Prof.

Guna Magesan
Room No B301 Extn: 1010
guna.magesan@fnu.ac.fj
Engineering Physics
BEN503

Week 12
Engineering Physics
BEN503
Electromagnetism
Sl no Topic
1 Electric Charge & Electric Field
2 Electric Charge and Electric Flux
3 Current, Resistance & Electromotive Force: Ohms Law
4 Capacitance and Dielectrics
5 Direct Current Circuits Kirchoffs Voltage & Current Laws
6 Alternating Current: RLC Series Circuit, Reactance, Impedance, Phase Angle
(Lead and Lag), Resonance
Electromagnetism

In general, when a force acts on an object it is in
contact with the object.

There are exceptions where the force can act on
an object without being in contact.
Gravity
Electricity
Magnetism

Electric forces occur between two objects
because each have a special character called
charge.
Electric Charge

Electric charge is an intrinsic characteristic of the
fundamental particles making up those objects.

There were two types of charge: positive and negative.

How was the concept of electric charge discovered?

History: Earliest experiments on charge involved simple
static attraction and repulsion effects with dielectric rods
rubbed on cloth or fur. For example,
If you rub a glass rod with silk, a positive charge appears on
the rod.
Negative charge of equal magnitude appears on the silk.
Now both objects have become charged.
Electric Charge

Rubbing does not create charge but only transfers it from
one body to another
upsetting the electrical neutrality of each body during the
process.

Electric charge is conserved: the net charge of any isolated
system cannot change.

The most basic charges are the proton and electron.

Proton have positive charge and electrons have the same
amount of negative charge.

Charge is measured in Coulombs, abbreviated C.
The charge of a proton is 1.6 x 10
-19
C
The charge of an electron is -1.6 x 10
-19
C
Electric Charge

Smallest unit of charge, e =1.6 x 10
-19
C, is the
amount of charge on a proton or electron.
It is a constant of nature and it is called the elementary
charge.

Electric charge is quantized: any charge can be
written as ne, where n is a positive or negative
integer and e is elementary charge.

Any two charges create an electric force on each
other.
Two charges of same sign repel each other.
Two charges of opposite sign attract each other.







Electric Charge -
Applications

The attraction and repulsion between charged
bodies have many industrial applications:
Electrostatic paint spraying and powder coating
Fly-ash collection in chimneys
Nonimpact ink-jet printing, and
Photocopying

Conductors & Insulators

Materials fall into different categories:

Conductors: materials in which charge can move
freely (metals, water with dissolved impurities).

Insulators: materials in which charge cannot move
freely (rubber, plastic, pure water).

Semiconductors: materials that are intermediate
between conductors and insulators (silicon and
germanium in computer chips).

Superconductors: materials that are perfect
conductors.
Coulombs Law
If two charged particles are brought near each other,
they each exert a force on the other. This force of
repulsion or attraction due to the charge properties
of objects is called an electrostatic force.

Coulombs law describes the electrostatic force
between small (point) electric charges q
1
and q
2
at
rest (or nearly at rest) and separated by a distance r.
The constant k = 8.99x10
9
N.m
2
/C
2
= 1/4tc
o
c
o
= 8.85x10
-12
C
2
/N. m
2
is the permittivity constant

2
2 1
2
2 1
4
1
r
q q
r
q q k
F
o
tc
= =
Coulombs Law

The force of attraction or repulsion between
point charges at rest acts along the line joining
the two charges.

If more than two charges are present, Coulombs
Law equation holds for each pair of charges.

The net force on each charge is then found, using
the superposition principle, as the vector sum of
the forces exerted on the charge by all the
others.

We will solve a problem on this topic in the next tutorial!
Electric Field

A single charge (or a collection of charges)
creates an electric field in its surrounding space.

A point in space has an electric field, and a
charge at that point experiences a force from the
electric field.

The Electric field is defined as the force per unit
charge
i.e. the electric field at a point in space is equal to
the force that a 1 Coulomb charge (a unit charge)
would feel at that point.


Electric Field
Charges create electric field, and electric field creates
forces on charges.
Q E F

Each of these steps produces a vector, either field or
force. That means, an electric field has a magnitude
and a direction at every point.

The electric field vector points away from a positive
charge and towards a negative charge.

The electric field at a point due to a collection of
charges is the vector sum of the electric field created by
every charge.
Electric Field due to a point charge

From Coulombs law the force between two charges is




If one charge (say q
2
) is a unit charge then E due to q
1
is
defined as the force per unit charge




The direction of E is away from the point charge if the
charge is positive and toward it if the charge is negative.
2
1
2
1
4
1
r
q
r
q
k E
o
tc
= =
2
2 1
r
q q k
F =
Field Line representation
Maxwell came up with the field line representation as a
way to visualize the electric field.

The field lines show the direction of the electric field and
the density of lines is related to the strength of the field.
http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/charges-and-fields/charges-and-fields_en.html
Field Line representation
Electric field lines provides a means for visualizing
the direction and magnitude of electric fields.

The electric field vector at any point is tangent to a
field line through that point.

The density of field lines in any region is proportional
to the magnitude of the electric field in that region.

Electric field lines start at positive charges and end at
negative charges.

Field lines cannot cross!

The field line model is a useful representation rather
than a quantitative method.
Electric Flux

Electric flux is a measure of the
flow of electric field through a
surface.
That is, the number of electric field
lines that pass through the surface.

Because electric field lines are
drawn arbitrarily, we quantify
electric flux like this: u
E
= EA,
except that.
If the surface is tilted, fewer lines cut
the surface.
E
A
E
u
The green lines miss!
Electric Flux

We define A to be a vector having a
magnitude equal to the area of the
surface, in a direction normal to the
surface.

The amount of surface
perpendicular to the electric field is
A cos u

Therefore, the amount of surface
area effectively cut through by the
electric field is A cos u

A
Effective
= A cos u so u
E
= EA
Effective
= EA cos u.
E
E A u =
E
u
u
A
Gauss Law
Gauss law relates the net flux of an electric field through a
closed surface (a Gaussian surface) to the net charge q
enc
that
is enclosed by that surface.
The net charge q
enc
is the algebraic sum
of all the enclosed positive and negative
charges, and it can be positive, negative,
or zero.

If q
enc
is positive, the net flux is outward;
if q
enc
is negative, the net flux is inward
Capacitance
A capacitor is a device that stores charge.

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by an
insulator.
The simplest capacitor consists of a pair of parallel metal
plates.

When a capacitor is charged, its plates have charges of
equal magnitudes but opposite signs: +q and -q.

However, we refer to the charge of a capacitor as being q,
the absolute value of these charges on the plates.

When charge is moved from one plate to the other a
voltage develops between the plates.
Capacitance

Capacitance
The charge q and the potential difference V for a
capacitor are proportional to each other.

q = CV

The proportionality constant C is called the capacitance
of the capacitor.
Its value depends only on the geometry of the conductors (e.g.
area of plates and their separation) and not on their charge or
potential difference.
The capacitance is a measure of how much charge must be put
on the plates to produce a certain potential difference between
them.
The greater the capacitance, the more charge is required.

The units of capacitance are coulomb per volt which is
named the farad (1 F = 1 C/V).
Charging a Capacitor
One way to charge a capacitor is to place it in an electric
circuit with a battery.

The circuit shown is incomplete because switch S is open.

When the switch is closed, electrically connecting those
wires, the circuit is complete and charge can then flow
through the switch and the wires.
Charging a Capacitor
Plate h, losing electrons, becomes positively charged.

Plate l, gaining electrons, becomes negatively charged.

As the plates become oppositely charged, that potential
difference increases until it equals the potential difference V
between the terminals of the battery.

With the electric field zero, there is no further drive of
electrons.

The capacitor is then said to be fully charged, with a potential
difference V and charge q.
Capacitors in Parallel
When a potential difference V is
applied across several capacitors
connected in parallel, that
potential difference V is applied
across each capacitor.

The total charge q stored on the
capacitors is the sum of the
charges stored on all the
capacitors.

Capacitors connected in parallel
can be replaced with an
equivalent capacitor that has the
same total charge q and the same
potential difference V as the
actual capacitors.
Capacitors in Parallel
To derive an expression for C
eq
, we first use q = CV
to find the charge on each actual capacitor.
Capacitors in Series
When a potential difference V is
applied across several capacitors
connected in series, the capacitors
have identical charge q.

The sum of the potential differences
across all the capacitors is equal to the
applied potential difference V.

Capacitors that are connected in series
can be replaced with an equivalent
capacitor that has the same charge q
and the same total potential
difference V as the actual series
capacitors.
Capacitors in Series
To derive an expression for C
eq
, we first use V = q/C to
find the potential difference of each actual capacitor.
Capacitor with a Dielectric

A dielectric, is an insulating material such as
mineral oil or plastic, and is characterized by
a numerical factor k, called the dielectric
constant of the material.

In a region completely filled by a dielectric
material, all electrostatic equations
containing the permittivity constant
o
are
to be modified by replacing
o
with k
o
.

The introduction of a dielectric
To increase the capacitance of a capacitor
To limit the potential difference that can be
applied between the plates to a certain value
V
max
, called the breakdown potential.
Current
An electric current i in a conductor is defined by:


where
dQ is the amount of (positive) charge that passes in time dt
through a hypothetical surface that cuts across a conductor.

SI unit of current is the Ampere (= Coulomb/second) = 1 C/s

dt
dQ
i =
Electric Current is the rate of flow of charge past a point in
space (e.g. in a wire or a beam of charged particles).

Typically given the symbol i or I.


Current
Heres a really simple circuit where
a current arrow is drawn:
The current is in the direction of flow of positive charge
opposite to the flow of electrons, which are usually the
charge carriers.
+
-
current
+
-
current electrons
An electron flowing from to +
gives rise to the same
conventional current as a proton
flowing from + to .

Current is a scalar quantity, and it
has a sign associated with it.

Resistance

A perfect conductor lets charge flow freely whereas
an insulator will not let charge flow at all.

In practice, materials and their geometry (e.g. thin
wire versus thick wire), offer some impediment to the
flow of charge. This property is known as resistance.

In other words, the resistance of a material is a
measure of how easily a charge flows through it.

A perfect conductor would have zero resistance.

A perfect insulator would have infinite resistance.

Resistance & Ohms Law

The resistance R of a conductor is defined as


where V is the potential difference across the
conductor and i is the current.

This relation is known as Ohms law.

The difference in voltage (or potential) between two
sides of a resistor is equal to the current through the
resistor times the resistance of the resistor.

The SI unit of resistance is the Ohm (O) (1 volt per
ampere).
i
V
R =
iR V =
If we write the equation as


we see that, for a given V, the greater the resistance, the
smaller the current.

Resistor & Resistivity
A conductor whose function in a circuit is to provide a
specified resistance is called a resistor.

In a circuit diagram, we represent a resistor and a
resistance with the symbol

R
V
i =
The resistance R of a conducting wire of length L and
uniform cross sectional area A is


where is the resistivity of the wire.

A
L
R =
Power & Resistive Dissipation

Power, or the rate of energy used in the resistor, is


The units of power is volts times amps = watts
(1 V) (1 A) = (1 J/C) (1 C/s) = 1 J/s = 1 W
iV P =
Resistive Dissipation:
For a resistor or some other device with resistance
R, we can combine R = V/i and P = iV to obtain, for
the rate of electrical energy dissipation due to a
resistance, either
R i P
2
=
R
V
P
2
=
Electromotive Force

Any device which transforms a form of energy
into electric energy is called a source of emf.

emf is an abbreviation for electromotive
force, but emf is not a force!
That term no longer popular.
The emf device of initial interest is the battery. a dc-
power supply.

Electromotive Force

An emf device does work on charges to maintain
a potential energy difference between its
terminals.
the emf (defined as the work done per unit charge)






The SI unit of emf is volt, (as for potential
difference)

emf = work/charge (Joule/Coulomb = Volt).
dQ
dW
mf e =
Direct Current Circuits
Circuit Symbols

The resistor

The battery (positive terminal long line,
negative short line). Current always flows
from positive to negative.

The ground connection
Resistances in Series & Parallel
A
B
Put your finger on the wire at A. If you can move along the
wires to B without ever having a choice of which wire to follow,
the circuit components are connected in series.
A B
Put your finger on the wire at A. If in moving along the wires to B
you ever have a choice of which wire to follow, the circuit
components are connected in parallel.
Resistances in Series & Parallel
+
-
V
parallel
+
-
V
series
It matters where you put the source of emf.
V
I
If resistors see the same potential difference, they are in parallel.
If resistors see the same current, they are in series.
Resistances in Series & Parallel
V
R
1
R
2
V
R
1
R
2
If possible see if the resistors can be combined using the
parallel and series combination rules.

Simplifying the circuit by replacing parallel and series
resistors by their equivalent values can allow the circuit
parameters to be determined.
2 1
R R R
eq
+ =
2 1
1 1 1
R R R
eq
+ =
parallel series
Resistance in Series
Current flows
in the steady state, the same current flows through all resistors
there is a potential difference (voltage drop) across each resistor.

An electric charge q is given a potential energy qV by the battery.

As it moves through the circuit, the charge loses potential energy qV
1
as
it passes through R
1
, etc.

The charge ends up where it started, so the total energy lost must equal
the initial potential energy input: qV = qV
1
+ qV
2
+ qV
3
.


R
3
R
2
R
1
+
-
V
I
I I I
V
1
V
3
V
2
Heres a circuit with
three resistors and a
battery:
Resistance in Series
Now imagine replacing the three resistors by a single resistor,
having a resistance R such that it draws the same current as the
three resistors in series. V = IR
eq

Combining: IR
eq
= IR
1
+ IR
2
+ IR
3


R
eq
= R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3

For resistors in series, the total resistance is the sum of the
separate resistances.



R
eq
+
-
V
I
V

I
qV = qV
1
+ qV
2
+ qV
3

V = V
1
+ V
2
+ V
3

V = IR
1
+ IR
2
+ IR
3


Resistance in Parallel

Current flows
different currents flows through
different resistors
but the voltage drop across each
resistor is the same.

In the steady state, the current I
splits into I
1
, I
2
, and I
3
at point A.

I
1
, I
2
, and I
3
recombine to make a
current I at point B.

The net current flowing out of A and
into B is I = I
1
+ I
2
+ I
3
.


V

V

V

R
3
R
2
R
1
+
-
V I
I
3
I
1
I
2
A B
I
Resistance in Parallel

Now imagine replacing the three
resistors by a single resistor, having a
resistance R such that it draws the
same current as the three resistors in
parallel.

From above, I = I
1
+ I
2
+ I
3
, and

Because the voltage drop across each
resistor is V:


1 2 3
1 2 3
V V V
I = I = I =
R R R
V

R
eq
+
-
V I
I

A B
I
So that
eq 1 2 3
V V V V
= + + .
R R R R
Kirchoffs Current Law
(KEERKOFFs Junction Rule)
At any junction point, the sum of all currents
entering the junction must equal the sum of all
currents leaving the junction.
Also called Kirchhoffs First Rule.
This is just conservation of charge: charge in =
charge out.
at any junction

I =0
Kirchoffs Voltage Law
(KEERKOFFs Loop Rule)
The sum of the changes of potential around any closed
path of a circuit must be zero.
Also called Kirchhoffs Second Rule.
This is just conservation of energy: a charge ending up where
it started out neither gains nor loses energy (E
i
= E
f
).
around any closed loop

V=0
For a resistor, the sign of the potential difference is negative if your
chosen loop direction is the same as the chosen current direction
through that resistor; positive if opposite.

For a battery, the sign of the potential difference is positive if your
chosen loop direction moves from the negative terminal towards the
positive; negative if opposite.
Solving Circuits
Draw the circuit.

Label + and for each battery (the short side is ).

Label the current in each branch of the circuit with a
symbol and an arrow.

Apply Kirchoffs Junction Rule at each junction.
The direction of the current: flowing in (+) or out ().

Apply Kirchhoffs Loop Rule for as many loops as
necessary to get enough equations to solve for your
unknowns.
Follow each loop in one direction onlyyour choice.

Collect equations, solve, and check results.
Solving Circuits
Apply the junction rule.

Apply the loop potential rule around all the loops of
the circuit.

Each loop will give one equation relating the
potentials and the loop currents.

Use simultaneous equations to solve for the
quantity of interest.
Resistor:
I
loop
V is -
+
-
Battery:
loop
V is +
Solving Circuits
We have 3 unknowns (I
1
, I
2
, and I
3
), so we will need 3 equations. We
begin with the junctions.

Junction a: I
3
I
1
I
2
= 0 --eq. 1

Junction d: -I
3
+ I
1
+ I
2
= 0

Junction d gave no new information, so we still need two more equations.
1 O c
1
= 85 V
1 O c
2
= 45 V
20 O
40 O
a
b
c
d
e g
f
h
I
3
I
2
I
1
30 O
d a
Solving Circuits
There are three loops.

Any two loops will produce independent equations. Using
the third loop will provide no new information.
Loop 1. Loop 2. Loop 3.
1 O c
1
= 85 V
1 O c
2
= 45 V
20 O
40 O
a
b
c
d
e g
f
h
I
3
I
2
I
1
30 O
Solving Circuits
Three equations, three unknowns; the rest is algebra.

Make sure to use voltages in V and resistances in O. Then currents will be in A.
5
I
loop
V is -
+
-
loop
V is +
The green loop (a-h-d-c-b-a):

(- 30 I
1
) + (+45) + (-1 I
3
) + (- 40 I
3
) = 0

- 30 I
1
+ 45 - 41 I
3
= 0 --eq. 2

The blue loop (a-b-c-d-e-f-g):

(+ 40 I
3
) + ( +1 I
3
) + (-45) + (+20 I
2
) + (+1 I
2
) + (-85) = 0

41 I
3
-130 + 21 I
2
= 0 --eq. 3
Solving Circuits
Collect our three equations:
I
3
I
1
I
2
= 0
- 30 I
1
+ 45 41 I
3
= 0
41 I
3
-130 + 21 I
2
= 0


Rearrange to get variables in right order:
I
1
I
2
+ I
3
= 0
- 30 I
1
- 41 I
3
+ 45 = 0
21 I
2
+ 41 I
3
130 = 0




Use the middle equation to eliminate I
1
:
I
1
= (41 I
3
45)/(-30)

There are many valid sets of steps to solving a system of equations.
Any that works is acceptable.
Final answers
I
1
= - 0.94 A
I
2
= 2.72 A
I
3
= 1.78 A
Verification
1.78 (-0.94) 2.72 = 0
- 30 (-0.94) + 45 - 41 (1.78) = 0.22
- 41 (1.78) -130 + 21 (2.72) = 0.10
Solving Circuits
3 O
8 O
8 O
10 O
6 O
1 O 9 V
3 O
8 O
8 O
10 O
6 O
1 O 9 V
8 O
3 O
8 O
10 O
6 O
1 O 9 V
8 O
3 O
8 O
10 O
6 O
1 O 9 V
Solving Circuits
3 O
8 O
8 O
10 O
6 O
1 O 9 V
3 O
10 O
6 O
1 O 9 V
4 O
3 O
10 O
1 O 9 V
10 O
3 O
1 O 9 V
5 O
Example: Two 100 O light bulbs are connected (a) in series and (b) in
parallel to a 24 V battery. (i) What is the current through each bulb and
(ii) what is the equivalent resistance of each circuit? (iii) For which circuit
will the bulbs be brighter?
(a) Series combination.

R
eq
= R
1
+ R
2

V = I R
eq

V = I (R
1
+ R
2
)

I = V / (R
1
+ R
2
) = 24 V / (100 O + 100 O) = 0.12 A

The same current of 0.12 A flows through each bulb.

The equivalent resistance is R
eq
= R
1
+ R
2

R
eq
= 100 O + 100 O = 200 O .




R
2
R
1
+
-
I
V = 24 V

Example: Two 100 O light bulbs are connected (a) in series and (b) in
parallel to a 24 V battery. (i) What is the current through each bulb and
(ii) what is the equivalent resistance of each circuit? (iii) For which circuit
will the bulbs be brighter?
(b) Parallel combination.





V

V

R
2
R
1
+
-
V = 24 V
I
I
2
I
1
I
eq 1 2
1 1 1
= +
R R R
1 2
I
V=
1 1
+
R R
| |
|
\ . 1 2
1 1
I = V +
R R
| |
|
\ .
1 1
I = 24V +
100 100
| |
|
\ .
200
I = 24 = 0.48 A
10000
V = I R
eq
| | | |
| |
\ . \ .
2
eq
1 1 1 200
= + =
R 100 100 10000
eq
R = 50
(iii) Which one is brighter?
To answer the question, we must calculate the power dissipated in the
bulbs for each circuit. The more power consumed, the brighter the
bulb.
In both circuits, the bulbs are identical and have identical currents
passing through them (for a given circuit). We pick either bulb for the
calculation.
Series circuit:
We know the resistance and
current through each bulb, so
we use:
P = I
2
R
P = (0.12 A)
2
(100 O)
P = 1.44 W

Parallel circuit:
We know the resistance and
voltage drop across each bulb,
so we use:
P = V
2
/ R
P = (24 V)
2
/ ( 100 O)
P = 5.76 W




Compare:
P
series
= 1.44 W; P
parallel
= 5.76 W
The bulbs in parallel are brighter.