History of Microprocessor

Generations
Microprocessor
A microprocessor -- also known as a CPU or central processing unit is complete
computation engine that is fabricated on a single chip. The frst microprocessor was the
Intel 4004, introduced in !". The 4004 was not #er$ powerful -- all it could do was add
and subtract, and it could onl$ do that 4 bits at a time. %ut it was ama&ing that
e#er$thing was on one chip. 'rior to the 4004, engineers built computers either from
collections of chips or from discrete components (transistors wired one at a time). The
4004 powered one of the frst portable electronic calculators.
In the world of personal computers, the terms microprocessor and *'+ are
used interchangeabl$. At the heart of all personal computers and most
workstations sits a microprocessor. ,icroprocessors also control the logic of
almost all digital de#ices, from clock radios to fuel-in-ection s$stems for
automobiles.
Three basic characteristics di.erentiate microprocessors/
Instruction set/ The set of instructions that the microprocessor can
e0ecute.
Bandwidth: The number of bits processed in a single instruction.
Clock speed/ 1i#en in megahert& (,2&), the clock speed determines how
man$ instructions per second the processor can e0ecute.
In both cases, the higher the #alue, the more powerful the *'+. 3or e0ample, a
45-bit microprocessor that runs at 60,2& is more powerful than a 7-bit
microprocessor that runs at 56,2&.
In addition to bandwidth and clock speed, microprocessors are classifed as being
either 8I9* (reduced instruction set computer) or *I9* (comple0 instruction set
computer).
If $ou ha#e e#er wondered what the microprocessor in $our computer is doing, or
if $ou ha#e e#er wondered about the di.erences between t$pes of
microprocessors, then read on. In this article, $ou will learn how fairl$ simple
digital logic techni:ues allow a computer to do its -ob, whether its pla$ing a game
or spell checking a document
Concise Timeline of Microprocessors:
Abacus (3000 B.C): was the frst computer in the history of the computing machines.
1st Generation Computers 1!"#$1!%&': fastest machine of the time. &nd
Generation Computers (!67)/ transistor was frst time used in it( )rd
Generation Computers: integrated (circuit) chips. "th Generation
Computers: 2ighl$ sophisticated technolog$ re:uired. Personal Computers
1!*%': MIT+ ,-T,I. frst computer with T;( 1!!%: Pentium$Pro
Microprocessor <indows !6 =9 In 1!!* Intel announces ,ultimedia
capabilities PII'( 1!!/ 0indows 1!!/ 1+ supported processors. This was
much user friendl$.
1
Revolution in the Fabrication of
Microprocessors
After launching of windows !>(=9) there started a race of higher performance
computing machines. ,icroprocessors started to reform in small and small si&e
but the speed was increasing b$ and b$ and this race is still going on and now its
momentum is much faster then e#er before. There is a detailed histor$ of
processors which ha#e been produced since $ear 5000 to till now.
? There are some big or ma-or companies which are producing microprocessors
and running side b$ side in that race but three companies are most famous for
this work
st
is Intel and 5
nd
is IBM and 4
rd
is ,M2.
Intel
In these companies the most prominent
compan$ is Intel( It is -ust because of the reliabilit$
and batter results of Intel processors. 2ere is a report
on Intel processors. If we start counting from $ear5000
their frst processor was based on @*eleron@
technolog$.
Intel Celeron/
Introduced in April !!>, the frst *eleron branded *'+ was based on the
'entium II branded core. 9ubse:uent *eleron branded *'+s were based on the
'entium III, 'entium 4, 'entium ,, and *ore 5 Auo branded processors(
The Celeron brand refers to a range of IntelBs 0>7 *'+s for budgetC#alue
personal computers. *onsidered IntelBs @economic@ processor, the *eleron
branded processors ha#e complemented IntelBs higher-performance (and more
e0pensi#e) brands. Intel has gi#en the brand the motto, @deli#ering great :ualit$
at an e0ceptional #alue.@ *eleron processors can run all IA-45 computer
programs, but their performance is somewhat lower when compared to similar,
but higher priced, Intel *'+ brands. 3or e0ample, the *eleron brand will often
ha#e less cache memor$, or ha#e ad#anced features purposel$ disabled. These
missing features ha#e had a #ariable impact on performance. In some cases, the
e.ect was signifcant and in other cases the di.erences were relati#el$ minor.
,an$ of the *eleron designs ha#e achie#ed a #er$ high @bang to the buck,@ while
at other times, the performance di.erence has been noticeable.
2ere is a brief histor$ of Intel *eleron 'rocessors from the $ear 5000 up to now.
3ear of
Production
Proceedin4s
3ear &555 6anuary "
IntelD *eleronD 'rocessor
644 ,2&
7e8ruary 1"
,obile IntelD *eleronD 'rocessor
600 ,2&, 460 ,2&
6une 1!
Eow ;oltage ,obile IntelD *eleronD 'rocessor
600 ,2&
3ear &551 6anuary )
IntelD *eleronD 'rocessor
>00 ,2&
1cto8er &
2
IntelD *eleronD 'rocessor
.50 12&
3ear &55& 6anuary )
IntelD *eleronD 'rocessor
.40 12&
9o:em8er &5
IntelD *eleron 'rocessor
5.50 12&, 5.0 12&
3ear &55)
6anuary 1"
,obile IntelD *eleronD 'rocessor
5 12&
Eow ;oltage ,obile IntelD *eleronD 'rocessor
>77 ,2&
9o:em8er 1&
,obile IntelD *eleronD 'rocessor
5.60 12&
+ltra Eow ;oltage ,obile IntelD *eleronD 'rocessor
>00 ,2&
3ear &55"$5* 6anuary "; &55"
IntelD *eleronD , 'rocessor 450 and 40
.4 12&
.5 12&
6uly &5; &55"
IntelD *eleronD , processor +ltra-Eow ;oltage 464
!00 ,2&
March
IntelD *eleronD , 'rocessor 440-460
."4-5.012&
9o:em8er &)
IntelD *eleronD A 'rocessor 446
4.07 12&
? No Celeron Processor as release! in "00#
3ear &55/
6anuary &55/
*eleron *ore 5 Auo (Allendale)
Pentium:
The Pentium

brand refers to IntelBs single-core 0>7 microprocessor
based on the P% ffth-generation micro architecture considered here as such
onl$. The name B'entiumB was deri#ed from the 1reek penta, meaning Bf#eB, and
the Eatin ending -ium.
Introduced on ,arch 55, !!4 the 'entium succeeded the Intel 4>7, which
number @4@ signifed the fourth-generation micro architecture. In !!7, the
original Pentium was succeeded b$ the Pentium MM< branded *'+s still
based on the '6 ffth-generation micro architecture.
9tarting in !!6, Intel (inconsistentl$) used the @'entium@ registered trademark
in the names of families of post-ffth-generations of 0>7 processors branded as
the 'entium 'ro, 'entium II, 'entium III, 'entium 4 and 'entium A (see 'entium
(brand)). Although the$ shared the 0>7 instruction set with the original 'entium
(and its predecessors), their micro architectures were radicall$ di.erent from
3
the '6 micro architecture of *'+s branded -ust as the @'entium@ and @'entium
,,F@.
= $ino! %ha& is often referred to as the father of the Intel Pentium
processor(
2ere is a brief 2istor$ of Intel 'entium 'rocessors
3ear of
Production
Proceedin4s
3ear &555
March &5
IntelD 'entiumD III 'rocessor
>77 ,2&, >60 ,2&
March /
IntelD 'entiumD III 'rocessor
12&
9o:em8er &5
IntelD 'entiumD 4 'rocessor
.60 12&, .40 12&
3ear &551 ,pril &)
'entiumD 4 'rocessor."
6uly &
'entiumD 4 'rocessor
.>0 12&, .70 12&
,u4ust &*
IntelD 'entiumD 4 'rocessor
5 12&, .!0 12&0 12&
3ear &55& 6anuary *
IntelD 'entiumD 4 'rocessor
5.50 12&, 5 12&
6anuary /
Intel> Pentium> III Processor for ser:ers
.40 12&
,pril &; &55&
IntelD 'entiumD 4 'rocessor5.40 12&, 5.50 12&
6anuary &1
+ltra Eow ;oltage ,obile 'entiumD III 'rocessor-
M
"60 ,2&
Eow ;oltage ,obile 'entiumD III 'rocessor $M
>77 ,2&, >60 ,2&
9o:em8er 1"; &55&
IntelD 'entiumD 4 'rocessor
4.07 12& with Hyper$Threadin4 Technolo4y
4
3ear &55) ,obile IntelD 'entiumD 4 'rocessor-,
5.40 12& "55 MH? P+B'
May &1;
Intel> Pentium> " Processor with Hyper$
Threadin4 Technolo4y
5.>0* 12&, 5.70* 12&, 5.40* 12&
9o:em8er );
Intel> Pentium> " Processor @Atreme
@dition
4.50 12&
3ear &55" 7e8ruary &; &55"
IntelD 'entiumD 4 'rocessor (!0nm)
4.40 12&, 4.50 12&, 4.0 12&, 5.>0 12&
IntelD 'entiumD 4 'rocessor G0treme Gdition
(0.4 micron'
4.40 12&
,pril *; &55"
+ltra Eow ;oltage IntelD 'entiumD , 'rocessor
.0 12&, .401h&
9o:em8er 1%; &55"
IntelD 'entiumD 4 'rocessor G0treme Gdition
supporting 2T Technolog$
4.47 12&
3ear &55%$5# IntelD 'entiumD 4 'rocessor @Atreme @dition
supporting 2T Technolog$
4.>0 12& (6"0)
,pril; &55%
IntelD 'entiumD 'rocessor G0treme Gdition >40
4.50 12&
' No Pentiu& Processor !esi(ne! in "00).
&55* B &55/ IntelD 'entiumH 'rocessor G0treme Gdition !66
4.47 12&
IntelD 'entiumH 'rocessor G0treme Gdition !76
4."4 12&
'No Pentiu& processor !esi(ne! *et in
"00+
Pro!uction of Pentiu& processors !ecrease! in these
*ears !ue to &o!ern technolo(*
<eon:
The <eon brand refers to man$ families of IntelBs 0>7 multiprocessing
*'+s for dual-processor (A') and multi-processor (,') confguration on a
single motherboard targeted at non-consumer markets of ser:er and
workstation computers; and also at 8lade ser:ers and em8edded
systems. The Xeon brand has been maintained o#er se#eral generations of 0>7
and 0>7-74 processors. =lder models added the Xeon moniker to the end of the
name of their corresponding desktop processor, but more recent models used
the name Xeon on its own. The Xeon *'+s generall$ ha#e more cache than
their desktop counterparts in addition to multiprocessing capabilities. IntelBs
(non-0>7) IA-74 processors are called Itanium, not Xeon.
5
2ere is a brief histor$ of Intel Feon 'rocessors
3ear of
Production
Proceedin4s
3ear &555 B
&551
6anuary 1&
IntelD 'entiumD III FeonH 'rocessor
>00 ,2&
+eptem8er &%; &551
IntelD FeonH 'rocessor
5 12&
May &"
IntelD 'entiumD III FeonH 'rocessor
!44 ,2&
3ear &55&$5"

6anuary !; &55&
IntelD FeonH 'rocessor
5.50 12&
March 1&; &55&
IntelD FeonH Processor MP.7012&
March 15; &55)
IntelD FeonH 'rocessor
4 12& (400 ,2& s$stem bus)
9o:em8er 1/
IntelD FeonH 'rocessor
5.>0 12&,
1cto8er #; &55)
IntelD FeonH 'rocessor
4.50 12&
March &; &55"
IntelD FeonH 'rocessor ,'
4 12& " MB -) cache'
3ear &55%$5/ March; &55%
IntelD Feon 'rocessor ,'
5.777 - 4.777 12&
1cto8er; &55%
Aual *ore IntelD Feon 'rocessor
5.> 12&
,u4ust; &55#
Aual-*ore IntelD FeonH "40,
4.44-4.40 12&
Itanium
Itanium is the brand name for 74-bit Intel microprocessors that
implement the Intel Itanium architecture (formerl$ called I,$#"). Intel has
released two processor families using the brand/ the original Itanium and the
Itanium &. 9tarting Io#ember , 500", new members of the second famil$ are
again called Itanium.
6
The processors are marketed for use in enterprise ser#ers and high-
performance computing s$stems. The architecture originated at 2ewlett-
'ackard (2') and was later de#eloped b$ 2' and Intel together.
Itanium's architecture di.ers dramaticall$ from the 0>7 architectures (and the
0>7-74 e0tensions) used in other Intel processors. The architecture is based on
e0plicit instruction-le#el parallelism, with the compiler making the decisions
about which instructions to e0ecute in parallel. This approach allows the
processor to e0ecute up to si0 instructions per clock c$cle. %$ contrast with
other superscalar architectures, Itanium does not ha#e elaborate hardware to
keep track of instruction dependencies during parallel e0ecution - the compiler
must keep track of these at build time instead.
After a protracted de#elopment process, the frst Itanium was released in 500,
and more powerful Itanium processors ha#e been released periodicall$. 2'
produces most Itanium-based s$stems, but se#eral other manufacturers ha#e
also de#eloped s$stems based on Itanium. As of 500", Itanium is the fourth-
most deplo$ed microprocessor architecture for enterprise-class s$stems(
Itanium has now become a leading microprocessor. Itanium has been used with
AellH as well as with 2' s$stems. Intanium is being upgraded to Itanium 5 b$
the Inter *orporation. Itanium 5 will be the giant of micro-processing as it can
e0ecute billions of instruction in a second causing the computing to turn a
re#olutionar$ change.
2ere is a brief histor$ of Itanium processors
7
3ear of
Production
Proceedin4s
3ear &551$5# May &!; &551
IntelD ItaniumH 'rocessor
>00 ,2&, "44 ,2&
6uly /; &55&
IntelD ItaniumD 5 'rocessor
12&, !00 ,2&
+eptem8er /; &55)
IntelD ItaniumH 5 'rocessor
.40 12& (.6 ,% E4 cache)
Eow ;oltage IntelD ItaniumH 5 'rocessor
12& (.6 ,% E4 cache)
6une )5; &55)
IntelD ItaniumH 5 'rocessor
.60 12&
,pril 1); &55"
IntelD ItaniumD 5 'rocessor (with 4 ,% E4 cache)
.70 12&
1ct( &5; &55"
IntelD 'entiumD , 'rocessor "76
5.0 12&
9o:em8er /; &55"
IntelD ItaniumD 5 'rocessor
Aual-core Itanium 'rocessor !0I
.712&
6uly; &55#
Aual *ore IntelD ItaniumD 5 'rocessor
.4-.7 12&
2ual Core
The *ore brand was launched on Januar$ 6, 5007 b$ the release of
the 45-bit 3onah core *'+ - IntelBs frst dual-core mobile (low-power) processor.
Its dual-core closel$ resembled two interconnected 'entium , branded *'+s
packaged as a single die (piece) silicon chip (I*). 2ence, the 45-bit micro
architecture of *ore branded *'+s - contrar$ to its name - had more in common
with 'entium , branded *'+s than with the following 74-bit *ore micro
architecture of *ore 5 branded *'+s. Aespite a ma-or rebreeding e.ort b$ Intel
starting Januar$ 5007, some computers with the Konah core continued to be
marked as 'entium ,.
In &55*, Intel began branding the Konah core *'+s as 'entium Aual-*ore
intended for lower-end mobile onl$ computers, unlike the 74-bit *ore micro
architecture *'+s branded as Intel *ore 5 Auo (for higher-end computers) and
also as 'entium Aual-*ore (for lower-end desktops onl$). In short, the *ore
brand refers to processors with the @mobile@ deri#ati#e of 45-bit Intel '7 micro
architecture (preceding the *ore micro architecture), whereas the Intel *ore 5
Auo brand refers to *'+s with the 74-bit *ore micro architecture.
2ere is a brief histor$ of *oreL Aual core processors
8
3ear of
Production
Proceedin4s
3ear &55%$5/ 3ear &55%
Aual *ore IntelD Feon 'rocessor "000
5.777 - 4 12&
6une; &55#
Aual *ore IntelD Feon 'rocessor 600
5.44-4.0 12&
IntelD *oreH Auo 'rocessor
5.77 12&
IntelD *oreH +olo Processor
.>44 12&
IntelD 'entium *oreH 5 Auo 'rocessor
5.7 12&
IntelD 'entium *oreH 5 @Atreme Processor F7>00
5.!44 12&
IntelD *oreH Auo +E; 'rocessor +5400-+5600
.07-.5012&
IntelD *oreH 9olo +E; 'rocessor +400???
.0712&
7e8ruary; &55#
IntelD *oreH Auo 'rocessor T5060C5560C5460C5460
.7C."4C.>7C5.0 12&
IntelD *oreH +olo 'rocessor T400-T400
.77-.>4 12&
IntelD *oreH 2uo -C 'rocessor E5400 (G=E 6C0")
.60 12&
,obile *oreH 5 @Atreme F"!00
5.>12&
3ear &55/
IntelD *oreH 5 G0treme 'rocessor F!000
5.>0 12&
Duad$Core @ra
Intel *orporation toda$ kicked o. the computer industr$Ms multi-core '*
era b$ deli#ering four computing NbrainsO inside a single microprocessor with
the introduction of the Puad-*ore IntelD FeonD 6400 and Intel *oreH5
G0treme :uad-core processor families. These products deli#er immense speed
and responsi#eness for general purpose ser#ers and workstations and for digital
media creation, high-end gaming and other market segments that cra#e
absolute performance.
Intel began the transition to multi-core technolog$ 4 $ears ago with 2$per-
Threading Technolog$ (2T Technolog$), followed b$ the introduction of the
industr$Ms frst dual-core '* processors in April last $ear. Intel recentl$ refreshed
its entire product line b$ introducing o#er 40 new processors, including those
based on the re#olutionar$ IntelD *oreH micro architecture, a more powerful
$et energ$-eQcient design.
2ere is a brief histor$ of Puad processors
9
3ear of
Production
Proceedin4s
3ear &55#$5/ 3ear &55#
Puad-*ore IntelD FeonH F6466
5.44 12&
Puad-*ore IntelD FeonH F6466
.>7 12&
Puad-*ore IntelD FeonH F6466
.70 12&
6anuary; &55*
IntelD *oreH 5 Puad P7700
5.4 12&
,pril; &55*
IntelD *oreH 5 G0treme :uad-core PF7>00
5.!4 12&
6uly; &55*
IntelD *oreH 5 G0treme :uad-core PF7>60
5.77-4.0 12&
Intel *ore 5 G0treme 'rocessor G6475
5.>012&
IntelD *oreH 5 Auo 'rocessor T!600
5.70 12&
IntelD *oreH 5 Auo 'rocessor T!400
5.60 12&
6anuary; &55/
Puad-core IntelD FeonD 'rocessor F4460
5.>4 12&
Is the latest processor released 8y Intel
Microprocessor Gets @:en Better
NToda$Ms announcement ushers in another new era in computing,O said 'aul
=tellini, IntelMs president and *G=. NThe capabilities of :uad-core
microprocessors will bring new possibilities for science, entertainment and
business. IMm incredibl$ proud of what IntelMs emplo$ees ha#e achie#ed with
these new products.O
Intel has made this ne0t step in the computerMs ongoing e#olution as fast and
eas$ as possible through continued in#estment in silicon process and
manufacturing technolog$, inno#ati#e and tailored product design, and a
m$riad of software de#eloper tools and programs.
AMD
Ad#anced ,icro Ae#ices (IK9G/ A,A) is a leading global pro#ider of inno#ati#e
processing solutions in the computing, graphics and consumer electronics
markets. A,A is dedicated to dri#ing open inno#ation, choice and industr$
growth b$ deli#ering superior customer-centric solutions that empower
consumers and businesses worldwide.
Phenom
'henom (pronounced as I'A/CfnRmC, as in the word phenomenon) is the A,A
desktop processor line based on the S0 (not @S0h@) micro-architecture TU,
or 3amil$ 0h 'rocessors, as A,A calls them. Triple-core #ersions (codenamed
@Toliman@) will be the 'henom >000 series, :uad cores (codenamed @Agena@)
in the 'henom !000 series, and high-end enthusiast #ersions (codenamed
@Agena 3F@) in the 'henom 3F series. A,A considers the :uad core 'henoms
10
to be the frst @true@ :uad core design, as these processors are a monolithic
multi-core design (all cores on the same piece of silicon wafer), unlike IntelBs
*ore 5 Puad series which are a multi-chip module (,*,) design. The
processors will be on the 9ocket A,5V platform T5U, with the e0ception of the
high-end model which will onl$ be a#ailable for 9ocket 3V. The dual core S0
processors will still be named Athlon F5.
Throughout the end of 500" to 500>, A,A is e0pected to launch se#eral
models of the 'henom processorW
X *hange of model nomenclatures
X Issues
X 3uture models
X 9ee also
X G0ternal links
X 8eferences
Chan4e of model nomenclatures
The model numbers of the new line of processors was changed from the '8
s$stem used in its predecessors, the Athlon 74 F5 famil$. The new model
numbering scheme, for later released Athlon F5 processors, is a four digit
model number with di.erent famil$ indicator as the frst number T"U, while
some Athlon F5 processors used %G as pref0 (e0ample as Athlon F5 %G-5400)
and some 9empron processors uses the EG pref0 (e0ample 9empron EG-500),
as follows/
Processor series Indicator
'henom :uad-core (Agena) !
'henom triple-core (Toliman) >
Athlon dual-core (Suma) 7
Athlon single-core (Eima)
9empron single-core (9parta)
,M2 ,thlonE
Award winning processors with e0ceptional performance to meet $our digital
demands
The Athlon 74 is an eighth-generation, A,A74 architecture microprocessor
produced b$ A,A, released on 9eptember 54, 5004.TU It is the third processor
to bear the name Athlon, and the immediate successor to the Athlon F'.T5U
The second processor (after the 1pteron) to implement A,A74 architecture
and the frst 74-bit processor targeted at the a#erage consumer,T4U it is A,ABs
primar$ consumer microprocessor, and competes primaril$ with IntelBs
'entium 4, especiall$ the @'rescott@ and @*edar ,ill@ core re#isions. It is A,ABs
frst S>, eighth-generation processor core for desktop and mobile computers.
T4U Aespite being nati#el$ 74-bit, the A,A74 architecture is backward-
11
compatible with 45-bit 0>7 instructions.T6U Athlon 74s ha#e been produced for
9ocket "64, 9ocket !4!, 9ocket !40, and 9ocket A,5.
+empron
+empron has been the marketing name used b$ A,A for se#eral di.erent
entr$ le#el desktop *'+s, using se#eral di.erent technologies and *'+ socket
formats.
The 9empron replaced the A,A Auron processor and competes against IntelBs
*eleron A processor.
A,A coined the name from the Eatin semper, which means @alwa$s,
e#er$da$@, to denote that the 9empron was the right processor for e#er$da$
computing
+uper Computers
.ed +tormE to 8e assem8led in 9ew MeAico as worldFs fastest +uper
computer :ery soon(
+andiaE supercomputer to 8e worldFs fastest; yet smaller and less
eApensi:e than any competitor
AE%+P+G8P+G, I.,. Y 8ed 9torm will be
faster, $et smaller and less e0pensi#e,
than pre#ious supercomputers, sa$
researchers at the Iational Iuclear
9ecurit$ AdministrationMs 9andia Iational
Eaboratories, where the machine will be
assembled.
The frst :uarter of the Z!0 million, 4.6
tera[ops (trillion operationsCsecond)
machine should be installed at 9andia b$
the end of 9eptember and full$ up and running b$ Januar$, sa$s %ill *amp
(9andiaMs Airector of *omputation, *omputers, Information and ,athematics),
who heads the e.ort to design and assemble the inno#ati#e machine.
8ed 9torm, an air-cooled supercomputer, is being de#eloped b$ 9andia and
*ra$ Inc. using mostl$ o.-the-shelf parts.
Aesign inno#ations permit the machine, from concept to assembl$, to be
completed with unusual rapidit$. <hile manufacturers t$picall$ re:uire four to
se#en $ears from concept to frst product on a new supercomputer, *ra$ sa$s
8ed 9torm will begin testing at 9andia less than 40 months after conceptual
work began.
The main purpose of the machine is work for the +.9. nuclear stockpile/
designing new componentsW #irtuall$ testing components under hostile,
abnormal, and normal conditionsW and helping in weapons engineering and
weapons ph$sics. The machine is e0pected to run ten times as fast as 9andiaMs
A9*I 8ed computer s$stem on 9andiaMs important application codes. (A9*I 8ed
held frst place on the top-600 list of the worldMs supercomputers for three-
and-one-half consecuti#e $ears.)
%ut the machine, because of its uni:uel$ ine0pensi#e design, ma$ become the
center of *ra$Ms future supercomputer line, sa$s *amp. N3rom *ra$Ms point of
12
#iew, the approach weMre pioneering here is so powerful the$ ma$ want their
ne0t supercomputers to follow suit.O
The machine has uni:ue characteristics/ it is scalable from a single cabinet (!7
processors) to appro0imatel$ 400 cabinets (40,000 processors). In addition,
the s$stem was designed with a uni:ue capabilit$ to monitor and manage
itself. ,uch of the cost incurred for the machine is non-recurring engineering
design costs.
N<e couldnMt a.ord a \8olls 8o$ceM Y an entirel$ custom-designed machine,O
sa$s *amp. NThe wa$ 8ed 9torm is designed, we donMt ha#e to shut down to
replace a part. <e work around failed components until we decide to f0 them
Y all without shutting down.O
*ra$ was chosen because the compan$ was Nforward-looking, [e0ible, willing
to work with us to design a new architecture, and had the lowest cost
proposal.O
The machine has !7 processors in each computer cabinet, with four
processors to a board. Gach processor can ha#e up to eight gigab$tes of
memor$ sitting ne0t to it. 3our *ra$ 9ea9tars Y powerful networking chips Y
sit on a daughter board atop each processor board. All 9ea9tars talk to each
other Nlike a 8ubik cube with lots of s:uares on each face,O sa$s *amp. N*ra$
9ea9tars are about a factor of f#e faster than an$ current competing
capabilit$.O
,essages encoded in ,'I (the ,essage 'assage Interface standard) mo#e
from processor to processor at a sustained speed of 4.6 gigab$tes per second
bidirectionall$. The amount of time to get the frst information bit from one
processor to another is less than 6 microseconds across the s$stem. The
machine is arranged in four rows of cabinets. There are a total of ,74>
=pteron processors and a similar number of 9ea9tars.
The 9ea9tar chip includes an >00 ,2& AA8 2$pertransport interface to its
=pteron processor, a 'ower'* core for handling message-passing chores, and
a se#en-port router (si0 e0ternal ports). 9ea9tars are linked together to make
up the s$stem]s 4-A (F-K-^ a0is) mesh interconnect.
I%, is fabricating the 9ea9tar chips using 0.4-micron *,=9 technolog$.
;isuali&ation will occur inside the computer itself Y a capabilit$ uni:ue to 8ed
9torm among supercomputers.
9andia is a multiprogram laborator$ operated b$ 9andia *orporation, a
Eockheed ,artin compan$, for the +.9. Aepartment of Gnerg$Ms Iational
Iuclear 9ecurit$ Administration. 9andia has ma-or 8LA responsibilities in
national securit$, energ$ and en#ironmental technologies, and economic
competiti#eness.
%lue Jean b$ the I%, had been a fastest super computer for more than 50
$ears and is being still used b$ the I%,, although the$ are searching and
manufacturing a new super computer for geological and metrological anal$sis
of Garth.
13
~Except of the entire above, worlds fastest microprocessor is human brain! ~
AL-GHAFFAR U. IRIBANI
Visiting Lecturer