F6 Mathematics T 1 of 5

Revision Notes on Chapter 14 : Probability (Term 3)

Name : ______________________________ Date : __________________
(A) : Addition Principle & Multiplication Principle
1). If an operation consists of either one of the k steps where for each step, there are n
1
, n
2
, n
3
, , n
k
ways that can
be performed, then the number of ways that the operation can be carried out = n
1
+ n
2
+ n
3
+ + n
k
ways.
(Addition Principle).

2). If an operation consists of all the k steps where for each step, there are n
1
, n
2
, n
3
, , n
k
ways that can be
performed, then the number of ways that the operation can be carried out = n
1
n
2
n
3
n
k
ways.
(Multiplication Principle).



(B) : Permutations (Arrangement where order is important)


1). 4 Types :

i ). The number of permutations of n distinct objects =

ii ). Circular Permutation :

a). The number of permutations of n distinct elements in a circle = ( )

b). The number of permutations of n distinct elements in a circle where clockwise & anticlockwise
arrangements are considered as one (as in the case of beads or garland) =
()

.

iii). The number of permutations of r objects which can be made from n distinct objects
=

()
= number of ways to arrange r objects in to the n different spaces.

iv). The number of permutations of n objects of which n
1
are of one kind, n
2
of a second kind, , n
k
of
a kth. kind =

2). Examples :

i ). A photographer wishes to take photographs of 8 film stars consisting of 2 males and 6 females arranged
in a row. How many photographs are possible if the males must be separated?
(Hint : There are 7 spaces to arrange the 2 males among the row of 6 females ;
Number of ways

).
male
female

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ii ). Find how many different 7-digit number can be made from 4456789 if the 7-digit number are even.
(Hint : Number of ways

or work out from the odd numbers).

(C) : Combinations (Arrangement where order is not important)


1). The number of combinations of r objects selected from n distinct objects

()

.


2). Examples :

i ). Calculate the number of diagonals in a regular hexagon.
(Hint : number of diagonals =

).
Number of sides of hexagon.
Combine any 2 from 6 vertices.

ii ). 3 identical cubical dice are rolled. Find the number of possible different outcomes. (order not important).
(Hint : number of different outcomes

).
3 same number.
2 different numbers.
3 different numbers.



(D) : Techniques of Permutations & Combinations


1). Combine first and arrange.

e.g. : 0000, 0001, 0002, , 9999 are ten thousand 4-digit numbers. Calculate the number of numbers in
each of the following group :
a). 3 digits are the same and the remaining digit is different.
(Hint:

).

b). 1 pair of the same digits and the other 2 digits are different.
(Hint:

).


2). Group division.

e.g. : How many ways to divide group of 12 people into 2 groups of 3 people and 3 groups of 2 people?
Solution : Number of ways

.
Note: If each group has its distinct name, then no need to divide by and .

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3). Using Multiplication Principleand Subset Concept.

e.g. : Find the number of different sums that can be obtained by using one, some or all of the numbers in the
set *

+.
Solution : Number of different sums total number of possible subsets empty set

.


4). Arrange some items to be separated from each other.

e.g. : In arranging a 10-day examination time-table involving 10 subjects and one subject per day, a teacher
plans to have English, Malay and Chinese all separated by at least one day. How many ways are
possible?
Solution : 7 subjects have 8 spaces in between and at both ends to insert the 3 subjects.
Number of ways

.
and


5). Arrange some items to be separated from each other in a circle.

e.g. : In how many ways 7 boys and 5 girls can sit around a circular table so that no girls sit together.
Solution : Number of ways ( )

.


6). Necklace arrangement where clockwise and anticlockwise are considered as 1 arrangement.

e.g. : How many necklace of 6 beads each can be made from 8 beads of various colours?
Solution : Number of possible necklace

( )

.
Clock & anticlockwise as one.
Arrange.
Combine.


(E) : Probability


1). A sample space, S is a set of all possible outcomes for an experiment.

2). ()
()
()
.

3). () . The sum of the probabilities for all the elementary events for an experiment = 1 .

4). Complementary events : The complement of event . () () .

5). Exhaustive events : 2 or more events are said to be exhaustive if it is certain that at least one of them occurs.
Union of all the exhaustive events = S .


6). ( ) () () ( ) : Addition Rule of Probability. 4 of 5
Union / or. Intersect / and.


7). Mutually exclusive events : 2 or more events are said to be mutually exclusive if at most one of them can occur.
The events are not intersecting. If A and B are mutually exclusive, ( ) .


8). If events A and B are mutually exclusive, ( ) () () and vice versa.


9).

( ) .


10). Conditional Probability : ( ) probability of event A given event B has occurred.


Outcome
Tree Diagram : ( ) () ()






11). ( ) () () : Multiplication Rule of Probability (refer tree diagram in item (10)).


12). I ndependent events : 2 events are said to be independent if the occurrence of one does not affect the
probability of occurrence of the other. 2 events A and B are independent if
() ()
or () ()
or ( ) () ()


13). If events A and B are independent, ( ) () () and vice versa.


14). P ( getting at least one6 when 10 fair dice are rolled )
= 1 P( not getting any 6 when 10 fair dice are rolled )
= 1 (

0.8385 .


15). ()
()
()
: derived from formula in item (11).

()
()
. (This formula is used with a 2-way table or a contingency table).


16). () (

) .
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(F) : The Rule of Total Probability


1). () ( ) ( ) : can be represented by a Venn Diagram.

() () () () : can be represented by a Tree Diagram.

() () () () () () : Total Probability.


e.g. Given () () () () .

Solution : ()
()
()
: (Conditional probability)
(Multiplication Rule of Probability)

()()
()() ()()

(Total Probability)

.







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