(alter+ Mi des
grant *lf's feminism sme nuan)es f the s?)alled li%eral and radi)al feminism %ut her %ttm
line is that *lf is thin.ing %e"nd gender/ and that she is a(are f the )nstru)ted nature f man
and (man and )nse4uentl" (ishes t de)nstru)t it fr the sa.e f her ideal/ namel" andrg"n"+
' Mi/ *lf (as 9this great feminist (riter/: and a 9de)lared feminist+:
206
' Sh(alter/ 9it is
imprtant t dem"stif" the legend f Virginia *lf: in the )nte0t f feminism+
207
'he 4uestin
that remains t %e ans(ered is# *h is right= Mi/ Sh(alter/ either f them/ r ma"%e neither f
them=
20E Cf+ Mi/ 'ril# e$ual.Te$tual /olitics, 1771/ p+15+
206 I%id+/ p+1 F @+
207 Sh(alter/ $laine# A -iterature of Their Own/ 1777/ p+26E+
Kathmann 57
7 onclusion
Reading Virginia *lf frm different feminist standpints tda" as (ell as the de%ate %" Mi and
Sh(alter underlines the diffi)ult" f )ategri3ing *lf's feminism and la%eling it as fll(ing
ne )herent )ntemprar" dire)tin+ In her t( famus essa"s A Room of One's Own and Three
Guineas/ man" and !er" different ideas n the (man 4uestin )me tgether+ It is pssi%le t
interpret her thughts as ideas that are n(ada"s referred t as relating t the ther" f se0ual
differen)e+ 'he f)us is ften n h( men and (men are different and h( this differen)e )an
a))entuate %th se0es' strengths+ Li.e(ise it is pssi%le t read the essa"s as smething entirel"
different/ "et still feminist+ 'hus/ e!en aspe)ts f )mple0 feminist theries li.e thse ela%rated n
%" -udith ,utler (ere nt entirel" alien t *lf+ She 4uestins the se0es as %eing purel" feminine
r purel" mas)uline (hile at the same time she appears t %e ad!)ating se0ual differen)e+ 2er
e0tensi!e ela%ratins n (men's issues and the nature f her trains f thught pr!e that Virginia
*lf (as a prgressi!e thin.er (h (as ahead f her time )n)erning her feminist stand and her
persnal psitin as a (man in a patriar)hal s)iet"+
>s this thesis has sh(n/ it is e0tremel" diffi)ult t as)ri%e ne single feminist ther"
e0)lusi!el" t Virginia *lf's thin.ing+ 2er feminism )annt simpl" %e des)ri%ed as fll(ing the
)n)ept f andrg"n" nl"/ nr is it merel" psitined in the traditin f se0ual differen)e+ It is a
)n))tin f different feminist dire)tins/ (hi)h is (h" her feminism is s )mple0 and appears at
times )ntr!ersial t readers tda"+ 'he am%iguit" f her feminism is als the reasn (h" )riti)s
su)h as Sh(alter are ppsed t it; the" refuse t a))ept that the ther" the" themsel!es are in
fa!r f are mingled (ith the nes the" are ppsed t as therists+ ,ut this am%iguit" des nt
mean that *lf )ntradi)ted herself )n)erning her feminist ideas+ >s presented in this thesis/
*lf's appra)h t feminism (as nt a ne?(a" street+ She )nsidered herself a feminist at an
earl" stage %ut refused t %e )alled a feminist later n due t her (n definitin f the (rd+
If *lf is )nsidered a feminist thus depends n h( feminism is defined in the first pla)e+
' ,raidtti/ ,la)./ and Mi/ *lf (as mst definitel" a feminist; t Sh(alter and e!en t *lf
herself/ she (as nt; ,utler's stand n *lf is un.n(n+ 'he" all ha!e different ideas a%ut
feminism and its definitin+ >t the same time/ their thereti)al %a).grunds and feminist
)n!i)tins differ tremendusl"+ 'his des nt mean that ne assumptin is )rre)t (hile the ther
must %e false+ 2(e!er/ e!er" feminist's attempt t instrumentali3e *lf fr ne spe)ifi) feminist
ther" is %und t fail+ 'here is n )ategr" r %ran)h f feminism that fulfills all the aspe)ts f
*lf's feminism/ in)luding her self?pr)laimed psitin as an anti?feminist (h despises the f?
(rd+ *lf's feminism is )mple0 and the nl" la%el that (uld rightl" define it (uld simpl"
ha!e t %e )alled Woolf's feminism+ *hen 'ril Mi states that 9LfMr Sh(alter/ *lf's (riting
Kathmann 5@
)ntinuall" es)apes the )riti)'s perspe)ti!e/ al(a"s refusing t %e pinned d(n t ne unif"ing
angle f !isin:
20@
then this )riti4ue addresses numerus feminists tr"ing t uni4uel" define *lf's
feminist am%itins+ *hen the )riti)'s perspe)ti!e des nt all( multipli)it" then the )riti)'s
aspiratins (ill lead t false )n)lusins+ 9LHMne unif"ing angle f !isin: )annt %e arti)ulated in
*lf's )ase/ r rather/ it )annt %e arti)ulated )n!in)ingl"+ 2en)e/ )laiming that *lf (as an
anti?feminist pre)edes a ne?sided reading pr)ess and/r a rather narr( e0planatin f the (rd
feminism/ a term that has %e)me !er" di!erse and mnipresent sin)e the late 20
th
)entur"+
&urthermre/ it is imprtant t stress that *lf's essa"s dis)ussed in this thesis had all %een
pu%lished se!eral de)ades %efre the thereti)al te0ts presented here (ere frmulated+ $mpl"ing
*lf as an e0ample f ne )ntemprar" feminist ther" is impssi%le+ Instrumentali3ing her
thughts in parts cannot (r. as the nature f her feminism is mre di!erse than the !er" spe)ifi)
theries tda"+ If a representati!e f the Cntinental grup )laimed that *lf (as a feminist
ad!)ating se0ual differen)e/s and shuld thus %e referred t as a se0ual differen)e feminist then
this h"ptheti)al representati!e (uld Iha!e tJ %l). ut all the aspe)ts and ideas that are nt
)nfrm (ith said ther"+ 'he same applies t representati!es f ther spe)ifi) feminist theries+
Sme aspe)ts (uld al(a"s %e missing+ *lf's thin.ing (as free f feminist thereti)al dis)urse/
(hi)h is the reasn (h" her ideas seem t %e )ntradi)tr" t tda"'s readers (h ma" ha!e studied
feminist and/r literar" ther"+ 'he nature f her feminism des nt entirel" fit int the )ategries
esta%lished man" "ears after her pu%li)atins+ Its di!ersit" results frm the la). f esta%lished
dis)urse and at the same time it (as *lf herself (h )ntri%uted t the feminist dis)urse n(
re)gni3ed+ Hther than tda"'s feminists/ she did nt ha!e numerus female prede)essrs t 4ute
frm/ instead/ it is *lf herself (h is ften 4uted as a feminist tda"+ 2er (r. des nt )ease
t influen)e )ntemprar" (riters and IfeministJ therists as pinted ut in this thesis+ In the end/
*lf's feminism )annt %e put int ne single )ategr"+ &rm a )ntemprar" pint f !ie( it is a
)n))tin f different ideas and dire)tins/ and as su)h it is Woolf's feminism.
20@ Mi/ 'ril# e$ual.Te$tual /olitics/ 1771/ p+8+
Kathmann 57
8 0ibliogra$h,
,ell/ Cuentin+ Virginia Woolf) A *iogra'h(+ Vl+ I F II+ Lndn# 2garth Aress/ 1778+ Arint+
,la)./ Bami+ Virginia Woolf as Feminist. Itha)a and Lndn# Crnell Uni!ersit" Aress/ 2005+
Arint+
,raidtti/ Rsi+ Nomadic u!"ects. #m!odiment and e$ual %ifference in &ontem'orar( Feminist
Theor(. Be( Gr.# Clum%ia Uni!ersit" Aress/ 1775+ Arint+
???+ /atterns of %issonance+ A tud( of Women in &ontem'orar( /hiloso'h(. 'rans+ $li3a%eth Kuild+
Cam%ridge# Alit" Aress/ 1771+ Arint+
,riggs/ -ulia+ Virginia Woolf) An ,nner -ife. Lndn# >llen Lane/ 200E+ Arint+
,utler/ -udith+ Gender Trou!le) Feminism and the u!+ersion of ,dentit(+ 1770+ Be( Gr. and
Lndn# Rutledge/ 2006+ Arint+
Ca(s/ Mar" >nn+ Women of *looms!ur(. Virginia, Vanessa, and &arrington+ Be( Gr. and
Lndn# Rutledge/ 1770+ Arint+
&ernald/ >nne+ 9'> Rm f Hne's H(n'/ Aersnal Criti)ism/ and the $ssa"+: Twentieth &entur(
-iterature/ 50+n2 ISummer 1775J+ Arint+
&0/ >li)e+ 9Literar" >llusin as &eminist Criti)ism in '> Rm f Hne's H(n'.: /hilological
?uarterl(/ 68 I17@5J+ Arint+
Pillusin/ n+P+ O#% Online+ Mar)h 2012+ H0frd Uni!ersit" Aress+ 16 >pr 2012
\http#//(((+ed+)m+lud(ig+lu%+lu+se/!ie(/$ntr"/71E6E=redire)ted&rm]illusin^+
Irigara"/ Lu)e+ P'-e?Lu)e Irigara"'# > Meeting (ith Lu)e Irigara"+P ," $li3a%eth 2irsh and Kar" >+
Hlsn+ 'rans+ $li3a%eth 2irsh and KaQtan ,rultte+ 8A& online+ 16+8 I177EJ# 855+ *e%+
???+ 8e, Tu, Nous+ Aaris# ,ernard Krasset/ 1770+ Arint+
Kathmann E0
PMan0/ ad1+ and n+P+ O#% Online+ Mar)h 2012+ H0frd Uni!ersit" Aress+ 1E >pr 2012
\http#//(((+ed+)m+lud(ig+lu%+lu+se/!ie(/$ntr"/118@17=redire)ted&rm]Man0_20)at^+
Mar)us/ -ane+ 9Aathgraphies# 'he Virginia *lf Sap Hperas+: igns/ 17+5 I1772J+ Arint+
Mi/ 'ril+ e$ual.Te$tual /olitics) Feminist -iterar( Theor(. 17@E+ Lndn# Rutledge/ 1771+
Arint+
???+ What is a Woman@ H0frd# H0frd Uni!ersit" Aress/ 1777+ Arint+
Mntgmer"/ &ina >+ Women's Rights. truggles and Feminism in *ritain c.5664-5764.
Man)hester and Be( Gr.# Man)hester Uni!ersit" Aress/ 2006+ Arint+
Ale/ Rger+ The 1n2nown Virginia Woolf. Cam%ridge# Cam%ridge Uni!ersit" Aress/ 177@+ Arint+
Ri)hardsn/ $li3a%eth A++ A *looms!ur( ,conogra'h(. *in)hester# St+ Aaul's ,i%ligraphies/ 17@7+
Arint+
Rsen%aum/ S+ A++ The *looms!ur( Grou'. Lndn# Crm 2elm/ 177E+ Arint+
Sh(alter/ $laine+ A -iterature Of Their Own. *ritish Women No+elists From *ront0 to -essing+
Arin)etn/ B-# Arin)etn Uni!ersit" Aress/ 1777+ Arint+
'hane/ Aat+ 9'he S)ial/ $)nmi) and Aliti)al Status f *men+: 34
th
&entur( *ritain)
#conomic, ocial and &ultural &hange+ $d+ Aaul -hnsn+ Lndn and Be( Gr.#
Lngman/ 1775+ Arint+
'rm%le"/ Stephen+ 'All that ummer he was ;ad' > Virginia Woolf and 9er %octors. Lndn#
-un)tin ,.s/ 17@1+ Arint+
*lf/ Virginia+ The %iar( of Virginia Woolf+ Vl+ 2 F 8 F E+ $d+ >nne Hli!ier ,ell+ Lndn#
2garth Aress/ 177@?17@5+ Arint+
???+ Orlando) A *iogra'h(. 172@+ Lndn# 2garth Aress/ 17E5+ Arint+
Kathmann E1
???+ A Room of One's Own and Three Guineas. 1727+ 178@+ Lndn# Vintage/ 2001+ Arint+
???+ A Room of One's Own. 1727+ Lndn# 2garth Aress/ 1757+ Arint+
???+ 9> S)iet"+: The &om'lete horter Fiction of Virginia Woolf. $d+ Susan <i).+ Lndn# 2garth
Aress/ 17@E+ Arint+
???+ Three Guineas+ 178@+ Lndn# 2garth Aress/ 1758+ Arint+

Virginia Woolf and The F-Word

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Virginia Woolf and The F-Word

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Virginia Woolf and the F-Word:

On the Difficulties of Defining Woolf's (Anti-)Feminism.

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