Example paper

Based on the thesis by Lloyd Klaassen & Innocence Bulder

Note
This example paper only uses four concepts, and no mediators or moderators have been included
The methodology has been edited in order to be more in line with the expectations of your paper
The thesis on which this paper is based received an 8, but is by no means perfect


2

Table of contents
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Scientific and managerial relevance .............................................................................................. 7
1.2 Structure ........................................................................................................................................ 8
2. Theoretical framework .................................................................................................................... 9
2.2 Career Success ............................................................................................................................... 9
2.3 Academic Performance ............................................................................................................... 11
2.4 Personality ................................................................................................................................... 12
2.4.1 The effect of personality on career success and academic performance ............................ 14
2.5 Cognitive ability ........................................................................................................................... 20
2.5.1 The effect of cognitive ability on career success and academic performance .................... 21
3. Method .......................................................................................................................................... 23
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 23
3.2 Procedure and respondents ........................................................................................................ 23
3.3 Measures ..................................................................................................................................... 24
3.4 Operational conceptual model .................................................................................................... 28
References ............................................................................................................................................. 29




1

1. Introduction
Tests, assessments and exams are factors in life which everyone is accustomed with. The tendency of
testing and assessing has led to alterations in legislation, making it mandatory for Dutch primary
schools to finish their education with an assessment test (Morsch, 2013). However testing is not
without controversy; many criticisms exist on selection procedures based on tests. According to
Sackett, Borneman and Connelly (2008) tests predict badly since small correlations exist, they do not
measure all important criteria, they do not hold above a certain threshold and are easily biased. The
educational system in The Netherlands already starts to differentiate between students when they
are around the age of 11, when they have to do their CITO test. The level of secondary education for
which they can apply is largely dependent on the results of this generalized cognitive test. From this
point on selection procedures are becoming more implicit, as they are based on the successful
completion of a former level of education. For instance, in order to get accepted at a Dutch university
an applicant needs to have completed the VWO level of secondary school and additional testing is
not performed (Drenth, 2004).
The new Dutch law make way for talent aims to improve the match between students and
educational institutions and uses selection methods for this (Staatsblad van het Koninkrijk der
Nederlanden, 2011). Salvatori (1992) explains that the purpose of admission tests is to choose
students that are most likely to finish the educational program and go into professional careers.
Rotundo and Sackett (2002) suggest that certain selection criteria indeed predict a higher or lower
job performance. Consequently, assessment centers have been gaining popularity in the past
decades (Eurich, Krause, Cigularov & Thornton III, 2009). Currently, students and job applicants are
tested on practically all possible aspects, ranging from cognitive ability and specific capabilities to
their general life vision. All these aspects are assessed using a wide variety of tests and with the
availability of current technologies it seems that no boundaries as to in what way to test exist, as
even online games are becoming part of selection procedures, though experimental (Laumer, 2012).
Met opmerkingen [JM1]: Even though it is a small comment,
please try and make the introduction start at page 1.
Met opmerkingen [JM2]: The paper starts within the context
of the paper, but in a more broad manner, as is expected of a good
introduction.

Note that it is allowed to talk about specific companies, as long as it
relevant for outlining the context. The information provided does
not necessarily have to be scientific in nature, as it is very possible
to outline the context with actual events (for example the economic
crisis)


2

Along to the acceptance based on merely a diploma, former academic results (e.g. Grade Point
Average, abbreviated as GPA) also result in passive selection procedures in the form of enrolling
students for a numerus clausus study. In this case, students are categorized based on their average
results, after which they enter a draw, in which higher scoring students have a higher chance of
enrolling than lower scoring students (Leijendekker, 2011).
In addition to these passive selection procedures, universities can have a specialized
selection procedure when they feel that the passive selection is not satisfactory. For instance,
Nyenrode Business Universiteit has an addition to this implicit passive selection procedure, as they
select their Masters students on the basis of a cognitive and psychological test, as well as former
academic results and of course the former completed level of education.
It can be derived from the description of the passive selection system, ingrained in the Dutch
educational philosophy that implicitly a general cognitive test taken at the age of 11, years later still
determines the educational and perhaps even career paths of Dutch students. It is thus thought that
these selection tests have long-term effects. Furthermore, with the increase in sources of
information and interests in selections comes an increase in discussions about the validity of these
selection tests. The extensive research in this field is not unequivocal and is confounding, but validity
of short-term results generally appears to be the case (Sacket et al., 2008). Several researchers have
investigated the short-term success of students, operationalized as academic performance or grades.
It was found that certain attributes, such as cognitive ability and personality, are positively related to
the academic performance of students. (Lakin, 2012; Qin, 2011; Thalmayer, Saucier & Eigenhuis
2011). These results are not surprising, since the selection procedures of universities are primarily
developed to select students who will be successful at the university. As Hebl (2009) explains,
students present capabilities are interesting for schools to know so they can select the students that
will most likely be successful in their courses.
A selection parameter that is considered to have at least a short-term predictive value of
success, is a persons cognition (Poropat, 2009). Another aspect that is tested often is personality.
Met opmerkingen [JM3]: This would be a good idea to
introduce your sponsor company (in this case Nyenrode). However,
not that it is not allowed to give a huge description of the company
in the introduction. Only when relevant such elements can be
included (sometimes in strategy theses), but if it does not help to
answer the central research question (problem statement),
information regarding the company is not needed.
Met opmerkingen [JM4]: Here the students use
argumentative writing to start to steer the introduction text
towards their paper topic, i.e. the effects of selection tests on both
the short- and long-term


3

The effect of personality on short-term results has been investigated frequently (e.g. Chamorro-
Premuzic & Furnham, 2003; De Feyter, Caers, Vigna, & Berings, 2012), however the effect over a
longer time period has not been researched that often. The five-factor model of personality and
cognitive ability have proven to be good predictors of academic performance (Melse, Van Montfoort
& Van Muijen, 2012; Poropat, 2009). Lau and Shaffer (1999) state that personality is usually defined
as the dynamic and organized set of characteristics of a person that uniquely influences his or her
cognitions, motivations and behaviors.
As already mentioned the outcome of selections can have much larger and longer-term
effects than initially aimed for. The true discrepancy therefore lies in the fact that most selection
procedures are designed for short-term goals yet might have huge impact on long-term situations.
However, still many criticisms exist on the use of tests for selection measures since it is thought that
they only have a small predictability on the very short-term (Sacket et al., 2008). These long-term
outcomes can be very useful for universities as well as corporations. The reputation of the
educational institution could be influenced by the long-term parameters and in case of a company
the individual success of an employee might work as a proxy to the companys success. A gap exists
within the potential importance of selection tests, which are considered to have some validity on the
very short-term but a lack of research exists on the long-term effect (Judge, Higgins, Thoresen &
Barrick, 1999). Furthermore, since selection tests predict only on the short-term testing for a period
further in time would be useless (Sacket et al., 2008). Hulin, Henry and Noon (1990) noted that most
studies on cognitive ability ignored the issue of time. Their results show that validities of ability tests
vary across time. Furthermore, most research on the validity of personality traits has been short-
term focused as well, with a few exceptions (e.g. Helmreich, Sawin & Carsrud, 1986). Judge et al.
(1999, p. 628) state that they are not aware of studies that have directly compared the relative
validity of traits over a number of years. They suggest that the predictive validity of personality
traits are stronger the closer the traits are obtained to the measurement of outcome criteria but
remain to have predictive power in the future (Judge et al., 1999). This paper will attempt to close
Met opmerkingen [JM5]: It is important that the concepts
related to the paper project are briefly introduced in the
introduction test. It happens often that concepts are brought in out
of nowhere. This is bad writing and academically unsound (see
future comments regarding the conceptual model and the central
research question (problem statement)


4

the gap by testing the short-term as well as the long-term predictive and exploratory power for
generally accepted selection parameters.
The aim of this paper is to add to the discussion about selection procedures. It will make an
attempt to close the information demand gap about short-term and long-term predictability of
selection tests. This is done by looking at the predictive validity of cognitive and non-cognitive
measures and the effect on academic performance and career success. The different constructs and
relationships that have been focused on throughout this paper are illustrated in Figure 1.1 below.


Figure 1.1: Conceptual Model

The research question that has been investigated is:
To what extent are cognitive ability and personality related to academic performance and career
success?

The research is performed on a longitudinal basis, which means that the measures of cognitive ability
and personality are collected at a different moment than academic performance and career success.
Met opmerkingen [JM6]: This entire paragraph here is used to
indicate the scientific and managerial relevance of the paper. This is
allowed, just note that you need to discuss the relevance in a
separate section as well in your paper/thesis
Met opmerkingen [JM7]: The aim or objective is always
formulated before the central research question (problem
statement) is drafted.
Met opmerkingen [JM8]: Note that with figures, the
description is listed below (e.g. figure 1.1. is displayed below the
figure). With tables it is placed on top.
Met opmerkingen [JM9]: Conceptual model is academically
sound, and in line with the relationships discussed in the many
paragraphs above
Met opmerkingen [JM10]: Note that it is also allowed to draft
the conceptual model after formulating the central research
question (problem statement) and its research questions (sub-
questions). This depends on the preference of the writer and the
flow of the text. It is however of high importance that the concepts
included in the conceptual model, the central research question
(problem statement) or its research questions (sub-questions) are
introduced. It happens often that concepts are introduced in an
improper fashion. It is not allowed to show a model or research
question here with a number of concepts, to only see them
discussed further along in the thesis.
Met opmerkingen [JM11]: Note that the entire paper is
written in the past-tense. Although it might seem unnatural when
writing your thesis, it saves time writing it in this way, as you cant
speak of will when you hand in your final work.
Met opmerkingen [JM12]: Academically sound central
research question. As you all know, the formulation denotes a
quantitative research project.


5

Four variables will have to be investigated in order to be able to provide an answer to the problem
statement. The first variable is a persons cognitive ability, which was investigated using different
elements proven to be predicting cognitive ability. These elements are someones GMA score,
memory, verbal-, numerical-, spatial-mechanical- and perceptual abilities and are combined into one
overall score for cognitive ability (e.g. Salgado, Anderson, Moscoso, Bertua & De Fruyt, 2003).
The second variable that is examined is a persons personality. The most well-known
instrument for depicting someones personality is the five-factor model of personality. It is a method
often used in academic literature to assess the personality and behaviour of individuals (Costa &
Mcrae, 1992; Judge et al., 1999; Seibert & Kramer, 2001). The five traits: extraversion,
conscientiousness, neuroticism, agreeableness and openness to experience, describe the ways
people interact and react towards their environment. The five-factor model is further discussed in
the theoretical framework.
Career success is the third construct that is examined in order to find an answer to the
problem statement. A distinction has been made between three elements of career success, namely
material-, psychological- and social career success, as had been done previously by Hennequin
(2007). By using this model a distinction is also made between objective and subjective career
success, a method that is used by many researchers before (e.g. Dries, Pepermans & Carlier, 2008;
Greenhaus, Parasuraman & Wormley, 1990; Judge, Cable, Boudreau & Bretz, 1995). Objective career
success is determined mostly by observable and visible criteria such as salary, occupation and the
frequency of promotions (Hennequin, 2007). Subjective career success is the feeling of achievement
and satisfaction that an individual can have with his/her job or career. It is compared to a persons
goals, expectations and personal standards (Judge et al., 1995).
The last variable that is explored is academic performance. The academic performance of
individuals is presented as their GPA. Academic learning is a general process of information
processing in which perception, attention, thinking and memory are involved. The performance or


6

success lies in the applying or reproducing of the knowledge gained (De Raad & Schouwenburg,
1996). All of these aspects are further discussed in the theoretical framework.
The research for this problem statement and the following research questions was
conducted among the network of alumni form Nyenrode Business Universiteit. The alumni graduated
from the university 5-10 years prior to this research and all filled out an assessment, testing amongst
others their cognitive ability and personality. The research procedure and respondents are further
discussed in the methodology section.
As can be seen from figure 1.1, it is tested whether ones cognitive ability and personality have
influence on a persons career success and academic performance. These relationships are tested in
this paper by using the following research questions:
1. What is career success and how can it be measured?
2. What is academic performance and how can it be measured?
3. What is personality and how can it be measured?
4. What is a cognitive ability and how can it be measured?
5. What is the relation between a persons personality and their career success?
6. What is the relation between a persons personality and their academic performance?
7. What is the relation between a persons cognitive ability and their career success?
8. What is the relation between a persons cognitive ability and their academic performance?

The questions are structured in the following way, starting with questions regarding definitions,
leading to questions testing possible relationships between the constructs. In order to take each
variable further into depth it is necessary to find answers to the research questions. The questions
describing the different variables are discussed further in the theoretical framework as well as the
expected relationships between the constructs.
Met opmerkingen [JM13]: Operationalization. This is key to a
good thesis, yet is often missing. Note that you do not need to fully
explain everything (references are made to the theoretical
framework and methodology section. It is however very important
that a reader knows how you will investigate these issues at this
point.
Met opmerkingen [JM14]: All academically sound, and no
complete overlap with the central research question (problem
statement). In addition, no new concepts have been introduced
either.
Met opmerkingen [JM15]: Always include an argumentation
for the inclusion of your research questions (sub-questions). If you
cant think of a proper reason for their inclusion, it is very likely that
they can be omitted.


7

1.1 Scientific and managerial relevance
The scientific relevance of this paper lies in the contribution that it provides to the discussion about
testing and assessments and their validity. The validity of the effect of cognitive and personality tests
on short-term results have already been proven by many researchers before (e.g. Lakin, 2012;
Morsch, 2013; Qin, 2011; Rotundo and Sackett, 2002; Thalmayer et al., 2011). However, the validity
of testing and long-term results have been researched to a lesser extent and critics argue that the
validity of testing is only applicable to short-term results. This research focuses on the long-term
validity and offers more information about the topic. Furthermore, the paper provides more
information on the relationship between personality and career success. Most studies perform a
personality test at the same time that career success is measured, a cross-sectional study. However,
this study is performed on a longitudinal basis, which has not been done that often and thus gives
more insights in this field. The possible predictive value of personality in the future is also
researched. The predictive validity of personality might be stronger at an earlier point in time than
further in the future (Judge et al., 1999).
This paper has a managerial relevance as well. If a relationship is found between an
individuals cognitive ability and personality and his/her career success, this can provide companies
with new selection criteria. Companies already assess job applicants based on their personality and
cognitive ability, however more focus could be placed on those personality traits that predict a
higher job performance. Management decisions regarding employees can be adapted to a persons
personality and specific career paths may be designed based on these personalities. Furthermore, if
for example the selection procedures of universities show a high predictability of career success,
possible cooperations between organizations and universities can be enhanced to improve the
selection procedures of these organizations. In addition, this paper could provide more support for
universities that are already engaging in personality and cognitive ability tests.

Met opmerkingen [JM16]: This section always needs to be
included. Make sure that arguments for both managerial as well as
scientific relevance are included


8

1.2 Structure
The paper contains six chapters. First, the introduction has been presented, including the problem
statement, conceptual model, research questions and the scientific and managerial relevance of the
paper. The second chapter contains the theoretical framework, where the constructs and their
relations are discussed and hypotheses are drafted. The methodology is provided in chapter three,
where the data collection, measures and analysis to be performed are described. Next, in chapter
four, the analyses and results of the research are presented. Discussions of these findings are
provided in more detail in chapter five. Chapter six contains the conclusions, recommendations and
suggestions for further research. A combined answer to the problem statement and research
questions is given and the limitations of the research are discussed in this chapter as well.
Met opmerkingen [JM17]: Although straightforward, this is
typically included at the end of the introduction chapter. It is
however not mandatory.


9

2. Theoretical framework
In this section the different constructs of the conceptual model are discussed in more detail. First,
the concept of career success is explained, since this is an important determinant within the paper.
The aspects of material-, psychological- and social career success are discussed further and the
difference between the dimensions of objective and subjective career success are explained. Next
academic performance as a determinant is described shortly. The five-factor model of personality
and the expected influence of personality on career success and academic performance is discussed
in section 2.4. Several hypotheses are drafted in order to describe these relationships. The same is
done for cognitive ability in section 2.5, where the construct is defined and the relationships with
career success and academic performance are explained and formulated into hypotheses. A total of
12 hypotheses are drafted in order to find out whether relationships between the constructs exist.

2.2 Career Success
Research about careers and career success started to take shape around the 1930s. Currently, it has
become a widespread research topic and a lot of information has become available to researchers.
Career success has been operationalized in various ways but most recent studies have shown that
career success consists of two parts: objective and subjective career success (Dries et al., 2008; Ng &
Feldman, 2010).
According to Hennequin (2007) objective career success refers to what society considers
being successful. It is determined mostly by observable and visible criteria such as salary, occupation
and the frequency of promotions. Those who gain higher salaries and are promoted more frequently
are generally considered as having succeeded in their careers. Judge et al. (1995) measured career
success in terms of the individuals evolution in the hierarchy of the company. Long-term
relationships between companies and its employees are important for determining a persons career
success because of the growth opportunities that may emerge over time. Climbing the ladder is a
Met opmerkingen [JM18]: Start a new chapter on a new page
Met opmerkingen [JM19]: Important with the introduction of
the theoretical framework is that you explain the order of the
chapter in a logical fashion. If you cant explain the reader why a
certain order is chosen, it is likely that something is amiss. In this
case, the decided to work from right to left. You are open to
choose your own structure, as long as it makes sense while reading.
In this case, this made sense for them and the hypotheses the
wanted to draft. Note that an introduction is not mandatory, but
preferred for readability
Met opmerkingen [JM20]: Note the importance of a sound
conceptual model. Only the concepts of the conceptual model are
discussed in this theoretical framework. Including other concepts
would mean the paper/thesis is no longer coherent, and can be
seen as concept redundancy.


10

term that is often used when speaking about personal career success, where financial status and
promotions play a big role.
However, according to various studies a persons career success is not determined by
objective measures alone, but also has a subjective dimension (Eby, Butts & Lockwood, 2003;
Greenhaus et al., 1990). Career success is a social concept, according to Gattiker and Larwood (1989)
and thus cannot be considered completely objective. Judge et al. (1995) define subjective career
success as the feeling of achievement and satisfaction that an individual can have with his/her job or
career. It is compared to a persons goals, expectations and personal standards. Greenhaus et al.
(1990) describe career satisfaction as an important determinant for subjective career success since it
involves all aspects relevant to a persons career. Subjective career success is more focused on the
individuals perceptions and satisfaction about the career. Hennequin (2007) explains that feelings of
failure can lead to unproductive attitudes and behaviour, which in turn may influence a persons
intention to leave the company.
Gattiker and Larwood (1989) state that research is incomplete if it does not take into account
both objective and subjective career success. Career success can only be understood if both
dimensions are combined because some individuals that are successful in terms of salary and
position may not feel successful. Furthermore, Gattiker and Larwood (1989) also found a clear
relationship between pay, promotion opportunities and career attitudes. The research and findings
on career success has changed over the years and Dries et al. (2008) state in their meta-analysis that
career success must be seen as a dynamic concept instead of a standing truth. The combination of
the two measurements of career success has led Hennequin (2007) to using the following definition
for career success: Career success is the positive psychological or work-related outcomes or
achievement one has accumulated as a result of ones experiences (Hennequin, 2007, p. 568).
Many researchers have created models for investigating objective and subjective career
success. The model of Hennequin (2007) makes a distinction between three types of career success:
material-, psychological- and social career success. Material career success can be determined by
Met opmerkingen [JM21]: As should be known by now, a
theoretical framework should contain a synthesis. Using tables is
not allowed, unless you are conducting a meta-analysis. Your
synthesis should be on paper, not for the reader to derive
him/herself from a table.


11

looking at a persons monetary rewards, fringe benefits, hierarchical position and the number of
promotions. An outside person could identify all these measures as well. These measures have been
used often in previous career studies and assembles what is often specified in literature as objective
career success. Psychological career success is usually not noticeable by an outside person; it
contains more personal aspects such as certain feelings that a person has about his/her job.
Psychological career success can be determined by a persons career satisfaction and job satisfaction
(Heslin, 2003; Mulhall, 2011). Career satisfaction can be defined as a general emotional orientation
of an individual towards his/her career (Hennequin, 2007, p. 574). Job satisfaction includes all
positive results and feelings that an individual obtains from the job which may in turn effect career
satisfaction. This includes a persons general satisfaction in his/her job, for example the percentage
that someone feels happy or unhappy in its job (Judge et al., 1995). Social career success is
measured by social status, recognition and reputation. Individual opinions of career success also
depend on the judgment of others, on the social surroundings of the individual (Heslin, 2003).
Furthermore, Eby et al. (2003) argue that careers have become less long-term and stable and
therefore individuals need to stay valuable for their organization and marketable for other
organizations. This internal- and external marketability are used as indicators of social career success.

2.3 Academic Performance
Because of the longitudinal scope of this paper, next to the long-term effects on career success also
the short-term effects are researched. The academic performance of students is reflected in their
ability to finish an education and obtaining high grades. The variable that has most often been used
in literature to describe academic performance is GPA and it has proven to be reliable over time
(Poropat, 2009). Understanding academic performance can be of great importance to universities
and governments of advanced countries in order to be able to grow further. In most economies a


12

substantial amount of money is invested in education each year to improve the quality, an average of
6.3% of the gross domestic product is invested in education (OECD Education at Glance, 2011).
De Raad and Schouwenburg (1996) describe academic learning as a general process of
information processing in which perception, attention, thinking and memory are involved. The
performance lies in the applying or reproducing of the knowledge gained. Some variables may have
influence on the impact of learning, for example someones personality or cognitive ability. The
effect of personality on academic performance is discussed in the next section.

2.4 Personality
Many researchers have investigated the matter of personality throughout the years (e.g. Boudreau,
Boswell & Judge, 2001; Judge et al., 1999; Seibert & Kraimer, 2001). Personality is the unique set of
characteristics and behaviours that is distinctive for each individual. The five-factor model of
personality is a method most often used in academic literature to assess the personality and
behaviour of individuals (Judge et al., 1999). The five-factor model of personality is a broad approach
to personality, encompassing almost all manners in which behaviour can be expressed. The five traits
describe the ways people interact and react towards their environment and has been found to be
stable over time (Costa & Mcrae, 1992).
As can be seen from the extensive amount of research on personality the five-factor model
consists out of: neuroticism, extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness and openness to
experience (Costa & Mcrae, 1992; Judge et al., 1999; Seibert & Kramer, 2001). Neuroticism is the
extent to which a person is able to withstand stressful situations and stand under pressure. People
who can handle this well tend to be calm, self-confident and secure. Extraversion indicates the way
people find themselves comfortable in relationships. Extraversion is best explained by the tendency
to be sociable, outgoing, expressive, warm hearted and talkative. Conscientiousness describes the
reliability of people and is made up of elements as being responsible, organized, trustworthy and
Met opmerkingen [JM22]: Linking sections is always nice. Do
not overdo it, but remember that your paper/thesis is like a long
story. You want to make sure that the reader is still able to follow
you. Telling them what you have done, what you will do and what
you are doing is easy tools for this.


13

dependable. Individuals who are conscientious adhere to company norms, values and rules.
Agreeableness identifies the level to which people comply with others. People with high
agreeableness are known as cooperative, warm and trusting. Openness to experience describes the
ways people are open to change, innovation and new learning. They are curious, creative and
artistically sensitive.
A criticism towards the five-factor model is that it is not possible to explain all existing
personality traits by just five factors (Costa & Mcrae, 1992). However, the five-factor model does not
exist from just five personality traits but combines multiple personality attributes that are quite
similar to each other into one overarching factor. Nearly all personality attributes can be categorized
under the umbrella of the five-factor model (Goldberg, 1990). For example, neuroticism is measured
by looking at anxiety levels, depression and self-consciousness. Sociability, warmth and activity
indicate a high level of extraversion. Agreeableness is made up of for example trust, compliance and
modesty and conscientiousness requires aspects as dependability, achievements striving and self-
discipline. Openness to experience facets include curiosity and the seeking and appreciating of new
experiences (Costa & Mcrae, 1992; Seibert & Kraimer, 2001). The five factors do not cover all the
behaviour, feelings and attitudes of people, however they do cover a large part of it. However, in
academic literature it is the method most often used to describe individuals personality and has
been found to be valid and consistent (Costa & Mcrae, 1992).
Many researchers have used the five-factor model to investigate relationships between
personality and several different variables, such as academic performance, job performance and
team performance (e.g. Furnham, Chamorro-Premuzic & McDougall, 2003; Judge et al., 1999).
According to Ng, Eby, Sorenson and Feldman (2005) the personality of individuals is important in
determining career success because of their stable and enduring attributes. Stable traits, such as
attitudes and behaviours, have influence on the often weak situations that emerge during
someones career (Seibert & Kraimer, 1999). Boudreau et al. (2001) note that motivation and human


14

capital may vary over time, but personality traits are stable and are connected with career outcomes.
The five factors have been used before in personnel selection where they predict job performance.

2.4.1 The effect of personality on career success and academic performance
It is only since 1990 that researchers began to examine the effect of personality on career success
(Seibert & Kraimer, 2001). Before, research on career success was mainly focused on demographic
attributes such as gender, age and culture. The research of the effect of personality on career success
is mainly engaged in the effects on intrinsic and extrinsic career success (Boudreau et al., 2001; Judge
et al., 1999; Seibert & Kraimer, 2001). Job satisfaction is taken as a proxy for intrinsic career success,
while extrinsic career success is measured by salary and occupational status (Heslin, 2003). According
to Sacket et al. (2008) the five-factor model of personality has proven to be a good predictor of
academic performance. The five-factor model has been studied thoroughly in relation to academic
performance (De Feyter et al., 2012). Therefore these studies provide empirical support that there is
some kind of effect of personality on career success and academic performance. The five-factors of
personality are discussed individually and separate hypotheses of the effects on career success and
academic performance are drafted.
According to Costa and Mcrae (1992), neuroticism is one of the most important factors in
predicting career success because it affects a persons emotional stability. A neurotic person is more
sensitive to be affected by negative life events and feelings of anxiety, fear and depression (Suls,
Green, & Hills, 1998). These negative emotions are also experienced in job-related issues, such as
perfectionism, and can therefore lead to a lower job satisfaction or hinder career management.
Salgado (1997) found a negative relationship between neuroticism and job performance. As it is
imaginable that most material rewards (higher salary, bonuses) are based on an individuals job
performance, neuroticism has an indirect effect on material career success. Neuroticism can
influence an individuals self-perception as well (Ng et al., 2005). The way people view themselves is
Met opmerkingen [JM23]: Here the choice for their structure
becomes apparent, as they can now start discussing relationships
directly and work their way towards hypotheses.


15

of great importance in determining their subjective career success, where their psychological and
social success is measured. Elements such as job and career satisfaction are measured in subjective
career success and could be negatively influenced by a neurotic person. Furthermore internal- and
external marketability are based on an individuals perceptions towards others, which is most
probably also negatively influenced by negative emotionality and low job performance. Based on the
results of multiple studies (e.g. Boudreau et al., 2001; Judge et al., 1999; Salgado, 1997) it has been
hypothesized that neuroticism has a negative effect on material-, psychological- and social career
success. The following hypotheses were constructed:
Hypothesis 1: Neuroticism is negatively related to material career success (A), psychological
career success (B) and social career success (C).

Poropat (2009) argues that students that score high on neuroticism have lower academic
performance scores. This could be depending on the notion that neurotic people are more anxious
and have less self-esteem which conflicts with academic performance. Furthermore, individuals that
are highly neurotic tend to focus more on their emotional state, which interferes with academic tasks
and reduces performance (De Raad & Schouwenburg, 1996). Furnham et al. (2003) suggest that
neuroticism would be negatively related to academic performance since emotional stability is seen as
advantageous in examinations. Neuroticism would also be associated with stress and physical illness,
however Furnham et al. (2003) are not able to find results that support the arguments of the
negative relationship between neuroticism and academic performance. De Feyter et al. (2012)
showed mixed and inconclusive results of previous studies investigating the relationship between
neuroticism and academic performance, but argues that a negative effect is quite likely especially in
times of exams. Therefore the following hypothesis can be composed:
Hypothesis 2: Neuroticism is negatively related to academic performance.
Met opmerkingen [JM24]: The hypothesis is correctly
formulated, i.e. the theory above describes the relationships
conjectured in this hypothesis, and the hypotheses has a clear
direction as to how the concepts are said to influence on another.

Hypothesis can never be included earlier, they always need to be
backed up by theory before they are included.

Note that it would also be allowed to draft two separate
hypotheses here, but grouping like this is allowed and more
parsimonious. If you group them you need to make a distinction
between the relationships expected (in this case A or B). Otherwise
you will end up with a so-called double-barreled hypothesis, in
which two relationships are conjectured within one hypothesis.


16

Where neuroticism is related to negative emotionality, extraversion is linked to positive emotionality
and can have significant positive influence on job satisfaction, salary and occupational status (Judge
et al., 1999). Seibert and Kraimer (1999) characterize extraverts as active, assertive and excitement
seeking. This influences the way these individuals deal with unsatisfactory situations; they take
action to change it to equal their needs. Traits as assertiveness and activity that determine
extraversion are highly valued in employees and could therefore create opportunities of growth
within a company. Managerial positions require interpersonal interaction and individuals with strong
people skills may be more likely to be chosen for these positions (Ng et al., 2005). Salgado (1997)
found support that there is a positive relationship between extraversion and job satisfaction, salary
and occupational level for certain occupations. Seibert and Kramer (2001) advocate these findings
and found support for positive relationships across more occupations. This means that material and
psychological career success could be positively influenced by extraversion. The internal- and
external marketability of an individual are also positively influenced, since extraversion is a trait that
is highly valued in employees. Therefore, it is expected that extraversion relates positively to all the
elements of career success, which leads to the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 3: Extraversion is positively related to material career success (A), psychological
career success (B) and social career success (C).

Studies show mixed results regarding the effect of extraversion on academic performance. As
Poropat (2009) explains, extravert people are more likely socialize and pursue other activities that to
study, which would lead to a lower performance. Morsch (2013) argues that introvert individuals
perform better because they have more disciplined learning methods. On the other hand, De Raad
and Schouwenburg (1996) state that extravert students should perform better academically, since
they have higher energy levels and a positive attitude that leads to a desire to learn. Since limited
and conflicting empirical support exists about the effect of extraversion on academic performance, a
hypothesis will not be drafted.
Met opmerkingen [JM25]: It is not always required to draft a
hypothesis, or in other words, you do not have to think of relations
for all variables in your study. Only draft a hypothesis if you have
enough theoretical evidence to support it.


17

According to Barrick and Mount (1991) conscientiousness is positively associated with career success
and is the strongest predictor of objective career success and productivity. Traits involved in
conscientiousness like achievement motivation are found to have significant influence on material
career success such as salary. Judge et al. (1999) write that conscientiousness seems to enable
persons to obtain promotions into more prestigious jobs. Furthermore, the job performance of
individuals is positively influenced by traits such as dependability and the tendency to be dutiful,
since these are traits favoured for management positions (Ng et al., 2005). Empirical research does
not have a clear view on the direct effect of conscientiousness on a persons attitudes about himself.
However, since a clear relationship between pay, promotion opportunities and career attitudes exists
(Gattiker & Larwood, 1989), psychological- and social career success could be indirectly influenced by
high levels of conscientiousness. Nevertheless, since there is limited empirical support for this
notion, no hypotheses on the effect on psychological and social career success are constructed. The
relationship between conscientiousness and material career success is hypothesized accordingly:
Hypothesis 4: Conscientiousness is positively related to material career success.

Where the results on the relations of extraversion on academic performance are mixed,
conscientiousness is mostly acknowledged as a strong predictor of academic performance (De Feyter
et al., 2012). Students that score high on conscientiousness are orderly and goal setting, both of
which contribute to academic performance (De Raad & Schouwenburg, 1996). Other facets such as
efficient time management, achievement-striving and a better focus on homework are also
connected to academic performance. Based on empirical research the following hypothesis has been
drafted:
Hypothesis 5: Conscientiousness is positively related to academic performance.



18

Findings in research conducted on the effect of agreeableness on career success is somewhat
differentiated. High levels of cooperative and trusting traits could relate positively to job
performance because working together with colleagues is easier. However a high level of
agreeableness in a management position could harm the leadership skills over subordinates. Judge et
al. (1999) found that a high level of agreeableness related negatively to extrinsic career success, the
salary and career status of an individual. Furthermore, Boudreau et al. (2001) associate
agreeableness with being submissive and the tendency to follow rather than lead. They found a
negative relationship between agreeableness and objective and subjective career success; Ng et al.
(2005) supported these findings. Seibert and Kraimer (2001) characterize people with high levels of
agreeableness as soft hearted, more likely to be taken advantage of and less likely to shed blame and
take credit, which are traits that are definitely not preferred for management positions. However,
people with high levels of agreeableness could also be described as adaptive and are generally well-
liked within a company (Seibert & Kraimer, 2001). Salgado (1997) found a negative relationship
between agreeableness and job performance for people-oriented occupations like managers.
Empirical support on the relationship between agreeableness and social career success is limited,
therefore no relationship is assumed. Most of the theory that was investigated indicated a negative
relationship between agreeableness and the facets of material and psychological career success;
hence the following hypotheses were drafted:
Hypothesis 6: Agreeableness is negatively related to material career success (A), psychological
career success (B).

Empirical evidence of a relationship between the level of agreeableness of a student and the
academic performance is scarce (Morsch, 2013). However, De Raad and Schouwenburg (1996) argue
that agreeableness may have some positive impact on academic performance. This argument is
based on the idea that people that are agreeable are more likely to cooperate and comply with


19

others, such as the teacher. Very limited support however exists on these arguments, thus no
hypothesis was constructed.
Just like agreeableness the literature on openness to experience is limited, the opinions are
spread and most studies investigated this variable on an exploratory basis (Boudreau et al., 2001;
Judge et al., 1999; Seibert & Kraimer, 2001). Ng et al. (2005) state that openness to experience is not
clearly linked to career success, except for jobs that require creativity. A weak but positive
relationship between openness to experience and salary was found in their article. Boudreau et al.
(2001) state that a key trait of openness to experience is the tendency to learn from experiences,
which is viewed as an important characteristic of successful managers. Other traits of openness to
experience contain being curious, open to innovation and learning, which are important for
managerial positions. Seibert and Kraimer (2001) found a significant negative relationship between
openness to experience and extrinsic career success. Weak, but positive relationships between
openness to experience and intrinsic and extrinsic career success were found by Boudreau et al.
(2001), Ng et al. (2005) and Judge et al. (1999). However, little support for these results were found
which suggests that a relationship between openness to experience and all dimensions of career
success does not exist. The relationships between these constructs will therefore be investigated on
an exploratory basis only in this paper.
High levels of openness to experience are thought to have a positive influence on academic
performance because open students have a more open attitude towards learning. De Raad and
Schouwenburg (1996) call the ideal student (p. 327) someone who has high levels of openness to
experience. Open individuals are seen as foresighted, intelligent and resourceful and have a high
learning motivation. Consequently, the following hypothesis was composed:
Hypothesis 7: Openness to experience is positively related to academic performance.


20

2.5 Cognitive ability
Cognitive ability is a construct that is very often assessed during job applications and it is seen as a
relatively enduring individual difference. There has been a lot of research on the validity of this
construct which includes that cognitive ability tests should be the cornerstone of a generalized global
selection procedure, as the magnitude of its validity appears to be the largest of all personnel
selection procedures (Salgado et al., 2003). According to Schmidt (2002) cognitive ability tests prove
to be valid predictors of job performance and training success. Research has shown that cognitive
ability scores are one of the most reliable predictors of job performance especially for complex jobs
such as executives (Boudreau, Boswell, Judge & Bretz Jr., 1999). Reason for this can be that
individuals that score higher on cognitive ability have the tendency to spot more opportunities and
act upon them.
Cognitive ability is usually subdivided into different aspects, which are tested separately. The
following aspects are often used in academic literature: verbal-, numerical-, spatial-mechanical-,
perceptual- and memory ability (Salgado et al., 2003). Verbal ability is the ability to understand
meaning of words and using them effectively. It is the ability to comprehend language, to understand
relationships between words, and to understand meanings of whole sentences and paragraphs.
Numerical ability is the ability to understand numerical relations and using numbers effectively, to
comprehend quantitative material. Spatial-mechanical ability means to understand and manage
objects in a two-dimensional and three-dimensional space, the ability to comprehend relations
between objects. Perceptual ability is perceiving stimuli very quick and to give fast and accurate
answers. Memory ability is the ability to remember information presented in different perceptual
modalities (e.g. visual, auditory). General mental ability (GMA) is a summary of these different
aspects into one score and is most often used to test an individuals cognitive ability (Schmidt, 2002).



21

2.5.1 The effect of cognitive ability on career success and academic performance
Cognitive ability has been investigated thoroughly and proves to be a valid determinant for job
performance and career success (Judge et al., 1999; Ng et al., 2005; Schmidt, 2002). Ng et al. (2005)
have found a positive relationship between overall cognitive ability and intrinsic and extrinsic career
success. In later research, Ng and Feldman (2010) mention that cognitive ability is one of the best
predictors of job performance and a contributor to success on almost every job. The abilities of
individuals to succeed in core tasks are enhanced by greater creativity, verbal-, numerical- and spatial
aptitude. These aspects create better judgment among individuals and provide them with the
abilities to help and advice colleagues and supervisors. Ng and Feldman (2010) state that employees
with greater cognitive ability are more likely to perform better in role situations, which may result in
higher pay raises and promotion opportunities, which are facets of material career success. Judge et
al. (1999) support the statements that cognitive ability is predictive of earnings and career
advancement. However, research on the effect of cognitive ability on job and career satisfaction is
limited and shows different results (Judge et al., 1999). Literature on the effect of cognitive ability on
social career success is also limited, no relationships were found. The effects on psychological and
social career success will as a result be examined on an exploratory basis. Based on the academic
literature, or the lack of academic literature, the following hypothesis was constructed:
Hypothesis 8: Cognitive ability is positively related to material career success.

Cognitive ability is found to have an unquestionable relation with academic performance (Boudreau
et al., 1999; Sacket et al., 2008). Boudreau et al. (1999) mention that people with higher cognitive
ability may attain higher educational qualifications and learn faster. The different elements that are
integrated within cognitive ability, such as perceptual- and numerical ability influence someones
intellectual processing skills. Cognitive ability is sometimes referred to as intelligence and is thought


22

to have a substantial effect on academic success (De Raad & Schouwenburg, 1996). Based on
empirical research the next hypothesis has been drafted:
Hypothesis 9: Cognitive ability is positively related to academic performance.

All hypotheses mentioned above are tested in the next chapters in this paper. In the next chapter the
methodology is discussed by which the hypotheses are tested and how the research is conducted. Met opmerkingen [JM26]: It is allowed to present a refined
conceptual model here, and repeat the hypotheses drafted earlier
in this chapter. As you can see however, this is not mandatory (it
serves as an easy aid for another reader, yet sometimes the
direction is clear without such a small summary.


23

3. Method
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter the research methodology is discussed. First, the procedure of the research and
descriptive data are explained. Here, more details about the questionnaire and the respondents are
given. After that the measuring scales used to indicate the different constructs are discussed in
further detail. First the measures for the independent variables of cognitive ability and personality
are presented, thereafter the dependent variables of academic performance and the elements of
career success. Then the different control variables are mentioned and explained why there was
controlled for these variables. Next the operational conceptual model is presented and explained,
which summarizes all the scales that have been used for the research.

3.2 Procedure and respondents
The objective of this study is to see whether commonly used selection criteria at universities and job
applications are able to predict academic performance and career success in any significant way.
Because of this objective, results from selections tests that had to be completed in the past are
analyzed with respect to the self-reported career success of the research subjects and their academic
performance during their master studies.
Nyenrode Business Universiteit has already collected the data for cognitive ability and
personality as part of their selection procedure for new students. Therefore the methods of data
collection for both independent variables are restricted to the methods being used by Nyenrode
Business Universiteit. Both cognitive ability and personality have been assessed by an admission test
from Nyenrode composed of a Computer Adaptive Test (CAT), which is facilitated by an official
selection company, namely LTP.
Met opmerkingen [JM27]: New chapter on a new page. Also,
note that you only discuss what is relevant for your paper/thesis.
Thus, it is not required to discuss what you have not done, but you
should include what you have chosen as your strategy
Met opmerkingen [JM28]: The order is more straightforward
as than with the theoretical framework chapter (as you have more
free rain regarding structuring there). Nevertheless, the same
principle applies, i.e. the order in which you discuss things should
be logical (e.g. you do not discuss the operational model before
discussing the measures). Note that an introduction is not
mandatory, but preferred for readability
Met opmerkingen [JM29]: Note that I removed some
elements from this chapter, as you can only report on certain things
once data has been collected. One such thing is the description of
your respondents (or interviewees when conducting a qualitative
research project). In your paper you only have to indicate your
targeted respondents. In your thesis project later on you will need
to provide demographic data regarding these respondents (i.e.
gender, work experience, age, education, or other relevant
elements).
Met opmerkingen [JM30]: Please note that a methodology
section normally also includes information on how the analyses
were performed. This is especially important when conducting
qualitative research (to avoid a black box situation), but also
applicable to quantitative studies. For the paper, this is not needed.
Met opmerkingen [JM31]: Listing procedure is not always
necessary, but in some projects it might be handy to clearly indicate
how you collected the data. In this thesis project that was the case,
as it involved a longitudinal project and in part data not directly
gathered by the students.


24

The results of the selections tests consisting of both the personality and cognitive ability factors and
the measure of academic performance, GPA of all alumni that enrolled in their MSc in Management
course from 2002 to 2009 have been collected. It was chosen to look at alumni from 2009 and earlier
in order to be able to investigate some years of working experience. A questionnaire about career
success has been constructed according to measurement methods found in former literature, as is
described further in this section. By using quantitative research, descriptive and relational analyses
can be performed. Because international students enjoyed a different selection procedure than
Dutch students, only Dutch students were admissible for this research. For this reason the English
questionnaire was translated with consultation of Vertaalbureau Perfect. The questionnaires were
distributed among the respondents via email so answers could be provided at any preferable time
and place. Several respondents no longer have residency in The Netherlands, making personal
approach nearly impossible. In addition, online approach is found suitable since all questions are
asked in a quantitative manner, making personal discussions superfluous.
In the time period of interest (2002-2009) 1211 applicants have taken the Nyenrode
admission test. As mentioned before, internationals who took a different type of admission test have
been excluded. For practical reasons all alumni who are no longer in the alumni database are
excluded as well, since no e-mail addresses are known. This leaves a total of 718 alumni to be
approached by e-mail. Lastly, one of the first questions in the questionnaire asked for the type of
employment of the alumni. Since most of the career success questions are only applicable to people
in wage labor, all respondents who answered to have no job, or to be self-employed were excluded.

3.3 Measures
Cognitive ability. The total score from the Nyenrode Admission Test (NAT) for cognitive ability is
comprised of four elements, that is abstract reasoning, flow charts, numerical skills and verbal skills.
The four elements are weighed into one variable named General Mental Ability (GMA) that is used as
Met opmerkingen [JM32]: Note that you do not include
results of your study in earlier sections. This, you discuss the
respondents in the methodology section, and not in the analysis
section. You can also not use results from your study (with your
thesis project) to add material to the introduction or theoretical
framework chapter. Both chapters have to be fully based on theory,
not data collection.
Met opmerkingen [JM33]: For your paper, you do not have to
get into this detail level. In your thesis, you will need to include
information such as this, and also include response rates when
applicable.
Met opmerkingen [JM34]: However, including these kind of
strains of thought is also welcomed.


25

the main determinant for cognitive ability. No reliability test has to be done, since the scores of each
category do not necessarily have to coincide. Someone can for instance have a high numerical ability,
whilst at the same time be below average on verbal abilities. In addition, the answering possibilities
differed per test.
Personality. The NAT assesses someones personality by using the 240-item NEO Personality
Inventory Revised (NEO-PI-R) that characterizes the five-factor model of personality (Costa &
McCrae, 1992). Each of the five factors is composed of 48 items divided over six facets. For example,
neuroticism is comprised of anxiety, impulsiveness, depression, angry hostility, self-consciousness
and vulnerability. The six facets of extraversion are assertiveness, activity, warmth, gregariousness,
excitement seeking and positive emotions. Conscientiousness consists of the facets dutifulness, self-
discipline, competence, deliberation, order and achievement striving. The facets that make up
agreeableness are altruism, straightforwardness, modesty, trust, compliance and tender-
mindedness. Openness to experience includes the facets aesthetics, actions, fantasy, feelings, ideas
and values. Only the composite scores for each personality factor were used. Answers given to the
items were ranged on a 7-point Likert response scale, ranging from 1 Strongly disagree to 7
Strongly agree.
Academic performance. The academic performance of individuals is determined by the Grade
Point Average (GPA) of their Masters studies at Nyenrode Business Universiteit. The GPA is
comprised of the weighted average (based on ECTs per course) of all courses in the Masters
curriculum. The scores of the individuals all fall between 0 and 10 and are gathered at the end of
their studies.
Career success: Material. Career success is the construct, for which data needs to be
collected in the form of an online questionnaire. The facets of pay and position, which are elements
of material career success, are tested by using three items for each facet. Pay is measured by annual
gross income, annual fringe benefits and investments in training by the employer. The answers to
these questions have been adjusted for the amount of FTE the respondents answered they worked.
Met opmerkingen [JM35]: The scores for the reliability tests
have not been included in this section. Note that you want to use
scales that have proven to be reliable in earlier research. For that
you should see if it consistently scores above .6 but preferably
above .7 with regard to the Cronbachs alpha. How to calculate this
score yourself will be covered in RBA2.
Met opmerkingen [JM36]: It is important that you mention
the scale used and the number of items
Met opmerkingen [JM37]: Include this information when
applicable/available


26

The answers for these questions have been categorized to make it easier to answer the question and
for privacy purposes. The three questions have been combined by categorizing each separate
questions into 5 categories based on the 20-40--100 percentiles. This transformation led to a
designation of respondents into the categories ranging from very much below average-very much
above average. By taking the mean of these categories for the three questions 1 scale for financial
career success has been created ranging from the same 1 to 5 categories. This scale is closest to a
continuous scale as possible, since the averages of all respondents are not necessarily a discrete
figure. This scale includes all financial measures of career success and can be used for regression
analysis to measure any significant correlations with personality or cognitive ability. A reliability test
on these three items of this construct is not applicable since someone can have a high salary, yet a
low investment in training if the individual in question has a job for which he was already trained
sufficiently outside the job. This means that the newly formed scale is not one which implicitly
explains the variance which is seen within each item, rather the combined items makes a scale with a
new definition, namely the one of all materialistic rewards an individual can get from the job. The
second part of material career success consists of three separate continuous variables: span of
control, number of promotions and number of layers below top management layer (Judge et al.,
1995). Although these three questions are about the same construct, they are normally never linked
into a scale in literature, thus they are looked at separately.
Career success: Psychological. Psychological career success is measured by looking at an
individuals job- and career satisfaction (Mulhall, 2011). Job satisfaction is analyzed by looking at two
items, the percentage that an individual feels happy and unhappy within his job and the satisfaction
of an individual with his job in general, rated on a 5 point scale ranging from 1 Strongly disagree to 5
Strongly agree (Scarpelo & Campbell, 1983). These two items combined are able to measure an
individuals job satisfaction (Jarden, 2011). Career satisfaction is measured with the five-item career
satisfaction scale from Greenhaus et al. (1990). Respondents were asked to indicate their levels of
satisfaction with five dimensions of their careers ranging from 1 Strongly disagree to 5 Strongly
Met opmerkingen [JM38]: Such detail is not needed for your
paper.


27

agree. A sample item is I am satisfied with the progress I have made towards meeting my goals for
the development of new skills.
Career success: Social. Social career success was investigated by using two facets, namely
internal- and external marketability (Eby et al., 2003). Each facet was measured by three items rated
on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 Strongly disagree to 5 Strongly agree. To measure perceived
internal marketability items were asked like My company views me as an asset to the organization.
A sample item of perceived external marketability is Given my skills and experience, other
organizations view me as a value added resource.
Controls. In this paper a number of variables were statistically controlled for: gender, age,
country of work, occupational field, number of years of employment and occupational sector were
asked. In order to be able to insert these variables into the hierarchical multiple regression analyses,
dummy variables and scales were made.
Next to these variables the questionnaire was also controlled for social desirability bias,
because some people like to describe themselves as similar to the norms and values of the society
when being asked about their personality or being asked about confidential information such as
income: Strengths and accomplishments are exaggerated and weaknesses and failures are being
denied to a certain extent (Moss, 2008). A social desirability bias can create false relationships
between variables and can thus affect the validity of a questionnaire and the research (Van de
Mortel, 2008). The fact that socially desirable responding is most often applicable in responses to
socially sensitive questions has been backed up by more literature (King & Bruner, 2000). Peoples
success in their careers could be seen as socially sensitive, since questions about salary and position
are asked as well as the general satisfaction of someone within their job and career. In order to
detect a social desirability bias researchers have developed several scales. The most widely used and
well-known scale is the large Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability scale, consisting of 33 items that
need to be answered on a true/false basis (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960). People that score high on the
scale have a high need for social approval. For this paper the 13-item scale of Reynolds (1982) is
Met opmerkingen [JM39]: This is allowed an often a good
check to see if your measuring scale is truly measuring what you
need to know for your thesis. Not mandatory.


28

chosen, because it is shorter than the full Marlowe-Crowne scale but still has an acceptable
reliability. Several questions from the social desirability scale need reversions, since 8 out of the 13
questions were asked in an opposing form.

3.4 Operational conceptual model
The operational conceptual model is presented in Figure 3.1 below. It illustrates the basic conceptual
model presented in the introduction of this paper and includes the hypotheses that were drafted and
the scales that are used to measure the constructs.


Figure 3.1: Operational conceptual model

Met opmerkingen [JM40]: If you include additional scales
besides the concepts in your conceptual model in the total
questionnaire, make sure that you provide a proper argumentation
for doing so.
Met opmerkingen [JM41]: Note that you are allowed to
depict the model differently, as long as it clear which concepts are
included and how they are measured. An operational model is also
not mandatory, but can help with the clarity of your thesis (and is
often a great check, because it happens often that students have a
model, but end up not being able to measure one of the concepts.
In other words, they cant investigate the relationships they were
depicting. This could include elements like competitive advantage
or market share, or concepts measured at different units of
analysis.


29

References
Ackerman, P. L., & Heggestad, E. D. (1997). Intelligence, personality and interests: Evidence for
overlapping traits. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 219245. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.121.2.219
Barrick, M. R. & Mount, M. K. (1991). The Big 5 personality dimensions and job performance: A meta-
analysis. Personnel Psychology, 44, 1-25. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.1991.tb00688.x
Boudreau, J. W., Boswell, W. R., & Judge, T. A. (2001). Effects of Personality on Executive Career
Success in the United States and Europe. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 58, 53-81. doi:
10.1006/jvbe.2000.1755
Boudreau, J. W., Boswell, W. R., Judge, T. A., & Bretz, R. D. Jr. (1999). Personality and cognitive ability
as predictors of job search and separation among employed managers. Personnel Psychology, 54,
25-50. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.2001.tb00084.x
Chamorro-Premuzic, T., & Furnham, A. (2003). Personality predicts academic performance: Evidence
from two longitudinal university samples. Journal of Research in Personality, 37, 319-338. doi:
10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00578-0
Costa, T., & Mcrae, R. (1992). Four ways five factors are basic. Personality and Individual
Differences, 13, 653-665. doi: 10.1016/0191-8869(92)90236-I
Crowne, D. P., & Marlowe, D. A. (1960). A new scale of social desirability independent of pathology.
Journal of Consulting Psychology, 24, 349-354. doi: 10.1037/h0047358
De Feyter, T., Caers, R., Vigna, C., & Berings, D. (2012). Unraveling the impact of the Big Five
personality traits on academic performance: The moderating and mediating effects of self-
efficacy and academic motivation. Learning and Individual Differences, 22, 439-448. doi:
10.1016/j.lindif.2012.03.013
Met opmerkingen [JM42]: Note that this reference list is still
not fully correct according to the APA referencing standard. Please
take proper care of your referencing for your paper.


30

De Haro, J. M., Castejn, J. L. &, Gilar, R. (2013). General mental ability as moderator of personality
traits as predictors of early career success. Journal of Vocational Behavior. 83, 171-180. doi:
10.1016/j.jvb.2013.04.001
De Raad, B., & Schouwenburg, H. (1996). Personality in learning and education: A review. European
Journal of Personality, 10, 303-336. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0984(199612)10:5<303::AID-
PER262>3.0.CO;2-2
Drenth, P. J. D. (2004, April 8). Selectie aan de poort werkt niet. NRC Handelsblad, p. 8.
Dries, N., Pepermans, R., & Carlier, O. (2008). Career success: Constructing a multidimensional
model. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 73, 254-267. doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2008.05.005
Eby, L. T., Butts, M., & Lockwood, A. (2003). Predictors of success in the era of the boundaryless
career. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 24, 689-708. doi: 10.1002/job.214
Eurich, T. L., Krause, D. E., Cigularov, K., & Thornton III, G.C. (2009). Assessment centers: Current
practices in the United States. Journal of Business Psychology, 24, 387-407. doi: 10.1007/s10869-
009-9123-3
Furnham, A., Chamorro-Premuzic, T., & McDougall, F. (2003). Personality, cognitive ability, and
beliefs about intelligence as predictors of academic performance. Learning and Individual
Differences, 14, 4764. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2003.08.002
Furnham, A., & Mitchell, J. (1991). Personality, needs, social skills and academic achievement: A
longitudinal study. Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 10671073. doi:10.1016/0191-
8869(91)90036-B
Gattiker, U. E., & Larwood, L. (1989). Career success mobility and extrinsic satisfaction of corporate
managers. Social Science Journal, 26, 75-92. doi: 10.1016/0362-3319(89)90039-6


31

Ghasemi, A. & Zahediasl, S. (2012). Normality Tests for Statistical Analysis: A Guide for Non-
Statisticians. International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 10, 486-489. doi:
10.5812/ijem.3505
Goldberg, L. R. (1990). An alternative "description of personality": The Big Five factor structure.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1216-1229. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.59.6.1216
Greenhaus J. H., Parasuraman S., & Wormley W. M. (1990). Effects of race on organizational
experiences, job performance evaluations and career outcomes. Academy of Management
Journal, 33, 64-86. doi: 10.2307/256352
Hebl, M. R. (2009). APA handbook of multicultural psychology, vol. 2: Applications and training (pp.
253-264). Amer Psychological Association.
Helmreich, R. L., Sawin, L. L., & Carsrud, A.L. (1986). The honeymoon effect in job performance:
Temporal increases in the predictive power of achievement motivation. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 77, 185-188. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.71.2.185
Hennequin, E. (2007). What career success means to blue-collar workers. Career Development
International, 12, 565-581. doi: 10.1108/13620430710822029
Heslin, P. A. (2003). Self- and other-referent criteria of career success. Journal of Career Assessment,
11, 262-286. doi: 10.1177/1069072703254500
Hulin, C. L., Henry, R. A., & Noon, S. L. (1990). Adding a dimension: Time as a factor in the
generalizability of predictive relationships. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 328-340. doi:
10.1037/0033-2909.107.3.328
Jarden, A. (2011, September 10). Positive Psychological Assessment: A practical introduction to
empirically validated research tools for measuring wellbeing. www.aaronjarden.com, p. 3.


32

Judge, T. A., Cable, D. M., Boudreau, J. W., & Bretz, R.D. (1995). An empirical investigation of the
predictors of executive career success. Personnel Psychology, 48, 485-519. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-
6570.1995.tb01767.x
Judge, T. A., Higgins, C. A., Thoresen, C. J., & Barrick, M.R. (1999). The big five personality traits,
general mental ability and career success across the life span. Personnel Psychology, 52, 621-652.
doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.1999.tb00174.x
King, M., & Bruner, G. (2000). Social desirability bias: a neglected aspect of validity testing.
Psychology and Marketing, 17, 79-103. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1520-6793(200002)17:2<79::AID-
MAR2>3.0.CO;2-0
Lakin, J. M. (2012). Assessing the cognitive abilities of culturally and linguistically diverse students:
Predictive validity of verbal, quantitative, and nonverbal tests. Psychology in the Schools, 49, 756-
768. doi: 10.1002/pits.21630
Lau, V. P., & Shaffer, M. S. (1999). Career success: the effects of personality. Career Development
International, 4, 225-230. doi: 10.1108/13620439910270607
Laumer, S. (2012). Online gaming to find a new job examining job seekers intention to use serious
games as a self-assessment tool. Zeitschrift fr Personalforschung, 26, 218-240. doi:
10.1688/1862-0000
Lei, M. &, Lomax, R.G. (2005). The Effect of Varying Degrees of Nonnormality in Structural Equation
Modeling. Structural Equation Modeling, 12, 127. doi: 10.1207/s15328007sem1201_1
Leijendekker, M. (2011, July 12). Goed onderwijs? Vertrouw de leraar; Het Finse onderwijs is het beste
van Europa. Zonder inspectie en met weinig geld. NRC Handelsblad, p. 9.
Melse, E., Van Montfort, K., & Van Muijen, J. J. (2012). Het rendement van selectie aan de poort.
Economisch Statistische Berichten, 97, 312-315.


33

Morsch, J. P. M. (2013). Reconsidering manifest needs for the explanation and prediction of
individual, team and economic performance. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Breukelen:
Nyenrode Business Universiteit.
Moss, S. (2008, December 8). Crowne and Marlowe social desirability scale. Psychlopedia.
Mulhall, S. (2011). CSI: Career Success Investigation. Irish Journal of Management, 30, 67-93.
Retrieved from http://www.iamireland.ie
Ng, T. W. H., Eby, L. T., Sorensen, K. L., & Feldman, D. C. (2005). Predictors of objective and subjective
career success: a meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 58, 367-408. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-
6570.2005.00515.x
Ng, T. W. H., & Feldman, D. C. (2010). Human capital and objective indicators of career success: The
mediating effects of cognitive ability and conscientiousness. Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology, 83, 207-235. doi: 10.1348/096317909X414584
OECD (2011). Education at glance. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/education/skills-beyond-
school/48630940.pdf
Poropat, A. E. (2009). A meta-analysis of the five-factor model of personality and academic
performance. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 322-338. doi: 10.1037/a0014996
Qin, X. (2011). Is test taker perception of assessment related to construct validity? International
Journal of Testing, 11, 324-348. doi: 10.1080/15305058.2011.589018
Reynolds, W. M. (1982). Development of reliable and valid short forms of the Marlowe-Crowne social
desirability scale. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38, 119-125. Retrieved from
http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=5c02509e-bc0c-4e64-9674-
9a2ef030849b%40sessionmgr111&vid=1&hid=108


34

Rotundo, M., & Sackett, P. R. (2002). The relative importance of task, citizenship, and
counterproductive performance for supervisor ratings of overall performance: A policy capturing
study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 66-80. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.87.1.66
Sackett, P. R., Borneman, M. J., & Connelly, B. S. (2008). High-stakes testing in higher education and
employment: Appraising the evidence for validity and fairness. American Psychologist, 63, 215-
227. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.63.4.215
Salgado, J. F. (1997). The five factor model of personality and job performance in the European
Community. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 30-43. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.82.1.30
Salgado, J. F., Anderson, N., Moscoso, S., Bertua, C. &, De Fruyt, F. (2003). International validity
generalization of GMA and cognitive abilities: A European community meta-analysis. Personnel
Psychology, 56, 573-605. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.2003.tb00751.x
Scarpello, V., & Campbell, J. P. (1983). Job satisfaction: Are all the parts there? Personnel Psychology,
36, 577-600. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.1983.tb02236.x
Schmidt, F.L. (2002). The role of general cognitive ability and job performance: Why there cannot be
a debate. Human Performance, 15, 187-211. doi: 10.1080/08959285.2002.9668091
Seibert, S. E., Crant, J. M., & Kraimer, M. L. (1999). Proactive personality and career success. Journal
of Applied Psychology, 84, 416-427. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.84.3.416
Seibert, S. E., & Kraimer, M. L. (2001). The Five-Factor Model of Personality and Career Success.
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 58, 1-21. doi: 10.1006/jvbe.2000.1757
Staatsblad van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden (2011). 369. Retrieved from
https://zoek.officielebekendmakingen.nl/stb-2011-369.html
Salvatori, P. (2001). Reliability and validity of admissions tools used to select students for the health
professions. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 6, 159-175. DOI: 10.1023/A:1011489618208


35

Stumpf, S. A., & Tymon Jr., W.G. (2012). The effects of objective career success on subsequent
subjective career success. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 81, 345-353. doi:
10.1016/j.jvb.2012.09.001
Suls, J., Green, P., & Hillis, S. (1998). Emotional reactivity to everyday problems, affective inertia, and
neuroticism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 127-136. doi:
10.1177/0146167298242002
Thalmayer, A. G., Saucier, G., & Eigenhuis, A. (2011). Comparative validity of brief to medium-length
big five and big six personality questionnaires. Psychological Assessment, 23, 995-1009. doi:
10.1037/a0024165
Van de Mortel, T. F. (2008). Faking it: social desirability response bias in self-report research.
Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing, 25, 40-48. Retrieved from
http://epubs.scu.edu.au/hahs_pubs/2/