10/18/12

Recap:
Morality is both possible and necessary for creatures that are both rational and free.
To be free, truly free, means we are rational.
Rationality in turn presupposes freedom
Freedom + Rationality = Morality
This is why the only truly good thing is an absolutely good will
Even God Must Be Moral
The moral law is so apodictic and universally binding aprioirity that even God must be
held accountable to it. Note the amazing passage:
o Even the holy one of the Gospel must first be compared with our ideal of moral
perfection before one can recognize him as holyBut where do we get the
concept of God as the highest good? Solely from the idea that reason projects a
priori, a moral perfection and connects inseparably.
Laws of morality are binding if an only if:
The cosmos is a lawful order, or it is intelligible at all because it is lawful.
Pure reason = ground for the possibility of knowledge
Practical reason = ground for the possibility of oral law determination of the will in
accordance with a universal maxim
Laws of Nature = Laws of Morality
Two realms, two legislators, but one principle
Two realms: nature and human community
Two legislators: creator (God) and the human will
One principle a priori lawfulness
Key Consequences so far:
The human being becomes herself by taking a certain decision in regard to their freedom
(i.e. by accepting or rejecting universality)
o The roots of existentialism: we become our choices
o A foundation for morality without God whatsoever.
Autonomy is the pivot
The foundation of autonomy is the determining of the will in accordance with universal
law
The logic of Christian moral thinking is absolute autonomy
Kant gives us the idea that god is dispensable
o If we are rational, free and moral, we postulate the existence of an absolute moral
being.
o Kant is a Christian, but this rejection of God is implicit
o Kant would reject New Age religion because its not in accordance with reason
and has nothing to do with the absolute morality of a being.
Imperatives
Now, a good will is absolutely good because it determines itself in accordance with
universality. That is, it aims at what must be done. What must be done is an imperative.
An imperative is a guide of practical reason.
Definition of imperative
The representation of an objective principle, insofar as it is necessitating for a will, is
called a command (of reason), and the formula of the command is called an
imperative.
Note, an imperative is a formula of practical reason, i.e. of the determination of the
will.
A formula: a method, a set of procedures, a set of guidelines for accomplishing
something.
Three types of imperatives:
Hypothetical: When the command issues from an end, the objective principle is some
goal. Could be formulated as Every rational agent, if he will a certain end, ought to will
the action good as a means to this end
Categorical: When the command, or objective principle that determines the will is not
external to the will. We act for the sake of the act, not for its consequence.
Hypothetical Imperatives:
Problematic: What one may will, or also called an imperative of Skill
Assertoric: Where one will what everyone naturally wills, namely happiness. It is an
imperative of self-live or prudence. Also known as a pragmatic imperative, i.e. do that
which will not harm and bring happiness to your, example.
Another way to think of imperatives
We can think of commands of practical reason in terms of the goods they aim at:
o What is good as a means, or is useful for something else (problematic)
o What is good for me, my good (assertoric)
o The morally good, i.e. good with reference only to irself, not a quid pro quo.
Categorical Imperative
It is the imperative, i.e. command of practical reason, which is not conditioned by some
particular end that may be desired. Instead, it takes the form: Every rational egend ought
to will the action that is good in and of itself. Kant refers to this imperative as apodictic,
i.e. true a priori, and universally binding.
FIVE versions of the categorical imperative
Kant writes that: The categorical imperative is thus only a single one, and specifically
this: Act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time
will that it come a universal law. This is known as the Formula of Universal Law. Or
Formula of Universal lawfulness, or universal legislation.
But, this formula has four other variations
Formula of Law of Nature: Act as if the maxim of your action were to become through
your will a universal law of nature AK 4:421
Formula of the End in Itself: So act as to use humanity, both in your own person and
in the person of every other, always at the same time as an end, never simply as a means
AK 4:429
Formula of Autonomy: So act that your will can regard itself at the same time as
making universal law through its maxim AK 4:434
Formula of the Kingdom of Ends: So act as if you were always through you maxims a
law-making member in a universal kingdom of ends. AK 4:438
Formula of Universal Law
This is the most general formulation
If morality is possible, it must be as a form of lawfulness
o A principle that could be binding for anyone else, something all rational beings
can abide by.
o We expect other human beings to act such that their maxims
Formula of Law of Nature
If something can become a universal law, it can also become a law of nature
Only those acts would be moral if they could become laws of nature
o The human being can moralize nature.
o The law that would result from our actions should become a law of nature
We could predict how humans should act eternally
All creatures in nature should be ruled by this
In Genesis, man was made the steward of nature
o Whatever is moral cannot conflict with the well-being of nature itself (Kant is a
proto-ecologist)
o We cannot universalize that which would destroy the planet
Formula of the End in itself (End in itself = Dignity)
Treat humans as ends, never as means
o We presuppose others ability to legislate
o We relate to others as lawgivers
o This is an intuition we already have
o We cannot morally instrumentalize one another
o Morality cannot be about egoistic satisfaction of ones own desires.
Formula of Autonomy (equals under law as universal legislators)
This is closely related to the third version
When you begin to instrumentalize another human being, morality ends
Moral actions must be universalizable
For Kant, we cannot morally sell ourselves into slavery (This would be a form of treating
ourselves as a means)
We cannot morally commit suicide (treating oneself as a means, not apt for universal
lawgiving)
Cannot morally engage in prostitution
Torture is also immoral