Mechanics of Materials by Glenn Murphy

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MECHANICS
OF MATERIALS
By
GLENN MURPHY, C.E., PH.D.
Professor of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics
Iowa State College
CQ/10
IRWIN-FARNHAM PUBLISHING COMPANY
Chicago, Illinois
1948
1A
4C5
M
Copyright 1948
by
IRWIN-FARXHAM PUBLISHING COMPANY
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
All rights reserved. This book or any part thereof
may not be reproduced in any form without
written permission of the publishers.
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PREFACE
,
The purpose of a textbook in mechanics of materials is to assist the
student in his development of an understanding of the behavior under load
of structural members and machine parts constructed from the common
engineering materials. To be of tangible assistance, such a textbook should
direct his attention to those principles which have been found useful in
explaining observed phenomena, it should acquaint him with standard
procedures of analysis in order that he may readily understand the bulk of
^ the engineering literature on the subject, it should provide him with a set
of problems by means of which he may test his understanding of the subject,
and it should serve to make him aware that our knowledge of materials is
e> not final and absolute but is constantly growingthat what we know about
mechanics of materials is a tool which, when intelligently used, is of in-
estimable value in the daily tasks of engineering.
With these several objectives, this book has been designed as a text-
booknot as an encyclopedia. The principles of statics, the characteristics
of the geometry of the loaded member, and the effects of the properties of
the material have been emphasized in the consideration of each type of
stress situation. The statics, the geometry, and the properties of the ma-
terial have been used as the starting point in the development of each
phase of the work, for it is the author's conviction that only through an
understanding of the relative importance of each does the student obtain
perspective of the problems of stress analysis.
Discussion is included of those topics which normally comprise the first
course in mechanics of materials, strength of materials, or resistance of
materials, and the customary formulas have been developed. It is to be
hoped that a minimum of emphasis will be placed on the formulas as such.
Those which the author considers important are printed in boldface type.
At appropriate intervals some elementary aspects of design applications
have been included to help the student in his evaluation of the analysis in
its relationship to practical engineering problems.
A rather generous set of drill problems has been included. Some of the
problems are very simple, many require more than a superficial under-
standing of the subject, and the others require a reasonable degree of
mastery of the text material. The problems are grouped at the ends of their
respective chapters. Some students may find this practice inconvenient,
especially if they are accustomed to books in which the problems are
distributed throughout the text in such a way that any one may be solved
by plugging some numbers into the formula in the preceding paragraph.
However, it is the author's observation that those practical engineering
vi PREFACE
problems which he is asked to solve are seldom immediately preceded by
the appropriate formula in italics or boldface type.
Answers are given to practically all of the even-numbered problems. It
is hoped that this device will be useful not only to those instructors who
wish the student to have answers available as he works the problems, but
also to those instructors who feel that the student should be encouraged to
develop confidence in his own results as is essential in engineering practice.
Many individuals have contributed directly or indirectly to the manu-
script, and to them the author expresses his appreciation. Particular credit
is due to Professor E. H. Ohlsen of Iowa State College for his helpful
criticism and suggestions, and to Professor H. J. Gilkey, Head of the De-
partment of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics at Iowa State College, for
many stimulating discussions concerning the general field of Mechanics of
Materials. Several of the author's colleagues have contributed helpful sug-
gestions, particularly in the form of problems.
The author is deeply indebted to Frances Murphy for her care in the
preparation of the finished drawings for the figures. Credit is due to Susan
Barker for her assistance in the preparation of the manuscript.
GLENN MURPHY
AMES, IOWA
February 1948
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1. STRESS, STRAIN, AND AXIAL LOADING
ARTICLE
1. Introduction .......
2. Objectives of Stress Analysis ....
3. Methods of Stress Analysis ....
4. Classification of Load-carrying Members .
5. Definition of Stress......
6. Uniform Stress Distribution and Axial Loading .
7. Stress Concentration under Axial Loading .
8. Stresses on Inclined Planes of Axially Loaded Members
9. Strain Due to Axial Loading ....
10. Shearing Strain ......
11. Strain Due to Temperature Changes
12. Stress-Strain Relationships ....
13. Elastic Action ......
14. Inelastic Action and Failure ....
15. Allowable Working Stress and Factor of Safety .
16. Statically Indeterminate Axially Loaded Members
17. Thin-walled Pressure Vessels ....
18. Dynamic and Repeated Loading
PAGE
1
1
2
3
5
6
9
11
14
16
17
17
22
23
26
26
28
30
CHAPTER 2. JOINTS AND CONNECTIONS FOR AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS
19. General Considerations .
20. Types of Welds
21. Allowable Stresses in Welds
22. Design Considerations
23. Types of Riveted Joints .
24. Stresses in Lap Joints
25. Stresses in Butt Joints .
26. Efficiency of a Riveted Joint
27. Other Design Procedures
28. Design Considerations
29. End Fittings .
49
49
51
51
55
56
64
67
68
70
71
CHAPTER 3. TORSION
30. General Considerations . . . .
31. Geometry of a Circular Torsional Member
32. Shearing Stresses in a Circular Torsional Member
33. Power Transmission by Torsional Members
34. Stresses on Inclined Planes
35. Shearing Stresses in Noncircular Sections
36. Stress Concentration
37. Couplings and Riveted or Bolted Fittings
38. Thin-walled Members in Torsion
39. Localized Compression or Buckling .
40. Stresses beyond the Proportional Limit
41. Helical Springs ....
42. Statically Indeterminate Composite Torsion Members
43. Design Considerations ......
81
81
83
85
88
89
92
95
95
96
99
100
CHAPTER 4. STRESSES IN FLEXURAL MEMBERS
44. Types of Flexural Members ......
44. Types of Flexural
45. Flexural Stresses
113
115
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS
ARTICLE PAGI,
46. Limitations of the Flexure Formula ........ 121
47. Shear Diagrams ........... 123
48. Moment Diagrams. . . . . . . . . . .127
49. Shearing Stress 131
50. Stresses beyond the Proportional Limit ....... 136
51. Stress Concentration .......... 137
52. Beams of Two Materials. ......... 139
53. Design Considerations .......... 141
CHAPTER 5. DEFLECTION OP FLEXUBAL MEMBERS
54. Introduction ............ 163
55. Fundamental Geometrical Relationships in a Bent Flexural Member . . 163
Double Integration
56. General Integration Procedure. . . . . . . . . 165
Area Moments
57. General Relationships .......... 169
58. Application of Theorems. . . . . . . . . .173
59. Deflections by Superposition . . . . . . . . .176
60. Deflections Caused by Shear . . . . . . . . .178
CHAPTER 6. STATICALLY INDETERMINATE BEAMS
^-
62. Introduction . 187
63. Solution of Statically Indeterminate Beams ...... 187
64. Double Integration . . . . . . . . . .187
65. Area Moments ........... 192
66. Superposition of Structures . . . . . . . . .196
67. Theorem of Three Moments 199
CHAPTER 7. COLUMNS
68. Introduction 209
69. Euler Column Theory 210
70. Alternate Solution of Differential Equation 213
71. Intermediate Columns . . . . . . . . . .214
72. Effect of End Conditions 219
73. Eccentric Loads on Compression Blocks ....... 222
74. Eccentric Loads on Columns ......... 225
75. The Secant Formula 227
76. Double-Modulus Formulas 230
CHAPTER 8. COMBINED LOADINGS
78. Introduction 243
79. Principal Stresses 243
80. Maximum Shearing Stress ......... 246
81. The Mohr Circle 250
82. Diagonal Tension 251
83. Principal Strains 253
84. Theories of Elastic Failure 255
CHAPTER 9. DYNAMIC AND REPEATED LOADS
85. Importance of Nonstatic Loads ........ 269
Dynamic Loads
86. Definition 269
87. Basis of Evaluation of Equivalent Static Loads...... 270
TABLE OF CONTENTS
IX
ARTICLE
88. Axial Dynamic Loads ....
89. Torsional Impact Loads ....
90. Flexural Impact Loads ....
91. Design Considerations for Dynamic Loads
Repeated Loads
92. Definition
93. Effect of Repeated Loading
94. Criterion of Resistance .
95. Mechanism of Failure
96. Fluctuating Stresses
97. Stress Concentration
PAGE
. 271
. 273
. 274
275
277
278
278
280
281
282
APPENDIX A. PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS
TABLE
I. Properties of l-Bearas
II. Properties of Channels .
III. Properties of Equal Angles
IV. Properties of Unequal Angles .
295
296
297
298
APPENDIX B. ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
Answers to Problems
299
INDEX
Index
307
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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
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CHAPTER 1
STRESS, STRAIN, AND AXIAL LOADING
1. Introduction.One important phase of engineering activity is design,
and it is one of the most involved, for the development of a good design for a
structure or machine requires the integration of information from a variety
of sources. Careful consideration must be given to the function of the com-
pleted product; the optimum arrangement of the members must be de-
termined; and the most suitable material selected, considering factors such
as availability, workability, cost, durability, and appearance. From an
estimate of the loads to which the structure will be subjected, the most
effective shape and size of the individual members must be determined,
and appropriate means of connecting them must be devised. Consideration
should be given to possible manufacturing processes in order that effective
and economical fabrication processes may be specified, and usually the ap-
pearance of the finished product is important.
The success of the design is, in the last analysis, largely dependent upon
the judgment and experience of the engineer responsible for the details, but
most of the actual calculations involved in the design are based upon well-
established analytical and experimental procedures. These procedures are
set up to assist the engineer in important determinations such as ascertain-
ing the optimum size for the individual members of the structure or the
machine. The field of knowledge comprising the techniques of establishing
relationships among load, size, and shape of members is known as stress
analysis.
2. Objectives of Stress Analysis.The objectives of stress analysis are
to determine the ways in which individual structural members resist load
and to provide the methods by which the engineer responsible for their
design is enabled to answer with confidence the two critical questions:
(1) Is the proposed member strong enough but not too strong?
(2) Is the proposed member stiff enough without being too stiff?
These questions may be rephrased in the form of certain type problems:
(1) Given a member of specified dimensions and specified material, find
the maximum load that it will carry before it fails by breaking or by de-
forming too much.
(2) Given a member of specified dimensions and shape which is to carry a
specified load, find the material which will be best adapted to meet the
1
Chap. 1
given requirements and to avoid failure by breaking or by excessive
deformation.
(3) Given limiting dimensions of a member which is to carry a specified
load, find the material which will be best adapted to meet the given re-
quirements and to avoid failure by breaking or by excessive deformation.
The first of these problems is a problem of investigation, and the other
two are design problems. In each, the relative arrangement of the members
within the structure is assumed to be established by other considerations.
3. Methods of Stress Analysis.Both analytical and experimental
methods of stress analysis are used. The analytical procedures are based on
(1) the laws of motion (or equilibrium),
(2) verified observations of the characteristics of materials, and
Fig. 1
(3) assumptions regarding the behavior of members under load, as justi-
fied on the basis of results obtained from their use.
After the loads which the structure must carry have been estimated, the
force which each member must carry or resist is evaluated with the aid of
free-body diagrams and the laws of motion, as formulated in analytical
mechanics (Statics and Dynamics). Analytical mechanics, together with
information obtained from observations and measurements, is used to
establish the relationships among loads, dimensions, and material for the
individual members of the structure. In the design of a truss, for example,
analytical mechanics is used to determine the forces which the loads develop
in each member, while stress analysis is used to determine the distribution of
the forces within individual members. A number of experimental proce-
Art. 4
dures have been developed for assistance in the analysis of stresses.** They
consist essentially in measurements of strain.
4. Classification of Load-carrying Members.It is obvious that the
maximum load which a given member of a given material will carry is de-
pendent upon the orientation of the load with respect to the member and
upon the way in which the member is supported. For example, a block of
wood 2 in. by 4 in. in cross section and 18 in. long will carry much more load
if the load is directed along the axis of the member than it will if the member
is supported at each end and the load is applied normal to the longitudinal
axis.
Fortunately, any loading (which constitutes a force system) may be re-
solved into a series of relatively simple component loadings, each of which
(a)
(CJ
Fig. 2
may be considered separately. Their effects may be added in most cases.
For example, the resultant force 72 acting at any cross section in a member
(such as at section A A of the airplane landing gear unit in Fig. 1) may be re-
solved into six componentsthe three forces Fx, Fv, and Fx passing through
the centroid of the cross section and directed along three orthogonal axes,
and three couples or moments Mx, Mv, and M, which lie in the three
orthogonal planes. For convenience, the yz-plane is taken as the plane of the
cross section. Similarly, the resultant force acting at another cross section
BB (near AA} may be resolved into a set of three forces F'x, F'v, and F',
which are parallel to the three forces at section A A, and three moments
* Murphy, Glenn, "Strain-Measuring Equipment," Advanced Mechanics of Materials
(McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1946), p. 49.
t Gilkey, Murphy, and Bergman, "Experimental Aids in Stress Analysis," Materials
Testing (McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1941), Chap. 12.
4 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Chap. 1
M'x, M'v, and M'x which lie in planes parallel to the planes of the three
moments of section A A.
The two forces Fx and F'x (which are colinear) may be considered to
constitute one component force system acting upon the portion A B of the
original member. It is evident that this force system, shown in Fig. 2(a),
produces a state of compression on planes parallel to A A and BB in the
portion of the member between A A and BB, i.e., the forces tend to shorten
the distance AB and squeeze together adjacent parallel normal planes.
The pair of forces Fv and F'v, Fig. 2(6), as well as the pair Fx and F'x,
tends to produce what is known as a state of shear between A and B. That
is, the forces tend to make adjacent parallel planes slide across one another.
The moments Mx and M'x, which lie in the planes of the cut sections,
tend to twist the portion of the member between AA and BB, Fig. 2(c),
while the pair of moments Mv and M'v tends to bend the member, Fig. 2(d).
Similarly, the pair of moments Mx and M'x tends to produce bending. Thus,
the six possible components tend to develop four possible types of distortion
between sections AA and BB, which are typical of adjacent cross sections
in any member. The four component types of loading producing the four
types of distortion are:
(1) Axial Loading.This is produced by a pair of colinear forces acting
along the longitudinal axis of the section. If the forces are directed toward
each other, a state of compression is developed within the member, while if
the forces are directed away from each other, a state of tension is developed.
Axial loading occurs in members such as struts, tie rods, connecting rods of
engines, bridge trusses, building trusses, and airplane trusses.
It is evident that if the loads are not axial, even though they are colinear,
bending will be developed in addition to direct compression or tension. If
the member is long and slender and loaded in compression, bending or
buckling will result.
(2) Shear.A state of shear is developed by forces which lie in the planes
of the cross sections. Forces of this type are developed in rivets, bolts, and
pins, and in most beams. Shear is usually accompanied by bending.
(3) Torsion.A member which is twisted or tends to be twisted by the
action of a pair of couples lying in planes perpendicular to the axis is said
to be subjected to torsion. This action is typical of the loading condition
developed in shafts and many similar machine parts. The resistance of
circular members to torsion is discussed in Chap. 3.
(4) Flexure.A state of flexure or bending is developed when the mem-
ber is acted upon by a pair of couples (called bending moment) which lie in
planes perpendicular to the cross section. The bending moment produces
tension on one side of the member and compression on the other side. This
type of loading is discussed in Chap. 4. While some bending is present in
practically all load-carrying members, it is the predominant factor in beams
and long slender compression members.
Art. 5 STRESS, STRAIN, AND AXIAL LOADING 5
Only rarely does one of these four types of loading exist alone. Practically
all structural members or machine parts are loaded and supported in such a
way that they are subjected throughout at least a part of their length to
two or more of the component types of loading. In most cases, however,
each of the components may be treated independently of the others and
then- effects added. Exceptions will be considered later.
5. Definition of Stress. The effect of an external load on a member
may be indicated as tension, compression, shear, bending, torsion, or combi-
nations of these as described in Art. 4. However, in addition to this qualita-
tive description, a quantitative measure of the intensity of the effect produced
by the loading is essential for design purposes. It is obvious that an axial
load of 1000 Ib, for example, may have a different effect upon a 1/2-in.
diam rod than upon a 2-in. diam rod of the same material.
A numerical index of the intensity of effect at any point on any plane is
given by the unit stress,* denned as the magnitude of the force per unit
area developed at the point on the plane. It is evaluated as
in which S is the unit stress, and
dF is the differential force developed on the differential area dA.
Differential force and differential area are indicated since the unit stress
usually varies over the plane under consideration. From the definition it is
apparent that unit stress has the dimensions of force per unit area. It is
commonly expressed in pounds per square inch, abbreviated as psi., or may
be expressed in kips (thousands of pounds) per square inch, abbreviated as
ksi.
Qualitatively, the unit stress may be normal stress (tension or compres-
sion) or shearing stress, depending upon whether the differential force act-
ing on the given differential area is normal to the area or in the plane of the
area. In general, on planes perpendicular to the axis of the member normal
stresses are produced by axial loading and by flexure, while shearing stresses
are produced by shear and torsion.
Maximum allowable values of unit stress have been established by many
agencies for most engineering materials under various conditions of usage,
and a few of them are listed in Table 1.
The evaluation of the unit stress which a given load causes at a given
point on a given plane in a structural member involves first the determina-
* The expression "unit stress" is frequently abbreviated in technical literature to
"stress." However, the term "stress" is also used in the literature (particularly in Civil
Engineering practice) to denote the total axial force which a member carries. Hence,
some confusion may arise unless units are specified. In this text, the terms "stress" and
"unit stress" will be used interchangeably to denote intensity of loading expressed as
force per unit area.
Chap. 1
TABLE 1
ALLOWABLE WORKING STRESSES FOR A FEW ENGINEERING MATERIALS*
ALLOWABLE
STHESS (PSI.)
Tension
Shear
Compression
Flexure
Wrought iron
12,000
8000
15000
12 000
Structural steel
18,000
10,000
14000
18 000
Gray cast iron
15,000
3,000
20,000
15000
Aluminum alloy 24S-T
18,000
10000
14000
18 000
Concrete f
0
60
750
1350{
White oak
1800
167
1133
1866
Douglas fir
1800
120
1386
1800
* Values are approximate and are based on average conditions for members without structural defects,
t All values established as a fixed proportion of the ultimate compressive strength. Values listed are for
standard 3000-psi. concrete,
t Reinforced concrete.
tion of the total force which the load causes to be transmitted across the
given plane; and second, the distribution of force (or the variation in stress)
throughout the plane. The first step is usually accomplished by the use of
statics or dynamics, utilizing a free-body diagram, while the determination
of the distribution of the stress is a problem in stress analysis. Stress
distribution under conditions of axial loading will be discussed in the follow-
ing articles, and stress distribution for other types of loading are considered
in subsequent chapters.
6. Uniform Stress Distribution and Axial Loading.If a vertical axial
load W is applied to the top of a short vertical compressive member as
indicated in Fig. 3(a), it will produce stress throughout the member. The
/////////
(a)
(e)
Fig. 3
magnitude of the average unit stress on any horizontal plane such as A A
may be investigated by first constructing a free-body diagram of one por-
tion of the block bounded by the plane A A. One of the two possible por-
tions is shown in Fig. 3(6) and the corresponding free-body diagram is indi-
cated in Fig. 3(c). It is evident that a force F must be developed at the cut
section if the upper portion of the block is to remain in equilibrium and
that the magnitude of F must be equal to W plus the weight of the portion
of the block above the section A A. If the weight of the block is negligible
in comparison with the applied load, F will equal W and the force F must
be colinear with W.
However, the force developed at the section A A is not concentrated at a
point as indicated in Fig. 3(c) but is distributed over the plane A A. Under
certain conditions the unit stress will be distributed approximately uni-
formly and under other conditions it may vary greatly from one point to
another. It is unlikely that the stress is ever actually uniformly distributed
in a structural member or machine part; but, if the material is homo-
geneous, the stress may be distributed more nearly uniformly than if it is
nonhomogeneous. For example, the stress would probably be distributed
more nearly uniformly in a block of fine-grained steel than in a material
like wood which contains inequalities due to grain, variations in growth,
and natural defects such as pitch pockets or knots.
The loading conditions necessary for a uniform distribution of stress
may be established by assuming the unit stress to be distributed uniformly.
The differential force acting on each differential area in the cross section
may be evaluated by Eq. (1). Since these differential forces form a parallel
force system, their resultant, the total force developed on the cross section,
may be determined by direct addition of the differential forces, that is, by
integrating Eq. (1).
r rA
I dF = I SdA. (2)
Jo Jo
Since the unit stress is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the
cross section, the term S may be taken outside of the integral sign. Then
Eq. (2) integrates to
F = SA. (2a)
The location of the resultant force developed at the cut section may be
determined by the application of the Principle of Moments.* The moment
equation written with reference to any convenient y-axia is
L
S x dA. (3)
0
Since the unit stress S is assumed to be constant, it may again be taken
outside of the integral sign, and F may be replaced by SA, from Eq. (2a),
giving
r
KI = S I x dA.
Jo
SAx1 = S I xdA. (3a)
* The moment of the resultant force developed on the cross section is equal to the sum
of the moments of the individual differential forces with respect to the same axis.
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Chap. 1
However, by definition of the centroid of an area,
1
xdA = xA. (4)
0
Hence,
SAxi = SxA, (3b)
and
xl = x. (3c)
That is, the line of action of the resultant must have the same x-coordi-
nate as the centroid of the area. A similar moment equation, written with
respect to a convenient x-axis, will show that the ^-coordinate of the line of
action of the resultant must be equal to the ^-coordinate of the centroid
of the area. Therefore, the line of action of the resultant force developed
on the cross section must pass through the centroid of the cross section.
Since the applied load is colinear with the force F, it also must lie on the
line passing through the centroid of the cross section and must, therefore,
be an axial load. Thus, a necessary condition for the development of a uni-
form stress distribution on any cross section is that the applied load act
along the line forming the loci of the centroids of the cross sections, i.e.,
the applied load must be axial.* While this is a necessary condition for the
development of a uniform stress distribution, it is not a sufficient condition.
A nonuniform stress distribution symmetrical with respect to the longi-
tudinal axis (such as that shown in Fig. 4) will satisfy Eq. (3b). This con-
dition may result from nonuniformities in the material or it may be brought
about by an abrupt change in the cross section of the member.
If the line of action of the resultant does not pass through the centroid
of the cross section, the resultant may be resolved into a force through the
centroid plus a couple. The force will develop axial loading, whereas the
couple will produce bending, and the stress will not be uniformly distributed
across the cross section.
A procedure similar to that used in developing Eqs. (2a) and (3b) may be
followed for shearing stresses with the result that, if the shearing stress is to
be uniformly distributed over the area, the line of action of the resultant
shearing force must pass through the centroid of .the area. The magnitude of
the average shearing unit stress is
S. = f, (2b)
in which
Q is the magnitude of the shearing force.
* This assumes that the member is straight. If the member is curved, the stress at a
given cross section cannot be uniformly distributed unless the line of action of the ap-
plied load passes through the centroid of that cross section.
Art. 7
In most situations, as will be shown later, shearing stress is not uniformly
distributed over the area resisting the shearing force. Hence Eq. (2b) is
considered to give the average and not the maximum unit shearing stress.
7. Stress Concentration tinder Axial Loading.If an axially loaded
member contains a discontinuity such as a hole or a pair of symmetrical
notches as indicated in Fig. 4, the stress will not be distributed uniformly
o
(a) U>) tc) Id)
Fig. 4. Nonuniform stress distribution in axially loaded members.
across the minimum cross section or adjacent cross sections but will be
greater near the edges of the discontinuity. This phenomenon is known as
stress concentration. A quantitative measure of the extent of the stress con-
centration is given by the stress concentration factor which, for axial
loading, is denned as the ratio of the maximum stress developed by the
discontinuity to the average stress in the gross cross section.*
K
(5)
Some typical values of stress concentration factors are indicated in Fig. 5.
It will be noted that the magnitude of the stress concentration factor is de-
pendent upon the abruptness or sharpness of the discontinuity. For some
discontinuities, the stress concentration factor may be evaluated mathe-
matically, while, for other shapes, experimental techniques are used to
determine the distribution of stress near the discontinuity.
Stress concentration also occurs in beams, shafts, and other nonaxially
loaded members; and values of the concentration factor for those conditions
are indicated in later chapters. The importance of the stress concentration
factor depends upon the type of loading and the characteristics of the ma-
* The stress concentration factor may also be denned as the ratio of the maximum
stress to the average stress on the net cross section. In using values of the stress concen-
tration factor, it is important that the engineer know which definition of stress concentra-
tion factor was used before he employs values of the factor.
10
Chap. 1
/o
"?
I'
I
r
I
_r
Lower Curves- Jo/id Lines
Broken .ines
05
Dotted Lines
7
7"
O O./ O.2 0.3 O.4 O.S 0.6 O.7 O.8
Fig. 5. Stress concentration factors for axially loaded members.
terial. The concentration factors as given are for static loads. Other types
of loading (impact and repeated loads) may result in different values of the
factors.
Art. 8
11
In general, the phenomenon of stress concentration may be ignored in the
design of members of ductile materials subjected to static loads, but it is
highly significant in members made of brittle materials, or members sub-
jected to impact and repeated loads. Reasons for this will be pointed out
later.
8. Stresses on Inclined Planes of Axially Loaded Members.Usually
stresses will be developed on all planes in a loaded member. The technique
of evaluating the stress on a plane perpendicular to the axis of an axially
loaded member is indicated in Fig. 3 and Art. 6. The method for evaluating
the stresses on an inclined plane follows the same general procedure. If
the stress is to be evaluated on an inclined plane such as A A in Fig. 6(a),
la)
ic)
Fig. 6
the first step is to construct a free-body diagram of one portion of the mem-
ber bounded by the plane on which the stress is desired. One suitable free-
body diagram is indicated in Fig. 6(6). The weight of the material is as-
sumed to be negligible. The load P on the top of the member is balanced
by an equal and opposite force F on the inclined plane. However, this force
F is not normal to the inclined plane nor is it parallel to the inclined plane.
Hence, to classify its effect qualitatively as tension, compression, or shear,
it must be resolved into two components, N and Q, which are perpendicular
and parallel respectively to the inclined plane as indicated in Fig. 6(c). If
the plane is assumed to make an angle 6 with the horizontal, the com-
ponents N and Q may be evaluated from a force triangle or from the free-
body diagram as
N = F cos 6, (4a)
and
Q = F sin
(4b)
If the resultant of N and Q passes through the centroid of the area which
the inclined plane delineates on the block and if no discontinuities are
present, the normal and shearing stresses may be assumed to be uniformly
distributed and may be evaluated as
Sn = ^, (4c)
and
S. = -> (4d)
respectively. In each equation A is the area of the inclined plane which may
readily be determined from the original cross-sectional area of the specimen
and the angle 6.
The forces N and Q are given by Eqs. (4a) and (4b), in which the term F
is equal to the applied load P if the block is in equilibrium.
Illustrative Problem
A block of concrete 8 in. high and 4 in. by 4 in. in cross section is subjected to an
axial compressive load of 16,000 Ib. Determine the stress on a plane which is per-
pendicular to one pair of faces and which makes an angle of 60 with the horizontal.
Solution: The free-body diagram of Fig. 6(c) may be used and the forces N and Q
determined as:
N = 16,000 (0.500) (a)
= 8,000 Ib compression,
and
Q = 16,000 (0.866) (b)
= 13,860 Ib shear.
The area of the inclined plane is
= 32 sq in.
The normal stress is, therefore,
9 8,000
S. = -32" (d)
= 250 psi. compression,
and the shearing stress is
13,860
S- = -32- (6)
= 433 psi. shear.
The direction of the shearing stress and the fact that the normal stress is compres-
sion may be determined from the free-body diagram.
It may be shown that in an axially loaded member the maximum normal
stress at a point occurs on the plane perpendicular to the direction of the
load and that the maximum shearing stress at a point occurs on the plane
which makes an angle of 45 with the direction of the applied load. The
magnitude of the maximum shearing stress is equal to one half of the magni-
tude of the maximum normal stress.
The fact that shearing stress is developed on inclined planes in axially
^"^"^ members is important because many materials are relatively weak in
Art. 8
13
shear and will fail along an inclined plane at a lower load than would cause
failure on the plane at right angles to the direction of the applied load. Ex-
amples are shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7. Shearing failure of wood loaded in axial compression.
It is apparent that the normal and shearing stresses on a plane which
makes an angle ( 6) with the horizontal in Fig. Q(d) will be equal in magni-
tude to the normal and shearing stresses on the plane investigated in Fig.
Ss ay ail
1 Ss dx dz
/ P' ft *t
g
J> /jr fifc
Fig. 8
14
Chap. 1
6(c). It may also be shown that the shearing stress on a plane which makes
an angle of 90 with AA will be equal to the shearing stress on AA. This
may be proved by considering the equilibrium of the differential element in
Fig. 8. The two horizontal components of shearing stress are equal since
they are on adjacent parallel planes, and the two vertical components of
shearing stress are equal for the same reason. Hence, the two horizontal
components of shearing forces form a couple, as do the two vertical com-
ponents of shearing forces. The equation of moments with respect to an axis
through the centroid of the element gives
Ss = S'..
That is, a shearing stress on one plane is accompanied by an equal shearing
stress on a plane at right angles with it.
9. Strain Due to Axial Loading.Whenever a structural member or
machine part is loaded, its shape changes. The magnitude of the change in
shape depends on the material but the action is qualitatively identical (if
the loads are not excessive) for all materials. If a member such as the bar
indicated in Fig. 9 is subjected to an axial tensile load, it will elongate and
HH-*
Fig. 9. Strain in a bar subjected
to tensile loading.
its cross section will become smaller. If an arbitrary length L, known as the
gage length, is laid off on the surface of a member before loading, it will
be found to have increased after the load is applied. The magnitude of the
increase, ei, is called the total strain, and the ratio of the total strain to the
original length L is called the unit strain. The unit strain* along the axis is
designated by the symbol ;. Hence,
' /*\
i = T (6)
The value of unit strain given by Eq. (6) is the strain in a 1-in. gage length
or the average value of unit strain occurring over the gage length L. For
situations in which the strain is uniformly distributed throughout the gage
length, Eq. (6) gives the value of the uniform strain at any point; but, if
the unit strain is not uniformly distributed throughout the gage length,
Eq. (6) gives only the value of the average, not the maximum, unit strain.
The unit strain at a point may be expressed as
dei , .
ei = dE (6a)
by using an infinitesimal gage length.
One example of nonuniform distribution of strain is that occurring in a
ductile material stressed to the breaking point in tension. In this case the
unit strain at failure is much greater near the break than it is at points a
short distance from the break.
In an axially loaded member such as that indicated in Fig. 9, strain will
occur in directions at right angles to the applied load as well as in the
direction of the applied load, i.e., the diam of the rod will decrease under the
influence of the axial tension. The unit strain in the transverse direction
may be defined in the same way as the unit strain in the longitudinal direc-
tion,
, = y. (6b)
in which
e< is the change in the transverse dimensions,
t is the transverse dimension.
For most materials a definite relationship exists between the magnitude
of the unit strain in the transverse direction and the unit strain in the
longitudinal direction. If the strains are not excessive, the ratio of the
transverse unit strain to the longitudinal unit strain is constant. The ratio
is known as Poisson's ratio and is designated by the symbol /*.
M = 2~ (6c)
* The expression "unit strain" is frequently abbreviated to "strain" in the technical
literature. In this text, the two terms will be used interchangeably to denote the ratio
of the total strain to the original length.
16
Chap. 1
For axially loaded members a tensile strain in the longitudinal direction is
accompanied by a compressive strain in the transverse direction and vice
versa. The value of Poisson's ratio is about 0.30 for steel and about 0.33
for most of the other engineering metals. Concrete has a Poisson's ratio of
approximately 0.20, while the Poisson's ratio for some grades of rubber ap-
proaches 0.50.
10. Shearing Strain.Axial loading produces longitudinal and trans-
verse strains in a block, the sides of which are parallel and perpendicular to
the line of action of the applied load. For example, the block DEFG in
Fig. 10(a) will be deformed to the rectangle indicated by the dotted lines.
te>
Fig. 10
Each of the sides changes in length, but the angles remain right angles.
However, if the block is oriented at 45 with the longitudinal axis of the
member, as the block OABC in Fig. 10(a), it is apparent that the longi-
tudinal extension and lateral contraction will deform the square to a
diamond-shaped element as indicated by the dotted lines. The lengths of
the sides will not change appreciably but each of the angles will change,
those at A and C becoming smaller and those at O and B becoming larger.
If the material is homogeneous and isotropic, the change in angle at
each of the corners will be the same; and the change in angle is a measure
of the shearing strain. If the block OABC is drawn in its original position,
Fig. 10(6), and the deformed block superimposed upon the original block
in such a way that the sides OA of each coincide, the block will form the
rhomboid OAB'C' as indicated by the dotted lines in Fig. 10(6). The total
shearing strain occurring in the block may be measured by the distance
de (CC"), and the unit shearing strain designated by the letter -v is defined
as the ratio of thejptaljhearing strain to the[length dl over.which it occurs.
Hence
\ - tl <v
** .J
It is evident that if the shearing strain is uniformly distributed Eq (i) may
be written
7 = f (7a)
The shearing strain indicated in the rod of Fig. 10(a) is identical with that
produced in a block subjected to pure shear, Fig. 10(c).
11. Strain Due to Temperature Changes.Strain or change in dimen-
sions is produced by a variation in temperature as well as by stress. In
general, materials expand as their temperature is increased and contract
as the temperature is decreased. For most materials, the amount of change
in strain accompanying a 1 change in temperature is approximately con-
stant for a temperature range of 100 or more, but may vary appreciably
if the change in temperature amounts to several hundred degrees.
A quantitative measure of the unit strain produced by a change in tem-
perature is given by a coefficient known as the coefficient of thermal expan-
sion. It is defined as the unit strain produced by a 1 temperature change
and hence is expressed in dimensions of T-1. Therefore, the coefficient will
have one value if temperatures are expressed in degrees Fahrenheit and a
different value if temperatures are expressed in degrees Centigrade. The
definition of coefficient of thermal expansion may be expressed in equation
form as
e = Ct(tz <0. (8)
If the material is homogeneous and isotropic, and if the member is not re-
strained, the unit strain developed by a given temperature change is equal
in all directions. The total change in any dimension of a member may be
determined by simply multiplying the unit strain by that dimension.
Certain nickel alloys, such as Invar and Elvinar, have very low coeffi-
cients of thermal expansion and are therefore useful for accurate tapes and
other measuring devices.
12. Stress-Strain Relationships.In the design or analysis of many
structures and machine parts, it is necessary to predict the amount of strain
or change in dimensions which occurs as a result of a given load. This is
accomplished most effectively by making use of the fact that (within rather
narrow limits) a specific stress is required to produce a specified value of
18
Chap. 1
unit strain in a given material. The relationship between unit stress and
unit strain for a material may be shown graphically by means of a diagram
in which values of unit stress are plotted as ordinates against values of unit
strain as abscissae. The resulting line is known as a stress-strain diagram.
Examples of stress-strain diagrams for axially loaded test specimens
are shown in Fig. 11. It will be noted that each diagram consists of a
Stra/n
(a)
Stra/n
(U
Fig. 11. Examples of stress-strain diagrams. (a) Typical for mild
steel except that left portion of curve is expanded horizontally.
(6) Typical for timber, concrete, and certain other brittle materials.
straight-line portion followed by a curve. An equation may easily be de-
veloped for the straight-line portion of a stress-strain diagram. Within the
straight-line range of the diagram, the slope is constant and may be desig-
nated by the symbol E.
dS
(9)
The slope E is known as the modulusjiLelastici^, or Young!s_module, of
the material.
Eq. (9) may be integrated within the range in which E is constant, giving
S - Si = E(e- 0. (9a)
If both /Si and i are zero, i.e., if the curve passes through the origin,
S = Ee. (9b)
The equation for the curved portion of the diagram of a specific material
is not so easily determined, but a number of equations have been suggested
for the stress-strain relationships for various materials.*
The modulus of elasticity of most metals is but little affected by method
of manufacture, heat treatment, or small percentages of alloys. The
modulus for most of the carbon steels varies from 28,000,000 to 31,000,000
* Osgood, W. R., "Stress-Strain Formulas," J. Aeronautical Sciences (Jan. 1946),
13:45.
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20
Chap. 1
psi., a value of 30,000,000 psi. being commonly used in calculations. The
modulus of elasticity of the aluminum alloys is about 10,000,000 psi., of the
copper alloys about 16,500,000 psi., and of the magnesium alloys about
6,500,000 psi. Values of E are given in Table 2 for some common engineering
materials.
A stress-strain diagram tor shear (unit shearing stress plotted against
unit shearing strain) exhibits the same general qualitative characteristics
as a stress-strain diagram for the same material in tension or compression.
That is, there will be in most cases a straight-line portion followed by a
curve in which the strain increases more rapidly than the stress. Numerical
values of shearing stress are less than the corresponding values of tension
or compression in most cases.
Fig. 12
The modulus of elasticity in shear, also known as the modulus of rigidity,
may be evaluated as the slope of the original straight-line portion of the
stress-strain diagram. It is designated by G. Hence,
G =
dS,
dy'
or, if the stress-strain diagram passes through the origin,
(9c)
(9d)
provided that S, and 7 refer to the coordinates of a point on the straight-
line portion of the stress-strain diagram.
The modulus of rigidity of steel is between 11,000,000 and 12,000,000 psi.
A value of 12,000,000 psi. is frequently assumed in engineering calculations.
The modulus of elasticity, the modulus of rigidity, and Poisson's ratio
are interrelated as may be determined from consideration of the geometry
of a portion of the square block OABC in Fig. 10(a). A portion of this
block is reproduced in Fig. 12. It is apparent that the diagonal KA, which
originally had a length a, will become longer as point A moves to A'. The
displacement A A' = e(AK) = ea. Similarly, the diagonal KB will be-
come shorter. The change in length BB' = ape. The unit shearing strain is
equal to twice the change in the angle KAB. Hence, if the change in the
angle is small,
IT = tan (45 - a). (10)
From Fig. 12,
B'K
tana =
A'K
)
- (1Oa)
The tangent of the difference of the two angles in Eq. (10) may be expressed
in terms of the tangents of each of the angles. Thus,
. tan 45 tan a _ 1 + e
27 "1+ tan45tana" 1 - M
e(1 + M)
2 + e(1 - /*)
However,
S. , S
(10b)
in which
S is the normal stress in the longitudinal direction.
In addition, it may be shown that S, = 1/2/S.
If these quantities are substituted into Eq. (1Ob), it becomes
2S,1 v
-p-(1 + W
(10c)
It will be noted that the term 2S,/E is very small in comparison with the
other two quantities, being less than 0.001 in most cases. Therefore it may
be neglected and Eq. (1Oc) reduces to
Chap. 1
or
E = 2G(1 -
E
2(1 +
(1Od)
(10e)
Once the stress-strain relationship for a given material is established,
values of the unit strain may be determined for any given stress and vice
versa. The relationships are especially important in experimental evaluation
of stresses by measuring strains.
Stress-strain diagrams are also useful in indicating the maximum unit
stress which may be developed in the material without causing undesirable
effects.
13. Elastic Action.The stress-strain diagrams given in Fig. 11 were
obtained by gradually increasing the strain in test specimens until fracture
occurred; and, therefore, they indicated the behavior of the material to and
6QOOO
o.o/
O.OZ O.O3
Unit' Strain
Fig. 13
O.O4-
0.05
including the maximum normal stress which it will develop. If the increase
in strain (or loading) is stopped before the maximum resistance is reached
and then decreased, an unloading stress-strain diagram will be developed.
The relationship between the unloading curve and the loading curve indi-
cates some important attributes of the material. If, for example, a specimen
of mild steel is stressed to 30,000 psi. and the stress removed, the loading
and unloading curves will coincide for all practical purposes. However, if
the stress is increased to 50,000 psi. and then removed, the unloading curve
will not retrace the loading curve but will be essentially a straight line
parallel to the initial straight-line portion of the diagram, as indicated in
Fig. 13. The difference between these two types of behavior is highly sig-
nificant. The first type of action is described qualitatively as elastic action,
while the second is called inelastic action. In other words, if a material
subjected to a cycle of loading and unloading returns to its original di-
mensions, the material is said to be elastic. If it does not return to its
original dimensions, it is inelastic and the amount of the residual strain in
the material is called the permanent set. It is obvious that the usefulness of
many close-fitting machine parts would be impaired greatly if even a very
small amount of permanent set were developed during their operation.
14. Inelastic Action and Failure.In order to prevent breakage or other
unsatisfactory behavior of a member in service, it is apparent that the unit
stress must be maintained below a danger level, the magnitude of which de-
pends upon what is considered to constitute failure (unsatisfactory be-
havior) for the member. If the member is a close-fitting machine part, it is
evident that the maximum stress to be permitted (allowable working stress)
must be appreciably lower than if the member were one which would be
undamaged by inelastic action.
There are, in general, three ways in which a member may become un-
satisfactory for a given use: (1) excessive elastic deformation, (2) inelastic
action, and (3) fracture or separation into two or more parts.
(/) Excessive Elastic Deformation.For many structural members,
there exists a maximum deformation beyond which the member will not
function satisfactorily. The maximum deformation may be established by
clearances or tolerances, as in certain machine parts, or it may be estab-
lished on the basis of undesirable deflection or vibration. For example, a
connecting rod in an automobile engine would not function satisfactorily
if the rod shortened 1 in. during each compression stroke, even though its
action were completely elastic; or a suspension bridge would not be satis-
factory if a deflection of several feet occurred each time a vehicle moved
across the bridge. Excessive elastic deformation may usually be prevented
by adding more material to stiffen the member.
(2) Inelastic Action.For practically every engineering material, there
exists a range of stress within which the material is elastic, and a range of
stress in which inelastic or plastic deformation will occur. The maximum
unit stress to which the material may be subjected before damage occurs
due to inelastic action is known as the elastic strength. Several properties
have been defined for the purpose of evaluating the elastic strength, each
based on a slightly different concept of what constitutes a practical safe
upper limit of stress.
(a) Elastic Limit. The elastic limit is defined as the maximum unit stress
to which the material may be subjected with no resultant permanent strain
upon removal of stress. This property is of theoretical rather than practical
value because its evaluation involves a series of loading and unloading
operations upon a specimen, each successive loading being a slightly higher
stress than the preceding one. Its determination also involves the use of
strain measuring equipment which is very sensitive and which has no me-
chanical lag.
Chap. 1
(b) Proportional Limit. The proportional limit is defined as the maxi-
mum unit stress to which stress and strain are proportional. It is evident
that it may be evaluated as the unit stress at the upper end of the straight-
line portion of the stress-strain diagram. For some materials the departure
of the stress-strain diagram from the initial straight-line portion is abrupt
and well denned; but, for other materials, the exact point of deviation from
the straight line is highly uncertain. Hence, the proportional limit is not a
universally satisfactory criterion of elastic strength. For most engineering
materials, the unloading stress-strain diagram is a straight line parallel to
the initial tangent. For those materials, the proportional limit and the
elastic limit will have the same numerical value.
(c) Yield Strength. Yield strength is defined as the unit stress at which
the material will develop a limiting permanent set. It may be found from
the stress-strain diagram by constructing a hypothetical unloading curve.
The limiting value of permanent set (usually 0.002 for metals in tension) is
measured on the strain axis and from that point a straight line is drawn
jY/'e/d Strength 45*si
,'
X
/
/
*'
<i> 1
^qooo
^
/
> ?/)/}/}/j II
o
c
'o.oot 0.000 o a/o o.zo 0,
Unit Strain Unit Strain in an 8-/n Gage Length
xll
(a) U>)
Fig. 14. Evaluation of elastic strength.
parallel to the initial straight-line portion of the stress-strain diagram. The
stress at the intersection of this line and the curve is the yield strength.
The construction is illustrated in Fig. 14(a). This method of establishing
the elastic strength has the advantage of being sufficiently flexible to allow
for any desired amount of permanent set. On the other hand, the value of
yield strength is meaningless unless the offset (allowable permanent set) is
stipulated.
(d) Yield Point. A few engineering materials, notably the low-carbon
steels, have the characteristic of yielding abruptly at a stress of 60 per cent
or more of the ultimate strength. This characteristic leads to a stress-strain
diagram with a flat portion or a dip at stresses slightly above the propor-
tional limit as indicated in Fig. 14(6). The stress at which this phenomenon
occurs is a convenient measure of elastic strength and is known as the yield
point. It may be defined as the unit stress at which the material exhibits an
increase in strain with no increase in stress, with the understanding that
with further strain the stress will again increase.
The mechanism by which this inelastic action under a gradually increas-
ing strain takes place is known a&^slip and may be shown by microscopic
examination to consist in the sliding or slipping of one portion of a crystal
along another portion of the crystal. In order for the magnitude of slip to be
measurable with the ordinary laboratory equipment, slip must occur in a
large number of crystals. The slip takes place along certain planes known as
slip planes which are always oriented in certain directions with respect to
the geometrical axes of the crystal. Slip planes within individual crystals
are normally parallel, but slip planes in adjacent crystals are not usually
parallel because the crystals are oriented in different directions.
A number of other properties have been denned which may be used as
criteria of the elastic strength. Of all the properties, the yield strength is
probably the most generally applicable, although the yield point (for those
materials which have a yield point) is the easiest to determine in the labora-
tory since no stress-strain diagram is required.
If a member is subjected to a constant stress for a long period of time,
inelastic deformation may occur and continue to increase in magnitude un-
til the member separates into two parts. This type of inelastic action is
known as' creep^nd differs from the inelastic action (known as slip) dis-
cussed in tKepreceding paragraphs, in that the inelastic deformation in-
creases under constant stress. When slip occurs, the inelastic strain does not
increase in magnitude under constant stress, whereas, when creep occurs,
the inelastic strain does increase in magnitude under constant stress. Many
of the metals commonly used in engineering (steel, brass, aluminum al-
loys) do not creep at ordinary temperatures but will creep at elevated
temperatures. Metals with low melting points are prone to creep at room
temperature.
The maximum unit stress to which a material may be subjected without
having the inelastic strain exceed a specified amount in a specified time at a
specified temperature is known as the creep limit.
(3) Fracture.If a specimen is subjected to gradually increasing axial
strain, the material will develop stress until a maximum value is reached,
after which fracture or separation of the specimen into two or more parts
occurs. The fracture may be abrupt (as in a brittle material) or it may be
preceded by a relatively large amount of strain at stresses near the maxi-
mum (as in a ductile material). The percentage elongation (in an 8-in. or a
2-in. gage length), which is the unit strain at fracture in tension expressed
as a percentage, is sometimes used as a measure of ductility.
If a member in service is not to fail by fracture, it is obvious that the
maximum stress must be kept below a limiting value corresponding to the
maximum obtained in the test specimen, which is known as the ultimate
strength. For ductile materials the value of the ultimate strength'in tension
is definite, but the ultimate compressive strength may be indefinite due to
the large increase in the cross-sectional area which may accompany the
plastic yielding. For example, a cylindrical specimen of lead 2 in. in diam
and 4 in. high may be compressed to a disc a fraction of an inch thick and
several inches in diameter without reaching maximum resistance. For such
cases the magnitude of the ultimate strength in compression is rather
meaningless, and the maximum stress permitted in compression is usually
based on the yield strength.
15. Allowable Working Stress and Factor of Safety.The allowable
working stress is denned as the maximum computed stress permitted in the
material. Its value is usually established by the specifications under which
the design is being prepared.
The factor of safety is defined as the ratio of the strength of the ma-
terial to the maximum computed stress in the member. The maximum com-
puted stress in general will not exceed the allowable working stress and may
be far below it if factors such as rigidity (rather than stress) control the
design. The maximum allowable working stress is always established at a
value less than the strength of the material in order to prevent failure.
There are three reasons for this:
(1) The actual maximum stresses are unknown, and an idealized
distribution of stress is normally assumed. In most cases the actual maxi-
mum stress will exceed the maximum computed stress.
(2) The properties of the materials in the member are usually not known
but are assumed to be equal to the properties in standardized test speci-
mens. An allowance must be made for the difference in properties of the
material in the member and the test specimens.
(3) The magnitude of the maximum load which the member must resist
is unknown at the time the member is designed. It is impossible to predict
exactly what loads any structural member or machine part must carry dur-
ing its life, so allowances must be made to provide for the possibility of
loads greater than those estimated for normal operating conditions.
In some branches of engineering the term margin of safety is used. It is
equal to the factor of safety minus 1. A positive margin of safety indicates
a safe member, and a negative margin presumably indicates an unsafe
member.
A factor of safety of 2 or a margin of safety of 1 does not mean that the
member can carry twice as much load as the design load without failure,
since the stress distribution under the higher load may be entirely different
from the distribution under the design load.
16. Statically Indeterminate Axially Loaded Members.The axially
loaded members which have been considered in the preceding articles were
assumed to be homogeneous. Hence, the stress (if no stress raisers were
present) was assumed to be uniformly distributed across any normal cross
Art. 16
27
section of the member. If the member is not homogeneous, the stress, in
general, will not be distributed uniformly. If the member consists of two or
more portions which themselves are homogeneous, the stress distribution
within each of the portions may be uniform, but the stresses will not have
the same magnitude. In order to determine the magnitude of the stresses,
it is necessary to know the distribution of the load among the portions of
the cross section.
Since a parallel force system is involved in the free-body diagram of a
short length of the member, only one equation of equilibrium is available,
assuming that the member is symmetrical. Therefore, the distribution of
the load among the portions of the cross section cannot be determined from
the equations of equilibrium alone. Such a member is known as a statically
indeterminate member.
In order to determine the distribution of the force among the various
components of a statically indeterminate member, information other than
that coming from the equations of equilibrium is necessary. In general, in-
formation is obtained from the geometrical behavior of the member under
load. The details of the solution of a specific problem depend upon the
characteristics of that problem, but the principal steps involved in the
solution of an axially loaded indeterminate member are given in the follow-
ing problem.
A concrete post 10 in. square is reinforced with four 1/2-in. square symmetrically
located steel rods as indicated in Fig. 15(a). Determine the maximum load which the
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II
II
M
il
|
ii
(a)
Fig. 15
post will support if the allowable working stress in the concrete is 800 psi. and de-
termine the stress in the steel.
Solution: A free-body diagram of a portion of the post is indicated in Fig. 15(6).
The total load on the post is P, the resultant force developed in the steel is R., and
the resultant force in the concrete is R,.
Statics. The equation of equilibrium gives <j -- /t
P = R, + R, (a)
= S.a, + S.a. (b)
= (99) + S.(l). (c)
The equation of equilibrium (c) contains two unknowns, P and .5.. Hence, one ad-
ditional equation is necessary. The additional equation may be obtained by con-
sidering the geometrical behavior of the post.
Geometry. If the post acts as a unit, each end of the post will remain plane dur-
ing loading, and the total deformation in the concrete will equal the total deforma-
tion in the steel.
e. = ., (d)
eeLe = e.L.. (e)
However, the length of the steel is equal to the length of the concrete, so
(f)
Properties of the Material. If the stresses are befow the proportional limit,
stress and strain are proportional, and Eq. (f) may be written
S. , .
W.=E: (g)
The value of E, may be obtained from Table 1 as 3,600,000 psi. and E, may be
assumed to be 30,000,000 psi. Hence,
30,000,000 , ,
_
'- 3,600,000 <,'
Since S, is given as 800 psi.,
= 6670 psi. (j)
This value may be substituted back into Eq. (c), giving
P = 99 (800) + 6670 .(k)
= 85,870 Ib. (1)
17. Thin-walled Pressure Vessels. Thin-walled pressure vessels are
widely used for the storage of air, gas, water, oil, and other liquids. In most
cases the containers are approximately cylindrical in shape; hence, the
stresses are evaluated in the directions of longitudinal and circumferential
axes. The stress acting in the direction of the longitudinal axis is known as
the longitudinal stress, and the other stress acting in a tangential direction
(at right angles to the longitudinal stress) is known as the circumferential
stress. The magnitudes of the longitudinal and circumferential stresses may
be determined with the aid of appropriate free-body diagrams. For example,
the circumferential stress may be determined from a free-body diagram of a
Art. 17
29
half section of the cylinder, as indicated in Fig. 16(a). Three forces are
indicatedone due to the internal pressure and the other two due to the
resistance of the cylinder to splitting lengthwise. If the free-body diagram
is constructed to include the fluid within half of the cylinder, it is evident
that the resultant internal pressure'is equal to 2prl. The resisting tensile
force developed in each half of the wall of the cylinder may be designated as
T. The equation of equilibrium written in the direction of the forces gives
2T = 2prl.
(11)
Fig. 16
If the circumferential stress is uniformly distributed throughout the cross
section of the wall,
T = StU, (1la)
and
5, = f (11b)
Eq. (l1b) indicates the average value of the circumferential stress. If the
stress is not uniformly distributed throughout the thickness of the cylinder
wall, the maximum will be greater than the average value given by Eq.
(11b). It may be shown that the maximum circumferential stress is always
greater than the average value and that the maximum occurs at the inside
surface. However, if the diameter of the cylinder is equal to ten times the
wall thickness, the maximum stress will be only 10 per cent greater than
the average stress, and, as the diameter increases in proportion to the
thickness, the stress distribution will become more nearly uniform.
The magnitude of the longitudinal stress may be found from a free-body
diagram produced by cutting the cylinder with a transverse plane. It is ap-
parent that the resultant force developed by the fluid pressure within the
tank, indicated by the arrow in Fig. 16(6), is given by
F = p*r*. (12)
If the stress is uniformly distributed, as would be expected from symmetry,
the resultant force developed in the wall is
F' = 2irrtSi. (12a)
From the force equation of equilibrium written in the longitudinal direc-
tion,
F = F', (12b)
from which
St = 2f (12c)
It may be shown that the longitudinal stress is uniformly distributed
throughout the wall thickness except near the end of the cylinder or near
any cutouts or other irregularities in the section.
A comparison of Eqs. (11b) and (12c) indicates that the average cir-
cumferential stress is equal to twice the longitudinal stress. Hence, a thin-
walled cylinder under internal pressure would be expected to fail along a
longitudinal line rather than along a circumferential line. It should be
noted that the stress distribution assumed in this article is not a distribu-
tion that actually exists, but under the conditions indicated is satisfactory
for design procedures. The formulas would not be expected to be valid
for the condition when the external pressure is greater than the internal
pressure, because of the possibility of the cylinder wall failing by buckling.
18. Dynamic and Repeated Loading. The problems discussed thus far
in this chapter have dealt with a situation in which the load or the strain
is increased gradually and in which a condition of equilibrium exists. This
type of loading is known as steady loading or static loading. Two other
types of loading merit consideration because of the difference in the effects
which they produce in a structural member.
(1) Dynamic Loading. A dynamic load is a load which is applied to the
member with shock or impact rather than by being applied slowly. In
general, its effect is to produce vibration which will gradually be damped
out, resulting in a final deflection or displacement equal to that produced by
a static load of the same magnitude, provided that failure does not occur.
However, for an instant during each cycle of the vibration, strains are de-
veloped which are accompanied by higher stresses than would be obtained
if a load of the same magnitude had been applied slowly. If the higher stress
exceeds the strength of the material, failure will occur.
A dynamic load may be considered equivalent to a static load of suf-
ficiently greater magnitude to produce the same maximum distortion that is
produced by the dynamic load. The ratio of the magnitude of the equivalent
static load (static load which would produce the same distortion as the
dynamic load) to the dynamic load is called the load factor. It is evident
that the load factor in a given instance will depend upon the amount of
shock involved in the impact load or will depend on the velocity with which
the impact load is traveling. Load factors as high as 18 are used in the de-
sign of certain airplanes. This means that the wings, for example, must be
designed to carry eighteen times the weight of the plane.
Methods of evaluating dynamic loads in terms of equivalent static
loads are given in Chap. 9.
(2) Repeated Loading.If a load which produces a stress less than the
proportional limit of a material is applied to a member once or a dozen
times, the member is undamaged; but, if the same stress is applied several
million tunes, failure may occur. For most materials there exists a maximum
stress which may be applied indefinitely or an arbitrarily large number of
times, such as 500,000,000, without producing failure. The magnitude of
this stress is known as the endurance limit of the material and, as usually
employed, it involves the application of alternate equal stresses in tension
and compression. A large number of applications results in fracture because
eventually some portion of the material is stressed above the proportional
limit. When the stress is removed or reversed, strain hardening occurs;
and, with the repeated application of stress, the over-stressed portion be-
comes brittle and finally fractures. The presence of the resulting small crack
causes stress concentration which increases the susceptibility of the ad-
jacent material to failure in the same manner. Thus, a small crack is formed
and gradually works across the member, ultimately resulting in failure of
the member by fracture. This type of fracture is known as progressive
failure or sometimes, fatigue failure. Methods which have been developed
for the evaluation of load factors and the resistance of a material to a combi-
nation of steady loading and repeated loading are discussed in Chap. 9.
PROBLEMS
1. With the aid of appropriate free-body diagrams, determine the type of loading
developed at the sections indicated in each of the members of Fig. P-l and
evaluate the component forces (or couples) which the section must resist.
32
Chap. 1
s/00/h per ft
I ÔOO /t>
\ ff\
1
fe-
A
6ft
B
J&
Zft
^ft
(a)
Ct)
fc)
P-l
2. Identify the type of loading developed at the indicated sections in each of the
structural elements shown in Fig. P-2. Evaluate the magnitude of each com-
/OO/b
(a)
fe)
ponent force (or forces and couple). Neglect the friction at all surfaces of con-
tact, and neglect the weights of the members.
3. Construct appropriate free-body diagrams to determine the type of loading and
the magnitude of the forces developed in each of the sections indicated in the
members of Fig. P-3.
4. With the aid of suitable free-body diagrams, identify the type of loading and
evaluate the force (or forces and couple) at each of the sections indicated in
Fig. P-4. Neglect the weights of the members.
Probs. 2-4
/eOteperft
Hill
^-^
20/6 per fr
4ft ffft
Sft
<f/t
/&/> P/ate
s
\
!
\ \
)
ff
1
I >
K
1 i
[
1!
\C
P-3
P-4
34
Chap. 1
5. Determine the magnitude of the stress developed in the 1/8-in. diam control
cable shown in Fig. P-5 due to an applied force of 100 Ib.
P-5
6. Fig. P-6 shows part of the landing-gear assembly for a glider. Determine the
average compressive stress developed on section A A if the reaction on the
wheel is 2360 Ib.
p-6
7. Determine the minimum diam of structural steel bolts required for each of the
connections at A, B, and C in the landing-gear assembly of Fig. P-6 for a
maximum wheel load of 2360 Ib. Each bolt is in double shear.
8. Determine the maximum compressive stress developed on section A A of the
connecting rod shown in Fig. P-8 if it is used to transmit the force from a
3-1/8-in. diam piston under a pressure of 300 psi.
9. Determine the maximum normal stress developed near the midlength of mem-
ber [72L3 of the pin-connected truss shown in Fig. P-4(6) if it is an aluminum
alloy tube with an outside diam of 1-1/2 in. and a wall thickness of 0.064 in.
Probs. 5-12
35
10. From the rolled sections given in Tables I to IV (Appendix A), select suitable
cross sections for each of the four structural steel truss members marked in Fig.
P-2(c) if the loading shown is critical.
11. Determine the minimum required diam for the structural steel pins at joints
L0, I/i, and L2 in the truss of section P-2(c) if each pin is in double shear.
12. Determine the required diam for the pin in the upper pulley of Fig. P-12 if the
average shearing stress is not to exceed 12,000 psi.
tort
P-12
Chap. 1
13. Determine the diam required for the cable of a mine shaft car which is to carry
a load of 2400 Ib with a load factor of 1.8. Establish the value of working stress
which shall have a factor of safety of 2 with respect to failure by slip.
14. Determine the minimum dimensions for each of the indicated portions of the
truss in Fig. P-14. The material is Douglas fir. Assume each joint to be pin-
connected.
/4,OOO /b
P-14
15. Determine the maximum stress developed in the member of Fig. P-15.
IV c
> in. d/am.
P-15
16. What maximum load may be applied to the member of Fig. P-16 if the maxi-
mum stress is not to exceed 24,000 psi.?
P-16
17. A plate 1/4 in. thick is to be reduced from a 1-in. width to a 1/2-in. width.
Determine the required radius of fillet if the maximum stress is not to exceed
24,000 psi. for an applied load of 2000 Ib.
18. Determine the maximum permissible axial load for the member in Fig. P-18
if the stress is not to exceed 30,000 psi.
P-18
Probs. 13-25
37
19. Prove that the maximum shearing stress in an axially loaded member occurs on
a plane which makes an angle of 45 with the axis of the plate and show that the
magnitude of the stress is one half of the magnitude of the normal stress on a
transverse cross section.
20. Determine the maximum shearing stress developed near the midlength of
member EC of Fig. P-6 for the wheel load of 2360 Ib.
21. Determine the required cross-sectional area of the member USL4 indicated in
Fig. P-4(6) if the maximum shearing stress is not to exceed 12,000 psi. and the
maximum tensile stress is not to exceed 20,000 psi.
22. Determine the maximum allowable load on the 1-5/8-in. by 1-5/8-in. timber
member of Fig. P-22 if the shearing stress parallel to the grain is not to exceed
100 psi. and if the maximum normal stress parallel to the grain is not to exceed
1000 psi.
P-22
23. Determine the maximum shearing stress which the welded joint of Fig. P-23
must withstand.
, //'n
60,
P-23
24. A concrete cylinder 3 in. in diam and 6 in. high failed along a plane making an
angle of 60 with the horizontal when subjected to an axial vertical load of
18,000 Ib. Determine the shearing stress and the normal stress on the plane.
25. Determine the stresses on the plane A A in Fig. P-25.
3OO psi.
P-25
38
Chap. 1
26. The normal stress on the inclined plane in Fig. P-26 is 3000 psi. tension. De-
termine the magnitude of S,.
1 I I 8000 />s/:
P-26
27. In a certain structural member Sx is always equal to 1/2Sv. Determine the
magnitude of the stress on a plane which makes an angle of 30 with Sx.
28. The shearing stress on plane A A in Fig. P-28 is 600 psi. Determine the normal
stress on plane BB.
P-28
29. The control cable for the rudder of a certain airplane is made of 1/8-in. diam.
stranded steel wire and has a total length of 34 ft 6 in. Determine the elongation
of the wire for a pull of 400 Ib. The modulus of elasticity of the wire may be as-
sumed to be 12,000,000 psi.
30. A 1-in. diam stranded steel cable is used in a mine hoist. Determine the total
elongation in a length of 800 ft when the cable is subjected to a total tensile
force of 2-1/2 tons. The modulus of elasticity may be assumed to be 12,000,000
psi.
31. An aluminum tube 6 ft long having an internal diam of 1/2 in. and an external
diam of 3/4 in. is welded to the end of an aluminum tube having an internal
diam of 3/4 in. and an external diam of 1 in. The length of the second tube is 4
ft. Determine the total elongation if an axial load of 2400 Ib is applied to the
assembly.
32. A 1/4-in. diam steel rod 4 ft long is attached to the end of a brass tube with an
internal diam of 1/4 in. and wall thickness of 1/16 in. What load will be re-
quired to stretch the assembly 1/100 in. if the brass tube is 8 ft long?
33. A steel rod 1/2 in. in diam and 6 ft long is to be subjected to an axial tensile load
of 1600 Ib. The rod is to be turned down to a diam of 1/4 in. throughout part of
its length, so that the load will cause a total elongation of 1/16 in. Determine
the length of the turned-down portion.
Prohs. 26-41
80
34. Determine the change of length of the steel member BC in Fig. P-34 as a re-
sult of the 2000-Ib load.
'J
in. d/'am
P-34
35. The 200-Ib weight shown in Fig. P-35 is supported by 1/8-in. diam copper
wires. If the load causes the horizontal member to stretch 0.0025 in., determine
the axial force to which the inclined wire is subjected.
6ft
P-35
36. If the member L3U? in Fig. P-4(6) is composed of two 2-in. by 2-in. by 1/8-in.
steel angles, determine its total elongation due to the indicated loads.
37. A 1/2-in. diam steel test specimen stretched 0.0024 in. in a length of 8 in. De-
termine the probable load.
38. A load of 3000 Ib applied to a 1/2-in. diam aluminum test specimen caused an
elongation of 0.0030 in. in a 2-in. gage length. Determine the apparent modulus
of elasticity of the material.
39. A 3/4-in. diam brass rod was subjected to a total axial load of 20,000 Ib. De-
termine the elongation in an 8-in. gage length and the change in diam of the rod.
40. Determine the probable change in diam of a 3-1/8-in. diam aluminum piston
subjected to a cylinder pressure of 300 psi.
41. Determine the deflection of point 0 in Fig. P-41 due to the load of 6 kips. The
aluminum alloy tube has an outside diam of 1 in. and a wall thickness of 0.049
in.
40
Chap 1.
A/ a//oy
tube
& /a. diam
stee/
42. If the outside diam of the alloy tube in Fig. P-41 is 0.75 in. and the maximum
permissible displacement of point O due to the 6-kip load is 0.15 in., what
minimum wall thickness must the tube have?
43. Determine the change in diam of the piston of Prob. 40 if the temperature
changes from -30F to 140F.
44. The B-17 airplane has a wing span of 103 ft 9 in. Determine the change in span
if the plane leaves the ground at a temperature of 110F and climbs to an eleva-
tion at which the temperature is 20F.
45. The Golden Gate Bridge has a span of 4200 ft. Determine the change in length
of a steel floor system for the total span (if no expansion joints were provided)
due to a temperature change of 40F.
46. One of the large cement kilns has a length of 450 ft and a diam of 12 ft. De-
termine the change in length and diam of the structural steel shell caused by an
increase in temperature of 200F.
47. An aluminum tank 3 ft in diam was strengthened by the addition of external
steel hoops 1/4 in. thick. So far as resistance to internal pressure is concerned,
will the strengthening effect be increased or decreased if the temperature of both
metals increases?
48. A steel micrometer designed for measuring diameters of approximately 4 ft was
calibrated at 68F. What error will be introduced in the measurements if the
instrument is used at a temperature of 110F without correcting for temperature?
49. A bimetallic element was made by securely attaching a strip of nickel to a strip
of copper. Determine the shearing stress developed along the junction between
the two metals if the unit is subjected to an increase in temperature of 40F and
restrained from bending.
Probs. 42-59
41
50. Determine the load required to produce a deflection of 0.01 in. in the member of
Fig. P-41 if the tube has an external diam of 1 in. and a wall thickness of 0.065
in.
51. Determine the length of the steel member in Fig. P-51 if point A is to deflect
1/4 in. as a result of a temperature change of 450F.
ffross -j
f/xed distance
P-51
52. Determine the required cross-sectional area of member LiL2 of Fig. P-2(c) if
the member is to be made of structural steel and is to have a factor of safety of
2.00 with respect to failure by slip under a 6-kip load at L2.
53. Determine the factor of safety with respect to failure by slip of the steel rivet
in Fig. P-3(c).
54. Determine the required area of member J73L4 in Fig. P^(6) if the member is to
be constructed of aluminum alloy 17S-T with a factor of safety of 2.0 with
respect to failure by slip.
55. Determine the factor of safety of the member shown in Fig. P-15 with respect
to failure by (a) slip and (6) fracture if the member is structural steel.
56. Determine the factor of safety of the steel rod in Fig. P-34 with respect to
failure by fracture.
57. Determine the factor of safety with respect to failure by both slip and fracture
of the structural steel rod and the aluminum alloy tube shown in Fig. P-41 if
the tube has an external diam of 1 in. and a wall thickness of 0.065 in.
58. An aluminum alloy plate 1 in. thick, 4 in. wide, and 24 in. long is bolted to one
side of a vertical Douglas fir post 4 in. square and 24 in. high. The post is then
loaded with vertical compressive force. Determine the magnitude of the force
and the location of its line of action if it develops a uniformly distributed
compressivfc stress of 500 psi. on a horizontal plane in the fir.
59. A 1/2-in. diam steel bolt is run longitudinally through a brass tube having an
inside diam of 1/2 in., an outside diam of 3/4 in., and a length of 16 in. Washers
are placed at the ends of the bolt to provide uniform bearing on the tube. De-
termine the increase in the stress in the brass tube if the nut is tightened one-
quarter turn. The bolt has 8 threads per in.
42
Chap. 1
60. A pier of average concrete is 12 in. square and has four 1-in. square steel rein-
forcing bars imbedded longitudinally in it. Determine the load which will de-
velop a maximum compressive stress of 800 psi. in the concrete. What is the
magnitude of the compressive stress in the steel?
61. A concrete pier 12 in. square and 2 ft high is to carry a maximum axial compres-
sive load of 300,000 Ib with a factor of safety of 4 with respect to failure by
fracture. Determine whether or not steel reinforcing is required and if so, how
much. Evaluate the shortening of the pier as a result of the load.
62. A Douglas fir post 4 in. square and 3 ft long is to carry an axial compressive load
of 12,000 Ib. How much may the change in length of the post be decreased by
securely bolting a 4-in. by 3/4-in. wrought iron plate to one side of the post?
Where should the line of action of the load lie for the stress to be uniformly
distributed throughout the fir?
63. Member A in the frame represented in Fig. P-63 is a steel bar with a cross-
sectional area of 0.60 sq in., B is a wrought iron bar with an area of 1.20 sq in.,
and C is assumed to be rigid. The 12,000-Ib load is placed on the rigid member C
in such a position that A elongates 0.0012 in. more than B. Determine the axial
unit stress in each bar.
///////
-W
64.
c
JZ.OOO /t>
P-63
Bar C represented in Fig. P-64 is brass and has a cross-sectional area of 2 sq in.
The bars are fastened between two rigid supports D and E and are connected
securely at B. At a temperature of 70F there is no stress in either bar. Determine
the stress in bar S (steel) when the temperature is 30F if the bar has a cross-
sectional area of 1/2 sq in.
0
c
J"
0 /o;*.
20 //?.
P-64
65. Bar AB shown in Fig. P-65 is made of aluminum alloy 17S-T with an area of
3 sq in. The post CD is a square concrete post 3 in. on a side. The modulus of
Probs. 60-67 STRESS, STRAIN, AND AXIAL LOADING 43
elasticity of the concrete is 4 X 106 psi. The bar EC is assumed to be rigid and
has a slope as shown when the load P is zero. Determine the magnitude of the
load P which will make BC horizontal.
66.
Determine the magnitude of the total load, P, which will produce an axial com-
pressive stress of 1000 psi. in member C of Fig. P-66, if the clearance between
the rigid member and C is 0.002 in., as shown when P is zero. The temperature
is assumed to remain constant. Bar A is a 1-1/2-in. by 2-in. brass rod, B is a
24S-T bar 2 in. by 1 in. in cross section, and C is a medium concrete block 4 in.
by 3 in. in cross section.
/////////////
P-66
67. Two 3-in. square wooden blocks and a 2-in. by 3-in. cast iron block are to sup-
port an axial compressive load as shown in Fig. P-67. The cast iron block is
0.004 in. shorter than the wooden blocks. Determine the maximum permissible
magnitude of the load P if the allowable compressive unit stresses are 900 psi.
for the wood and 15,000 psi. for the cast iron. The horizontal member is as-
sumed to be rigid.
44
Chap. 1
3 in. in. 3 in.
h + + 4
4/n. P
Ifl/OOCt
Wood
P-67
68. A heavy steel member BC in Fig. P-68 is supported by a 1-3/4-in. square brass
rod and a 1-in. square steel rod, CD. The line BC is horizontal when the frame is
loaded as shown at a temperature of 110F. Determine the tensile unit stress
developed in the brass by the 30,000-Ib load if the line BC is also horizontal
when the frame is not loaded and the temperature is 10F.
30, OOO ti
P-68
69. The assembly in Fig. P-69 consists of a 1-in. by 1/2-in. steel bar A, a rigid
block C, and a 1-in. by 2-in. Monel Metal bar B, securely fastened together and
attached to rigid supports at the ends. Determine the change in the normal
stress in each of the bars developed by a temperature drop of 40F, and the ap-
plication of the load P of 25,000 Ib.
Probs. 68-71 STRESS, STRAIN, AND AXIAL LOADING
45
P-69
70. The bar marked <S in Fig. P-70 is steel and those labeled A are aluminum alloy
17S-T. Each has a cross-sectional area of 2 sq in. Before application of the
40,000-Ib load, bar S extends 0.0025 in. above bars A as shown. If the hori-
zontal plate is assumed to be rigid and remains horizontal, determine the
maximum normal unit stresses developed in the 17S-T and the steel by the
load P.
ll
I 4O.OOO /t>
\
1
A
S
5
A
-
Y////////////2
y///////
P-70
71. Three vertical bars of steel, copper, and aluminum alloy 24S-T support a hori-
zontal rigid bar carrying a load P as shown in Fig. P-71. Determine the maxi-
mum allowable load P if the supporting bar is to remain horizontal and the
following stresses are not to be exceeded:
Cross-Sectional
Area
Allowable Unit
Tensile Stress
Bar
Steel
1 sq in.
18,000 psi.
Conner . .
3 sq in.
10,000 psi.
24S-T
2 sa in.
15.000 psi.
46
Chap. 1
//fV/7.
P-71
72. A longitudinal joint in a 4-ft diam cylindrical boiler transmits a total stress of
4000 Ib per in. of length. Determine the intensity of the internal pressure.
73. Two 10-ft diam hemispheres are joined to form a spherical pressure vessel.
Determine the total force transmitted per inch of length of joint when the
internal pressure is 200 psi.
74. Two cylindrical containers 16 in. in diam and 20 in. long are joined by bolting
their flanges together as indicated in Fig. P-74. Determine the number of 1-in.
diam structural steel bolts required to hold the cylinders together when the as-
sembly is subjected to an internal pressure of 200 psi. The increase in the tensile
stress in the bolts is not to exceed 8000 psi.
BO//?.
P-74
75. Determine the minimum wall thickness required for the assembly of Fig. P-74
if it is constructed of magnesium alloy C74-S with a factor of safety of 2.50 with
respect to failure by slip.
76. Determine the minimum diameter of structural steel bolts required for the
cylinder of Fig. P-74 if the increase in the tensile stress in the 8 bolts is not to
exceed 10,000 psi. for an increase in internal pressure of 240 psi.
77. Two flanged half cylinders 20 in. long and 14 in. in diam are joined by bolting
the flanges together using twelve 1/2-in. diam bolts on each side. Determine the
Probs. 72-84 STRESS, STRAIN, AND AXIAL LOADING 47
increase in axial tensile stress in the bolts if the internal pressure in the assembly
is increased 200 psi.
78. How many 1/2-in. diam bolts would be required for the assembly of Prob. 77 if
an increase in internal pressure of 240 psi. is not to cause an increase in tensile
stress in the bolts of more than 8000 psi?
79. A steel boiler 3 ft in diam is welded using a spiral seam which makes an angle
of 30 with the longitudinal direction. Determine the magnitude of the normal
force and the shearing force transmitted across the seam due to an increase in in-
ternal pressure of 160 psi.
80. A cylindrical boiler is to be formed by welding steel plate along a spiral joint.
From the standpoint of stress to be transmitted across the joint, would a spiral
making an angle of 60 with the longitudinal axis of the boiler be preferable to
one with a 45 angle? Explain.
81. A spherical gas holder 40 ft in diam is subjected to an internal pressure of 180
psi. Determine the thickness of structural steel plate required for the holder if
the tensile stress is not to exceed 12,000 psi.
82. Determine the thickness of steel plate required for a cylindrical boiler 6 in. in
diam and 20 ft long if the tensile stress in the plate is not to exceed 12,000 psi.
for an internal pressure of 240 psi.
83. The longitudinal riveted joint in a 48-in. diam cylindrical pressure vessel is de-
signed for a maximum stress of 10,420 psi. in the walls which are 1/2 in. thick.
Determine the maximum allowable internal pressure in the pressure vessel.
84. The oleo strut BC in Fig. P-6 consists of an alloy steel tube with an inside diam
of 1-7/8 in., filled with oil, and containing a piston at the lower end. Determine
the minimum wall thickness required for the tube if the maximum wheel load
of 2360 Ib is not to develop a tensile stress of more than 24,000 psi. in the tube
wall.
_EMPTY_
CHAPTER 2
JOINTS AND CONNECTIONS FOR AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS
1Q. General Considerations.In the design of a structure or a machine
composed of two or more members, it is inevitable that connections must be
devised to transmit load from one member to another. Of the many different
systems that have been developed for this purpose at least three are ap-
propriate for joining axially loaded members. One consists in overlapping
the two members and attaching them by means of a third unit, such as a
bolt, rivet, nail, or screw as shown in Fig. 17(a). A second method consists
j --
la) (b) (0
Fig. 17. Types of connections.
in attaching the two members by means of a more uniformly distributed
bonding agent, such as glue, or by welding as indicated in Fig. 17(6). From
the standpoint of analysis, one method of welding, spot welding, produces a
joint somewhat similar to the riveted or bolted connection. The third
method, suitable for attaching rods (or members of circular cross section),
consists in fitting the threaded end of one member into a matching fitting
in the other member, such as the socket of Fig. 17(c).
20. Types of Welds.Within recent years the techniques of welding
have been developed and improved to the extent that this method of con-
necting two members is now regarded as a standard fabrication procedure
rather than as simply a device for making emergency repairs. The usual
welding operation is performed by clamping the two parts to be joined and
heating them to a sufficiently high temperature to produce localized fusion
melting the parts together so that a rigid connection is formed upon
cooling. Usually a small amount of additional material (weld metal) is
melted in place so that it adheres to both parts being connected. Heat is
supplied by a gas flame or electrical current.
49
A discussion of the relative advantages and disadvantages of the various
welding procedures may be found in any of the current textbooks on ma-
terials, in technical periodicals, or in the literature of the American Weld-
ing Society..
Three types of welds are useful for joining axially loaded members. They
are butt welds, fillet welds, and spot welds, as illustrated in Fig. 18.
lal BvTt We/d (t) Fi//et k/e/J (c) Spot We/d
Fig. 18. Types of welds.
(1) Butt Weld.This type of connection is formed by preparing the
ends of the member to be joined, aligning the members with a small gap
between them, and filling the space with molten metal, using a technique
which will insure consolidation of the base metal and the added filler ma-
terial. The filler material is usually of the same composition as the base
metal to provide the necessary strength and to reduce electrolytic or chemi-
cal corrosion.* A sketch of a butt weld is indicated in Fig. 18(a).
If the two members which are joined are axially loaded, it is evident that
the primary stress which the weld must withstand is normal stress on a
transverse cross section. The stress may be tension or it may be compres-
sion depending on the direction of the applied load.
(2) Fillet Weld.In some circumstances a butt weld is impractical and
the connection between the two members is formed by lapping the members
for a short distance and welding around the edges of the overlap as indi-
cated in Fig. 18(6). If an axial load is applied to the members, it is apparent
that the primary stress in the fillet weld will be shear, although under some
conditions tension may be developed. However, in the design or analysis
of a fillet weld it is customary to assume that the weld resists only shearing
stress and to assume that the area subjected to shear is the length of the
weld multiplied by the "throat distance," or thickness of the fillet on a 45
line from the inside corner. The throat distance is one-half of the distance t
in Fig. 18(6).
(3) Spot Weld.If the two members being joined are relatively thin,
spot welding may prove more useful than butt welding or fillet welding. The
* If the strength of the joint need not approach the strength of the members being
joined, brazing metal or solder may be used as the filler metal. These materials melt at
relatively low temperatures and may be made to adhere to the parts being joined with-
out fusing them.
Art. 22 JOINTS AND CONNECTIONS 51
usual technique of forming a spot weld consists in lapping the members to
be joined and passing a heavy localized electric current through the two
thicknesses of metal. Under the proper circumstances a small portion of
each member will be melted, forming a more or less circular connection as
indicated in Fig. 18(c). If the two members are subjected to axial loading, it
is apparent that the primary stress in the weld will be shear in the plane of
contact of the members although secondary tensile stresses may be de-
veloped.
21. Allowable Stresses in Welds.In the design or analysis of a welded
joint, it is customary to assume that the weld is subjected only to tension
if it is a butt weld or subjected only to shear if it is a fillet weld or spot weld.
The strength of a welded joint is dependent upon many factors, including
the quality of the metal used in the weld, the alteration in properties of the
base metal owing to the annealing effect of the welding operation, and the
skill of the operator in preventing local overheating and other defects such
as blowholes and inclusions or irregular portions which serve as stress
raisers. The fusion code of the American Welding Society permits a design
stress of 16,000 psi. (24,000 psi. allowed as an emergency value) in tension
on the section through the throat of the butt weld in steel. The allowable
compressive stress on the butt weld is taken equal to the allowable compres-
sive stress, for the base metal. For a fillet weld the allowable shearing stress
is 13,600 psi. in steel (15,000 psi. emergency value). These stresses are for
static loads only; if the joint is subjected to impact load or to repeated load,
the allowable stresses must be reduced correspondingly. For an ultimate
strength of the material in tension of about 60,000 psi., the factor of safety
is approximately 4.
Spot welding has been widely used for connecting aluminum sheet. The
strength of individual spot welds varies from about 6000 psi. to over 30,000
psi. depending upon the type of equipment used, the thickness of the sheet,
and the characteristics of the alloys involved. For aluminum alloys 2S and
3S a minimum ultimate shearing strength of approximately 9000 psi. is
developed in a weld connecting 0.040-in. sheet while for alloy 52S the cor-
responding strength is about 21,000 psi. For spot welds in alloys 24S and
75S a strength of 26,000 psi. may be regarded as the lower range of ultimate
shearing strength.
The welding procedure is usually adjusted to produce a spot weld having
a diameter equal to the sum of the thicknesses of the sheets plus 1/16 in.
22. Design Considerations.The purpose of a welded connection is to
hold the members in the desired relative position, to provide a means for a
safe transfer of load from one member to another, and to provide the neces-
sary rigidity. Adequate but not excessive area of weld must be provided. In
addition, the welded joint should be designed to keep secondary stresses
(stresses other than those due to axial loading) as low as possible and to
provide the necessary accessibility to the parts. In many applications a
minimum of weight is also desirable.
The design procedure involves (1) the determination of the minimum
amount of weld area necessary to permit the transfer of the axial load on the
basis of the allowable stresses, and (2) the placement of the weld so that it
will be most effective and will not induce bending or other undesirable per-
formance. In addition, it must be so located that fabrication will not be
unduly difficult.
If the members being connected have the same width and a thickness
greater than about 1/2 in., butt welding will often prove the most satis-
factory. If the prevailing conditions do not permit the use of a butt weld, a
lap joint with one or two fillet welds, as indicated in Fig. 19(a), may be used.
(a) (i>) (c)
Fig. 19
This type of connection introduces some bending at the joint, since the two
members attempt to align themselves, as indicated in Fig. 19(c), thereby
introducing undesirable secondary stresses. The bending may be eliminated
by using a butt weld with two cover plates, as indicated in Fig. 19(c),
in which each cover plate is welded to the main plates with fillet welds.
No bending will occur in a joint of this type, but the weight has been in-
creased due to the addition of the cover plates.
If an unsymmetrical member, such as an angle, is welded to a symmetri-
cal member, such as a flat plate, the location of the weld metal must be
considered carefully to prevent undue bending or twisting of the joint.
A 6-in. by 6-in. by 3/8-in. structural steel angle in which the tensile stress is 10,000
psi. is to be welded to a flat plate 10 in. wide. Design a suitable welded connection.
Solution: One possible connection would consist of a fillet weld across the end of
the angle as indicated in Fig. 20(a). The angle has a total cross-sectional area of
4.36 sq in., so the total load to be transferred is 43,600 Ib. With an allowable stress of
13,600 psi. in the throat of the weld, the length of weld required may be determined
as
7 _ 43,600 , .
*" 13,600 (0.707) (0.375)
= 12.1 in.
Obviously, the length available at the end of the angle is only 6 in., so the weld must
extend down the sides of the angle. If the weld were placed along only one side of the
Art. 22
53
JOINTS AND CONNECTIONS
angle as indicated in Fig. 20(6), twisting would be induced. This may be shown by
considering a free-body diagram of the end of the angle. The resultant force (F)
in the angle acts at the centroid of the angle as shown in Fig. 20(c), and the resisting
shearing force (Q) developed in the weld acts along the center of the weld. Since
the two forces are not colinear, the resultant couple will induce twisting, which will
increase the stresses on the weld. In order to prevent the undesirable effects which
may result from the twisting, the line of action of the resultant force developed by
the weld should be at the same distance from the back of the angle as the line of
action of the applied force in the angle. This may be accomplished by welding along
the attached leg of the angle as well as along the back of the angle.
The design of the connection then involves the determination of the length of
each of the welds so that their resultant will act along a line 1.64 in. from the back
(a)
(c)
let)
(e)
Fig. 20
(t)
of the 6-in. by 6-in. angle. The two unknown lengths xi and x2, Fig. 20(d), may be
determined from the free-body diagram, the equations of equilibrium, and the as-
sumption that the unit stress is constant throughout the entire length of each weld.
It is apparent that
Qi + Q, = 43,6001b, (b)
13,600 (0.707) (0.375) Xi + 13,600 (0.707) (0.375) z2 = 43,600, (c)
xi + xi = 12.1 in. (d)
The moment equation of equilibrium written with respect to an axis through Qi
gives
43,600 (1.64) = 13,600 (0.707) (0.375) (6) x2, (e)
from which
z2 = 33.3 in. (f)
Then, from (d),
xi = 8.8 in. (g)
Hence, for a balanced design, the weld should extend for 8.8 in. along the back and
for 3.3 in. along the attached leg.* If it is desirable to include a weld along the
* Practically, the length of each weld should be increased 1/4 in. as allowance for
starting the weld.
54
Chap. 2
end of the angle, the force developed by it will also need to be taken into considera-
tion.
It will be noted that this design eliminates twisting about an axis perpendicular
to the plane in which the welds lie; but, it does not eliminate bending with respect
to a transverse axis in the plane of the welds, because the resultant force in the angle
does not lie in the plane of the welds. In addition, the solution is based on the as-
sumption that the stress is uniformly distributed along the length of the weld. This
distribution is not correct, but it is sufficiently accurate for design purposes. In-
evitably stress concentration will exist near the weld, and a distribution other than
that assumed will exist, but the high factor of safety will, in the case of static loads,
provide a sufficient margin to give a safe design. Tests show that a transverse weld
is about 30 per cent stronger than a longitudinal weld.
That the distribution of stress along a longitudinal fillet weld is not uniform may
readily be shown by considering the deformations produced in the members which
are welded together. For example, assume that a 1-in. by 6-in. plate is lap-welded to a
6QOO0/i>
6O,00C/i
Fig. 21
1-in. by 8-in. plate as indicated in Fig. 21, and the unit subjected to an axial load of
60,000 lb. If the unit stress is assumed to be distributed uniformly along the weld,
the distribution of load carried by the 6-in. plate is indicated by the line ABC in
Fig. 21. From statics it is apparent that the load carried by the 8-in. plate must be
as indicated by the line DEF. Thus, at section GG the load carried by the 8-in.
plate will be 40,000 lb, and the load carried by the 6-in. plate will be 20,000 lb.
However, the average unit stress at section GG in the 8-in. plate will be 5000 psi.,
and the corresponding unit strain is
5000
es (30) 106
= 0.000167,
while at the same section the unit strain in the 6-in. plate is
C6 6 (30) 106
= 0.000111.
Obviously the two plates could not act as a unit with this variation in unit strain,
so the actual distribution of stress throughout the members is not the simple one
(h)
(i)
Art. 23
55
which is assumed for design purposes. However, since the values of allowable stress
are obtained from test results by assuming this same simplified distribution, the
load carrying capacity as determined using this distribution must be reasonably
near the actual load carrying capacity. Small differences are absorbed by the factor
of safety.
Glued joints may be designed in essentially the same way as welded
joints. That is, the joint may be assumed to carry a uniform shearing stress,
tensile stress, or compressive stress as the case may be. Values of allowable
stresses in glued joints vary widely because of the many types of glue and
gluing techniques.
23. Types of Riveted Joints.The two principal types of riveted joints
are lap joints and butt joints. Several typical joints are indicated in Fig. 22
o
o
o
o
o
o
(a) J/ng/e -riveted lap joint
(6) Double-riveted Zap joint
jr
rrr
(c) Single-riveted butt joint
Will? one cover plate
(dJ Dot/bZe-riveted iott joint
with two cover plates
Fig. 22. Types of riveted joints.
and include at (a) a single-riveted (one row of rivets) lap joint, at (6) a
double-riveted lap joint, at (c) a single-riveted butt joint with one cover
plate, and at (d) a double-riveted butt joint with two cover plates. It is
evident that bending of the type indicated in Fig. 19(6) will be present in
any lap joint, and in a butt joint with one cover plate. The use of a butt
56
Chap. 2
joint with two symmetrical cover plates eliminates the bending but adds
weight, just as in a welded joint.
The center-to-center distance between rivets in any row parallel to the
joint is called the pitch distance. If more than two rows of rivets are used, the
pitch in the outer rows is usually greater than in the inner rows for reasons
which will be apparent later. In general, the pattern of rivets in a joint is
repeated along the joint. The group of rivets involved in the smallest unit
of the pattern is called a repeating group. For example, if a double-riveted
butt joint (Fig. 23) has a pitch of 3 in. in the inner row and 6 in. in the
Ooter row
-/vner row
fdge cf/stance
rf=r-
.fl pt-
-4-1-
ILT
-yu-
Fig. 23
-u-
Cover p/ate
j- rfa/n p/afe
outer row, the repeating group would involve three rivets on each side of
the joint and would be 6 in. long; but, if the pitch in the outer row were
4 in., the repeating group would be 12 in. long and would contain seven
rivets on each side.
24. Stresses in Lap Joints.Since the actual distribution of stress in a
riveted lap joint is highly complex, joints are designed or analyzed on the
basis of a number of limiting assumptions. One important assumption usu-
ally made is that the unit shearing stress is the same on all rivet shear areas.
This assumption corresponds to the assumption of uniform shearing stress
distribution throughout a fillet weld.
However, a check of the maximum shearing resistance developed by the
rivets against the total load to be carried is only a small part of the design
Art. 24
57
of a riveted joint as there are many ways in which the joint may fail other
than by shear of the rivets. These include failure of the plate in tension at
the rivet hole, failure of the plate in bearing, and failure of the plate in
shear. Each is illustrated in Fig. 24.
It is apparent that the analysis of a joint must involve checking the
stresses on each section where failure might occur. In order to make sure
that no sections are omitted from consideration, it is suggested that the
(a) (6) (c)
Fig. 24. Failures in riveted joints. (a) Shear of rivets. (6) Bearing in plate, (c) Tension
of plate and cover plate at outer row. (d) Incipient tearout of cover plate, (e) Tension
at inner row, tearout at outer row. (/) Tension at inner row, bearing at outer row.
(g) Tension and shear between rows of rivets (rows too close), (h) Tension at inner row
of each cover plate.
"path" of the load be traced from one main plate through the joint to the
other plate. As the load is followed into a joint, such as the lap joint of
Fig. 25, from the left, it is apparent that all of the load must be trans-
mitted past the transverse section which contains the hole. Since the area of
this section (called the net section) is always less than the area of the gross
section (section of the plate without the hole), the stress on the net section
will always be higher than the stress on the gross section of the plate. Then
the load must be transferred from the plate into the rivet without shearing
the plate along the toarout sections, as indicated in Fig. 25, or without
causing the plate to fail in bearingi.e., by buckling or crushing at the con-
58
Chap. 2
tact between rivet and plate. Next, the load must be carried by the rivet in
shear, as indicated in Fig. 25, after which it is transmitted into the lower
plate by bearing across the net section and finally into the gross section
without causing the lower plate to fail in shear by tearing out or to fail in
tension on the net section.
Gross Section-
load
i
Afet Sect/on'A
7earout Sections
Shear in P/ate~\
cBearing
of Rivet on P/ate
=tHi
Siiear of Pive.
Fig. 25
The load, or force, which must be transmitted across each of the sections
may be evaluated with the aid of appropriate free-body diagrams and the
equations of equilibrium. In each case the stress is assumed to be distributed
uniformly across the critical section even though it is known that it is not
actually distributed in that way due to stress concentration and other
factors. However, the nonuniformity of stress distribution is taken into
account in establishing allowable working stresses so that the results are
dependably safe. Working stresses for riveted connections have been estab-
TABLE 3
Working Stresses for Riveted Joints
(All values in psi.)
Tensile
Shearing
Bearing Stress on Rivets
Use
Stress
Stress
in Rivets
Unfired steel pressure vessels
(ASME Boiler Code)
in Plate
Single Shear
Double Shear
Structural-steel buildings
11,000
8,800
19,000
19,000
40,000
(AISC, 1946)
20,000
15,000
32,000
Steel railway bridges (AREA,
1946)
18,000
18,000
13,500
10,000
27,000
35,000
27,000
Aluminum alloy, 17S-T
35,000
lished on this basis by a number of organizations. Typical values are in-
cluded in Table 3.
Usually the assumption is made that the size of the hole is equal to the
nominal size of the rivet, that the rivet fills the hole, that there is no axial
tension in the rivet, and that there is no friction between plates.
The 1/2-in. steel plates in Fig. 26 are joined by a row of 3/4-in. rivets which have a
pitch distance of 4 in. and are located 1 in. from the ends of the plates. Determine
the stresses in the joint if it carries an axial load of 6000 Ib per in. Indicate possible
improvements in the design.
Solution: Since the length of the repeating group is 4 in., a 4-in. section of the plate
will be investigated. This is equivalent to analyzing a pair of plates 1/2 in. by 4 in.
in cross section, connected by a single 3/4-in. rivet and subjected to a load of
24,000 Ib.
(a) Stress in Net Section.The load transmitted across the net section may be
found by constructing a free-body diagram of a portion of the joint, selecting as one
cut section the net section on which the force is desired. From the free-body dia-
gram of Fig. 26(6), it is apparent that the load carried by the net section is 24,000 Ib.
Hence,
c _ L - _24,QOO_ , ,
"' - A ~ (4-f) (
= 14,750 psi.
The rivet and hole are assumed to have the same diameter.
(b) Shear in Plate.One possible free-body diagram for determining the force
which the plate must resist in shear is shown in Fig. 26(c). The plate is cut along the
sections on which failure would occur by sliding, or shear. The force equation of
equilibrium, written in the x direction, gives the magnitude of the force as 24,000
Ib, 12,000 Ib on each of the two shear areas. Hence, the average shearing stress, S,, is
F 24,000 ,M
<S' = T=207T ()
= 24,000 psi.
The length of the area is the edge distance or distance from the edge to the center of
the hole.
(c) Bearing Stress.Any one of several free-body diagrams may be used to
determine the force which must be resisted in bearing between the rivet and the
plate. The one in Fig. 26(d) is obtained by removing the rivet from the top plate
and replacing its action by the force F. From the equilibrium of the free-body dia-
gram it is apparent that the load carried in bearing is 24,000 Ib. Therefore, the aver-
age bearing stress is
c F 24>000 M
&"T"-rtfT
= 64,000 psi.
60
Chap. 2
(a)
f \^ fl (ney/ected)
(e) Shear in Rivet
Fig. 26
The area in bearing is assumed to be the area of contact projected on a diameter of
the rivet.
(d) Shear in Rivet.From the free-body diagram in Fig. 26(e), it is evident
that the single rivet carries the 24,000-Ib load on one shear area, so
Q _ L - 24'00P
<Sr ~ A ~ 0.441
= 54,500 psi.
(d)
Since the two plates are identical, the stresses in the bottom plate are the same
as those in the top plate. A comparison of the stresses as evaluated with values of
allowable stress given in Table 3 shows immediately that one poor feature of the
design is the extremely high shearing stress in the rivet. The remedy for this is to
increase the shear area by adding rivets, increasing the size of rivet, or both. For
example, four 1-in. diam rivets might be incorporated into the repeating group. This
Art. 24
61
could be done by using a quadruple-riveted lap joint with a 4-in. pitch in each row,
as shown in Fig. 27.
More than one rivet is involved in the repeating group, so the first step in the
solution is to determine the load carried by each rivet. For this purpose a free-body
diagram such as the one indicated in Fig. 28(a) is used. The equation of equilibrium
gives
24,000 = Sio, + 2o2 + S3a3 + S4a4. (e)
Fig. 27
However, for practical design and analysis purposes, the shearing stress is as-
sumed to be the same on each rivet shear area. Therefore,
and
24,000 = Sj(
at),
24,000
1 4(0.7854)
= 7650 psi.,
(0
(g)
which is less than the allowable stress given in Table 3. From the assumption that
the shearing stresses are equal on each of the rivet shear areas, it follows that each
rivet transmits one-fourth of the total load from one plate to the other.
With the new design, the stress in the net section at the outer rivet is increased
slightly because of the larger hole. The load to be transmitted across the net section
is, from the free-body diagram of Fig. 28(6), still 24,000 Ib. The average tensile
stress in the plate is
62
Chap. 2
24,000
-s,
(4 - 1) J
(h)
= 16,000 psi.,
which is high.
The tensile stress on the net section at the second row of rivets is less than the
stress at the outer row because the force which must be transmitted across that
2.4, OOO /6
(a)
Z4.OOO/6
(c)
eooo
6OOO />
Fig. 28
section is less than 24,000 Ib by the amount of force transmitted by the rivet in the
outer row. This is illustrated by the free-body diagram of Fig. 28(c), in which the
force FI is the shearing force in the rivet in the outer row.
24,000 - 6000
~
(i)
12,000 psi.
Art. 24
The bearing stress between the rivets and plates may be checked with the aid of
Fig. 28(d) which represents a free-body diagram of one-half of any of the rivets.
The shearing load is 6000 Ib, so the bearing force is also 6000 Ib, instead of 24,000
Ib as before. Hence, the bearing stress is less than in the original design.
6000
(1) (i)
12,000 psi.,
(j)
which is less than the allowable as given in Table 3. The final item to be checked is
the shear tearout in the plate. The rivets must be spaced so that the plate will not
3
B
/?/'vefs ///?. d/am.
Fig. 29
shear longitudinally between rivets, or tear out at the end. The load to be trans-
mitted across each tearout section is 6000 Ib, from Fig. 28(e); so, if the allowable
stress in shear is 8800 psi.
6_00_0_ ,,,
:2Q)Z w
I = 0.68 in.
Hence, the rows of rivets would need to be spaced at least 0.68 in. apart. Practically,
the spacing would need to be greater.
A number of other modifications of the joint are possible, some of which would, for
specific situations, be better than the modification investigated here. In general, a
design is good if the stresses approach the allowable values and if the layout is such
that it may easily be fabricated with little chance for error.
25. Stresses in Butt Joints.The analysis of a butt joint is carried out
by the same general procedure as the analysis of a lap joint, the primary
difference being that more sections and elements must be checked for stress.
Determine the maximum load (in Ib per in.) that may be applied to the double-
riveted butt joint of Fig. 29 (p. 63) if the stresses are not to exceed those given in
Table 3 for steel.
Solution: Since the pitch in the inner row is 2-1/2 in. and the pitch in the outer
row is 5 in., the length of the repeating group of rivets is 5 in. The stress will be as-
sumed to be the same on all rivet shear areas and the maximum permissible load de-
termined by assuming that different critical sections control the design.
The first step is to indicate how the load is distributed through the joint. On each
side of the joint there are three rivets, two in double shear and one in single shear,
giving five shear areas. The stress in each shear area is assumed to be the same, and
the areas are the same; hence, each shear area will develop the same force. There-
fore, the distribution of forces throughout the joint will be as indicated in Fig. 30.
This distribution is the basis of the analysis for investigating the possibilities of
failure.
The maximum allowable force on each shear area is
F = AS, = (0.7854) (8800) (a)
= 7920 Ib.
(a) If Shear in the Rivets Controls.To evaluate the strength of the joint in
shear of rivets a free-body diagram should be constructed taking as one cut section
the plane along which failure would occur. In this case a section of the main plate
with all rivets sheared is suitable, and is indicated in Fig. 31 (a). From the free-body
diagram it is apparent that the total force required to develop the limiting shearing
stress on the rivets is
P = 5F (b)
= 34,600 Ib.
Therefore, the strength of the joint is 34,600 Ib if shear in the rivets controls.
(b) If Bearing between Rivets and Plates Controls.The unit stress de-
veloped on each shear area of each rivet is assumed to be the same, so the rivet in
the outer row will carry one-fifth of the total load and each of the other rivets will
carry two-fifths of the total load, as indicated in Fig. 30. Since the thickness of each
cover plate is more than one-half the thickness of the main plate, it follows that
bearing on the inner row will be critical between the rivets and the main plate rather
than between the rivets and the cover plate. The force which may be developed in
bearing is determined from a free-body diagram of the center portion of one of the
rivets in the inner row, as shown in Fig. 31(6), from which
|P = StA = (19,000) (1) (|), (c)
P = 23,700 Ib.
Hence, a load of 23,700 Ib on a 5-in. strip of the main plate would be required to
develop the limiting bearing stress on the inner row of rivets.
Mill
i /
I I-Li }-|
i
1 1 Ml
1 I 1 i 1
T
?!
rm
llll
ii'
1
66
Chap. 2
V
Fig. 31
Bearing on the outer row will be critical on the cover plate since only one cover
plate is involved there and it is thinner than the main plate. From the equilibrium
of the free-body diagram of one-half of the rivet in the outer row, as shown in
Fig. 31(c),
ip = SbA = (19,000) (1) (fs), (d)
P = 29,700 Ib
Therefore, if the joint fails in bearing, it will be expected to fail at the inner row.
(c) If Tension across the Net Section in the Outer Row Controls.To
evaluate the force transmitted across the net section a free-body diagram is con-
structed in which that section appears as a cut section. A suitable free-body dia-
gram is shown in Fig. 31 (d), from \vhich it is apparent that all of the load must be
transmitted across the section. Hence, the load which will produce the limiting
tensile stress of 11,000 psi. on the net section is
P = StA = (11,000) (5 - 1) (|), (e)
P = 22,000 Ib.
(d) If Tension across the Net Section of the Main Plate at the Inner Row
Controls.The free-body diagram of Fig. 31 (e), which may be used for the analysis
of this case, shows a portion of the main plate, cut at the section under consideration
and with the rivet in the outer row removed. The effect of the rivet, a bearing force
equal to one-fifth of the load, replaces the rivet. From the equation of equilibrium,
P = IP + F, (0
or
|P = F = S,A = (11,000) (5 - 2) (1), (g)
P = 20,600 Ib.
(e) If Tension in the Cover Plate Controls.The center portion of the lower
cover plate carries three-fifths of the total load since three of the five rivet shear
areas lie between that plate and the main plate. Therefore, the stresses in it will be
greater than in the upper cover plate, although each has the same thickness. The
lower cover plate will obviously be critical at the inner row of rivets since that sec-
tion has maximum force and minimum area. An appropriate free-body diagram is
shown in Fig. 31(/). The three rivets are replaced by the bearing forces which they
exert on the cover plateeach force equal to one-fifth of the load. If the section of
the lower plate is to remain in equilibrium,
|P = AS, = (5-2} (&) (11,000), (h)
P = 17,200 Ib.
Of the five possibilities investigated, limiting stress in tension in the lower cover
plate at the inner row of rivets controls, since the smallest total load is required to
develop the limiting stress at that section. Hence, the maximum load is 17,200 Ib for
the 5-in. section or 3440 Ib per in. of width of joint. This corresponds to a tensile
stress of 6880 psi. in the main plate.
26. Efficiency of a Riveted Joint.The efficiency of a riveted joint is
denned as the ratio of the load which develops the computed limiting stress
in the joint to the load which develops the limiting stress in the gross sec-
tion. The efficiency of the joint in the preceding illustrative problem is
= -625
= 62.5 per cent.
The strength of the joint may be increased by increasing the thickness of
the lower cover plate, an increase to 3/8 in. increasing the critical load to
20,600 Ib and the efficiency to 75 per cent. However, this would also in-
crease the weight of the joint.
Since the joint is comparatively strong in shear and bearing, an increase
in efficiency may be attained by using smaller rivets, thereby increasing the
net sections. By using 7/8-in. rivets and a 3/8-in. thick cover plate, the
efficiency may be increased to 75.5 per cent with bearing becoming critical.
It should be noted that the loads computed in the preceding problem are
not the loads which would actually produce the given maximum stresses in
the various elements of the joint because (1) the stresses on the rivet shear
areas are not equal and (2) stress concentration, bending, and friction be-
tween plates are neglected. However, the method does yield satisfactory
design information because the allowable stresses were determined using
the same assumptions.
27. Other Design Procedures. Because of the evident errors involved in
the simplifying assumption made in the solution indicated in the illustrative
problems, other procedures have been suggested and are sometimes used to
determine the allowable load in a riveted joint. Of these, two will be dis-
cussed.
(1) Determine the allowable load by dividing the ultimate load by the
factor of safety. The ultimate load is found by considering all of the possi-
bilities of failure of individual portions of the joint and using that combina-
tion which will result in complete separation of the joint at the lowest load.
The method will be illustrated by application to the joint of Fig. 29.
(a) Strength of rivet in outer row:
(1) Shear
Pi = (0.7854) (44,000) = 34,600 Ib. (a)
(2) Bearing (critical on cover plate)
P2 = (l) (^) (95,000) = 29,700 Ib. (b)
Therefore, the rivet in the outer row will fail first in bearing at a load of
29,700 Ib.
(b) Strength of each rivet in inner row:
(1) Shear
P3 = 2(0.7854) (44,000) = 69,200 Ib. (c)
(#) Bearing (critical on main plate)
Pt = 1(J) (95,000) = 47,500 Ib. (d)
The critical load on each rivet in the inner row is 47,500 Ib with failure in
bearing.
(c) Strength of net section of main plate, outer row:
P6 = (5 - 1) (1) (55,000) = 110,000 Ib. (e)
(d) Strength of net section of main plate, inner row:
P6 = (5 - 2) (|) (55,000) = 82,500 Ib. (f)
Art. 27
(e) Strength of net section of cover plate, outer row:
P7 = (5 - 1) 0&) (55,000) = 68,800 lb.
(f) Strength of net section of each cover plate, inner row:
P8 = (5 - 2) (A) (55,000) = 51,500 lb.
(g)
(h)
Next, the various combinations of failures which will result in separation of the
joint are considered. The critical ones among these are
(a) Failure of three rivets, Fig. 32(a):
Fig. 32
(i)
P9 = 1\ + 2P4
= 29,700 + 2(47,500)
= 124,700 lb.
(b) Failure of net section of main plate in tension at outer row, Fig. 32(6):
p10 = p6 = 110,0001b. (j)
(c) Failure of net section of main plate in tension at inner row and failure of
rivet in outer row, Fig. 32(c):
Pn = Pe + Pi (k)
= 82,000 + 29,700
= 111,700 Ib.
(d) Failure of both cover plates in tension at net section of inner row, Fig. 32(d):
Pl2 = 2P8 (1)
= 2(51,500)
= 100,300 Ib.
Other combinations, such as failure of rivets of inside row and tension in outer
row of cover plate, are obviously stronger. Therefore, the minimum load which will
cause failure is 100,300 Ib. The allowable load is found by dividing by the factor of
safety,
= 20,060 Ib.
It will be noted that this procedure yields a somewhat higher value of
allowable load than the procedure used in Art. 25. However, this solution
is subject to the assumption that the stresses will be distributed in the
same way at low values of load as they are at failure, which is no more cor-
rect than the other assumption of the stress being the same on all rivet shear
areas. In effect, the difference between the two solutions for this problem is
that in the first solution the assumption is made that the lower cover plate
carries three-fifths of the load, while in the second solution the assumption
is made that the lower cover plate carries one-half of the load. For many
designs the two solutions will yield identical results.
(2) Determine the allowable load by assuming that all rivets develop
the same maximum bearing stress. If the rivets all have the same diameter
and bear against plates of the same thickness, this assumption leads to the
same results as the solution based on equal stresses on all rivet shear areas.
Test results indicate that if the rivets do not all have the same diameter, a
distribution on the basis of bearing stress gives more reliable results than
the other types of distribution which may be assumed.
28. Design Considerations. From the standpoint of strength, the ideal
design is one in which the limiting values of stress are reached at all critical
sections for the same load. However, in the design of a riveted joint the
exact balancing of strengths on the basis of the analyses presented here is,
in general, neither practicable nor good engineering design because the
analyses are approximate and because the procedures usually lead to de-
signs which are expensive to fabricate. Such items as nonstandard dimen-
sions, irregular rivet spacing, and use of more than one size of rivet in a
multiple-row joint increase cost of fabrication and inspection and greatly
Art. 29
71
increase the probability of shop construction errors. In some special cases,
where strength is at a premium, as in aircraft construction, the use of such
devices to attain balanced design may be justified; but, in general, ap-
proximate balancing of the two weakest sections in the joint will give an
acceptable design for strength.
It is apparent that no riveted joint can have an efficiency of 100 per cent
because the net section at the outer row of rivets must be smaller than the
gross section of the plate. Therefore, from the standpoint of efficiency,
multiple-row joints with a large pitch in the outer row are the most effec-
tive. However, from the standpoint of weight and cost of preparation and
fabrication of the joint, a minimum number of rows with equal pitch is more
advantageous. Good design strikes a balance between the two conflicting
factors.
Most specifications contain limitations on spacing of rivets and on edge
distances to prevent tearing of the plate between rivets.
In some situations strength is of secondary importance, the critical char-
acteristic being impermeability.
29. End Fittings.Welded and riveted connections of the type discussed
in the preceding articles are adapted to attaching plates, angles, channels,
I-beams, and other rolled and extruded sections which have one or more flat
Y////////////
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\X\\\V9
j
A\X\\\\\"Y N XN
v\\\\\7
V //////// / / S^/JT
(a)
(cJ
40
Fig. 33
surfaces. In general, other techniques must be used for circular or irregular
members, although tubes may be connected by nesting and pinning or
welding as indicated in Fig. 33 (a) and (b). Tubes of the same diameter may
be attached by fish-mouth welds, as illustrated in Fig. 33 (c). For most mem-
72
Chap. 2
bers of circular cross section, attachments are made by means of upset ends
or fittings of the general type indicated in Fig. 33 (d).
In the design of the latter type of connection, attention must be given to
most of the possibilities of failure that were discussed in connection with
riveted joints; that is, the connection may fail in tension at the change in
cross section due to stress concentration, in tension at the net section, in
bearing between the pin and the fitting, in shear of the pin, or in shear of
the metal at the end of the fitting.
In checking the resistance to failure by shear in the metal, it is customary
to assume that the area resisting pullout is that area along two radial lines
which make an angle of 40 with the axis of the member; that is, the area
designated along lines A A in Fig. 33 (d).
The members may be attached to the fittings by original fabrication; in
other words, by upsetting the end of the member and forging it or otherwise
forming it to the desired shape, or by welding the member to the fitting. In
some installations, a threaded connection is desirable. In such a case, the
strength of the material at the connection must be analyzed for at least
three possible modes of failure: (1) tension at the root of the thread, (2)
shear of the thread, (3) bearing between the thread and fitting. If the
threads are cut on the end of the original rod, the cross section will be re-
duced materially at the root of the thread, increasing the stress as a result
of both the decrease in area and the stress concentration due to a sudden
change in cross section.
A study of the failure of threaded connections, including bolts, has indi-
cated that over half of the failures occur at the first thread. In some cases
failure at the root of the thread may be avoided by upsetting the end of the
rod, as indicated in Fig. 34(a), to make the diameter at the root at least
(a)
Fig. 34
equal to the diameter of the cross section of the rod. Stresses in tension may
then be determined in accordance with the procedure outlined in Chap. 1.
Shearing stresses may be evaluated as the total load divided by the spiral
area along which shearing failure would occur, assuming the shearing stress
to be uniformly distributed. Bearing stresses may be determined by divid-
ing the load by the area of contact between the bolt and the fitting. Usu-
ally, the threads are considered to be idealized, as indicated in Fig. 34(6).
Probs. 85-91
73
PROBLEMS
85. Determine the load which may be transmitted per inch of joint of butt weld if
the plates have a thickness of (a) 3/8 in., (b) 1/2 in., (c) 5/8 in., (d) 3/4 in.,
(e) 7/8 in., and (f) 1-1/2 in.
86. Solve Prob. 85 for fillet welds.
87. What is the ultimate shearing resistance of a single spot weld in 0.040 in. 3S
aluminum alloy sheet? 75S aluminum alloy sheet?
88. Determine the length of fillet weld required to transmit a load of 10,000 Ib
from one 1/2-in. steel plate to another.
89. Two steel plates 1/2 in. thick and 6 in. wide are to be connected by using two
welded cover plates, each 1/2 in. thick and 4 in. wide. Design the connection
if the maximum axial tensile stress in the 6-in. main plates is 12,000 psi.
90. The bracket indicated in Fig. P-90 is to be constructed of structural steel plate
3/4 in. thick. Design the bracket (using welded connections) for the maximum
load of 8000 Ib, assuming the structure to be planar and assuming that the
stresses in the members are the same as though the ends were pinned. The de-
flection under the load should not exceed 0.005 in.
91
P-90
A drawn steel tube having an outside diam of 2 in. and a wall thickness of 1/16
in. is to be attached to a 1/4-in. steel plate by splitting the tube and welding as
shown in Fig. P-91. If a weld with a 1/4-in. bead is used, how long must the
weld be in order to develop an axial tensile stress of 12,000 psi. in the tube?
P-91
74
Chap. 2
92. If the 2-in. by 1/16-in. steel tube shown in Fig. P-91 has four 1/4-in. welds,
each 4 in. long, what maximum tensile stress may be developed in the tube?
93. A 3-in. by 3-in. by 1/4-in. angle is welded to a steel plate. Determine the
lengths of weld required on the two sides parallel to the longitudinal axis of the
angle if it is subjected to an axial tensile force of 2000 Ib.
94. A cylindrical boiler 48 in. in diam is made of 1/2-in. plates and fabricated by
butt welding. Determine the maximum allowable internal pressure.
95. A steel strap 4 in. wide and 3/8 in. thick is to be welded to a heavy steel plate
as indicated in Fig. P-95. Welding is started at points B and D and proceeds
B
P-95
to points A and C, the two beads being placed simultaneously. By the time
the weld is completed the average temperature of the strap is 500F higher than
the temperature of the plate. What is the magnitude of the stress in the weld
when the joint cools? By what percentage do the thermal stresses weaken the
joint?
96. If the strap in Fig. P-95 is to be welded to the plate and it is known that the
temperature of the strap will be greater than the temperature of the plate
when the weld is completed, in what sequence should the various portions of
the joint be welded?
97. Design a welded connection to transmit an axial stress of 16,000 psi. in a 2-in.
by 2-in. by 1/4-in. angle \ > a steel plate 4 in. wide and 1 in. thick.
98. Fig. P-98 represents a joint in a truss. Each member consists of two angles
which are to be welded to the gusset plate as shown. Design the weld for mem-
ber B assuming that the stresses in the members are axial.
focft member consists
of two 2te in. t>y
2% //z fry '/4 in. ang/es.
P-98
Probs. 92-114 JOINTS AND CONNECTIONS 75
99. Design the weld for member C of Prob. 98 and Fig. P-98.
100. Determine the length of weld required for member A of Prob. 98 and Fig. P-
98.
101. Design a spot-welded connection for transmitting a unit tensile stress of 20,000
psi. in an 0.040-in. thick sheet of aluminum alloy 75S to another sheet of
75S-T.
102. Does spot welding have any advantages over seam welding insofar as effective-
ness of transferring load from one aluminum alloy sheet to another is con-
cerned?
103. Two 0.040-in. thick sheets of aluminum alloy 52S-T are to be connected by
spot welding. Determine the spacing of the welds if the maximum tensile
stress in the aluminum sheet is to be 12,000 psi.
104. Redesign the joint of Fig. 26 to keep all stresses below those specified in the
ASME Boiler Code.
105. The joint represented in Fig. P-98 is to be fabricated with 3/4-in. diam steel
rivets in accordance with the AISC Code. Determine
(a) the maximum tensile stress in member B,
(b) the number of rivets required to attach member A to the plate,
(c) the bearing stress developed between the rivets and member C.
106. Determine the number of 3/4-in. steel rivets required to attach members B
and C to the gusset plate shown in Fig. P-98, according to the AISC Code.
107. Solve Prob. 105 if the angles, plate, and rivets are aluminum alloy 17S-T.
108. Solve Prob. 106 if aluminum alloy 17S-T is used throughout.
109. A sheet of 0.040-5n. aluminum alloy 17S-T is lap-riveted to a sheet of 0.045-in.
17S-T with two rows of 5/32-in. diam rivets with a pitch of 1/2 in. Determine
the stresses at all critical sections if the joint transmits a load of 600 Ib per
linear in.
110. Two sheets of 0.051-in. aluminum alloy 17S-T are joined with a triple-riveted
lap joint using 5/32-in. diam rivets. The pitch in the two outer rows is 3/4 in.
and in the inner row is 1/2 in. Determine the maximum load per inch of joint
which may be permitted on the splice.
111. Along a certain section in an airplane wing a sheet of 0.040-in. aluminum alloy
is to be lap-riveted to a sheet of 0.051-in. alloy with 5/32-in. diam rivets. De-
termine the pitch if the 0.040-in. sheet is subjected to a maximum stress of
15,000 psi. in the gross section. Use the stresses given in Table 3 for alloy
17S-T.
112. Design a riveted joint suitable for use in an airplane wing if the joint must
transmit the load from a sheet of 0.051-in. aluminum alloy to a sheet of
0.064-in. alloy when the stress in the gross section of the 0.051-in. sheet is
14,600 psi. Rivets are available in diam of 1/8, 5/32, and 3/16 in. Use stresses
for alloy 17S-T.
113. Solve Prob. Ill using a spot-welded joint.
114. Design the joint indicated in Prob. 112 using spot welding.
70
Chap. 2
115. A boiler 5 ft in diam is made from 1/2-in. structural steel plate. The longi-
tudinal joint is a triple-riveted lap joint. Rivets of 1-in. diam are used, the
pitch in the outer rows being 5 in. and in the inner row 3 in. Determine the
maximum allowable internal pressure in the boiler if the allowable stresses in
the joint are S, = 12,000 psi., S. = 9000 psi., and S = 20,000 psi.
116. A cylindrical pressure vessel 4 ft in diam is made of 3/8-in. steel plate. The
longitudinal seam is a triple-riveted lap joint with 1-in. diam rivets placed
with a 3-in. pitch in the inner row and a 6-in. pitch in the outer rows. De-
termine the maximum allowable pressure in the vessel if the following stresses
are not to be exceeded: 10,000 psi. shear, 20,000 psi. bearing, and 15,000 psi.
tension.
117. Solve Prob. 116 using ASME Boiler Code stresses.
118. The longitudinal joint of a 48-in. diam cylindrical boiler transmits a total stress
of 4000 lb per in. of length. The boiler plates are 3/8 in. thick and the longi-
tudinal splice is a triple-riveted lap joint with 3/4-in. rivets with a 3-in. pitch
in the inner row and a 5-in. pitch in the outer row. Determine
(a) the average shearing unit stress in the rivets,
(b) the average bearing unit stress,
(c) the maximum average tensile unit stress. State where it occurs.
119. A 6-in. by 4-in. timber member is spliced as indicated in Fig. P-119 using
P=/5800/t>
I'
TT
-r-
P-119
Douglas fir cover plates and 7/8-in. diam steel bolts. If the total load to be
transmitted by the splice is 15,800 lb, determine
(a) the minimum thickness of the cover plates,
(b) the edge distance for the bolts in both the main members and the splice
plates,
(c) the factor of safety with respect to failure by slip at the net section in the
main members.
Probs. 115-122
77
120. Structural timber members are frequently joined using patented connections
to obtain better transfer of load. One type consists of a metal ring 4 in. in diam
and 1 in. long, one-half of which is embedded in a circular groove cut in each
member at the junction. Two connectors are shown in the splice in Fig. P-120,
1
(
f -?~^>.
(6)
^ '1
?/>?. 0,2
7 in.
7 in.
P-120
and the members are held in contact by a bolt through the center of the con-
nectors. Specifications permit the use of the connection illustrated for the
transfer of a load of 10,800 Ib if the material is Douglas fir. Determine the
factor of safety with respect to failure by slip at the weakest part of the splice.
121. The truss indicated in Fig. P-121 is to be constructed of Douglas fir, and the
critical loading condition for certain members is as shown. It is found that the
P-121
lower chord must be constructed of 24-ft lengths of timber and hence must be
spliced. Determine the size of member required and design the splice, using
7/8-in. bolts.
122. The members at joint Ui in the timber truss of Fig. P-121 are to be connected
using a 1/2-in. steel plate on each side and bolting through the plates and
members with 7/8-in. diam bolts. Determine a suitable common thickness for
the three members framing into the joint and the number of bolts required for
each if a maximum shearing stress of 6600 psi. is permitted in the bolts.
123. The longitudinal splice in a 48-in. diam steel cylindrical pressure vessel is a
double-riveted butt joint. The main plate is 5/8 in. thick, the two cover plates
are each 3/8 in. thick, and the 7/8-in. diam rivets have a pitch of 3 in. in the
inner row and 4-1/2 in. in the outer row. The allowable stresses in the joint are
10,000 psi. shear, 20,000 psi. bearing, and 16,000 psi. tension. Determine the
maximum allowable load per linear inch of joint.
124. Solve Prob. 123 using ASME Boiler Code stresses.
125. A boiler with a diam of 48 in. is made of 9/16-in. plate. The longitudinal joint
is a double-riveted butt joint with two 5/16-in. cover plates. The diam of the
rivets is 1 in. and the pitch in the inner rows is 3 in. and in the outer rows is
4-1/2 in. If the fluid pressure is 210 psi. in the boiler, determine
(b) the average bearing unit stress between the rivets and the main plate, and
(c) the highest average tensile stress in the plates. State where it occurs.
126. The longitudinal joint of a boiler transmits a total stress of 3000 lb per in. of
length. If the 1/2-in. steel plates are connected by a double-riveted butt joint
with two 5/16-in. cover plates and 3/4-in. rivets spaced 4 in. in the outer rows
and 3 in. in the inner rows, determine
(b) the maximum average bearing unit stress between rivets and any plate,
and
(c) the maximum average tensile unit stress. State where it occurs.
127. A 100-in. diam cylindrical boiler is made of 1/2-in. steel plate. The longi-
tudinal seam is a double-riveted butt joint with 3/8-in. cover plates and with
3/4-in. diam rivets. The outer rows of rivets have a pitch of 5 in. and the inner
rows a pitch of 2 in. Using the ASME Boiler Code, determine the maximum
pressure that can be allowed within the boiler.
128. A boiler with a diam of 36 in. is made of 1/2-in. steel plate. The longitudinal
joint is a double-riveted butt joint with two 5/16-in. cover plates. The diam of
the rivets is 3/4 in., the pitch in the inner row is 2 in., and in the outer row is
5 in. Determine the maximum internal pressure permitted in the boiler if the
stresses are not to exceed those specified by the ASME Boiler Code.
129. Two 1/2-in. steel plates are joined with a single 9/16-in. thick cover plate to
form a double-riveted butt joint. The pitch of the inner rows is 3 in. and of the
outer rows is 6 in. The diam of the rivets is 1 in. Determine the load per inch of
length which the joint will transmit without the stresses exceeding those
stipulated by the ASME Boiler Code.
130. A boiler with a diam of 60 in. is made of 3/8-in. plate. The longitudinal joint is
a double-riveted butt joint with two 3/8-in. cover plates, but the top plate is
riveted only by the inner row of rivets. The diam of the rivets is 7/8 in., the
pitch is 2 in. in the inner row and 4-1/2 in. in the outer row. If the longitudinal
joint controls, determine the maximum permissible internal pressure to which
the boiler may be subjected.
Probs. 123-142 JOINTS AND CONNECTIONS 79
131. A spherical pressure vessel 6 ft in diam is formed by joining two hemispheres
with a double-riveted butt joint having two 7/16-in. cover plates, one of
which extends only beyond the inner rows of rivets. The pitch in the inner rows
is 3 in. and in the outer rows is 6 in. The diam of the rivets is 1 in., and the
thickness of the plate is 3/4 in. The internal pressure is 400 psi. Determine
(b) the average bearing unit stress on the main plate,
(c) the average bearing unit stress on the cover plates,
(d) the average tensile unit stress at each net section of the main plate, and
(e) the average tensile unit stress at each net section of the tfover plate.
132. Design a double-riveted butt joint for splicing two 9/16-in. steel plates in
which the tensile stress is 8000 psi., using ASME Boiler Code stresses.
133. Design the longitudinal joint for a boiler made of 5/8-in. steel plate if it must
transmit 5000 Ib per in.
134. A sheet of 0.040-in. 17S-T aluminum alloy, in which the maximum tensile
stress is to be 20,000 psi., is to be joined to an 0.051-in. sheet of the same ma-
terial using 5/32-in. diam rivets. Design a joint in which the stresses will not
exceed those given in Table 3.
135. Design the longitudinal joint for a 36-in. diam boiler which is to be subjected
to an internal pressure of 240 psi. Use ASME Boiler Code stresses.
136. Two 3/4-in. steel plates are spliced with two 7/16-in. cover plates to form a
double-riveted butt joint. The pitch in the inner rows of rivets is 3 in. and in
the outer rows is 4 in. The rivets are 1 in. in diam. If the allowable unit stresses
are 10,000 psi. in shear, 22,500 psi. in bearing, and 15,000 psi. in tension, de-
termine the efficiency of the joint.
137. Determine the efficiency of the joint described in Prob. 114.
_EMPTY_
CHAPTER 3
TORSION
30. General Considerations.As indicated in Chap. 1, the resultant
force acting on any cross section of a member may be resolved into three
component forces, passing through any convenient reference point, and
three component couples, one of which lies in the plane of the cross section.
Two such couples, acting at two parallel cross sections in the member,
produce between the cross sections an effect known as torsion. The couple
acting at either cross section is called the torque, and its magnitude is, of
course, expressed in terms of force and distance (as inch-pounds or foot-
pounds).
The effect of the torque is to twist the portion of the member between
the couples. The twisting involves a tendency of one cross section to rotate
(about a longitudinal axis) with respect to an adjacent cross section, and a
tendency for any differential area in one cross section to slide along the
corresponding differential area in the adjacent cross section, thus develop-
ing shearing stresses on all cross sections of the member between the
couples. These shearing stresses are called torsional shearing stresses to
distinguish them from shearing stresses produced by forces, as in rivets.
The effects produced in circular and tubular members of constant cross
section will be considered first, and then methods for estimating torsional
effects in noncircular members will be discussed. Throughout this chapter
it will be assumed that the member is subjected only to torsion or to torsion
and axial loading (the axial loading having no effect upon the torsional
stresses or the angle of twist), and that no bending takes place. The latter
restriction requires that the member be straight.
31. Geometry of a Circular Torsional Member.By direct observation
of a circular member subjected to torsion, it may be determined that,
within the normal range of accuracy of observation,
(1) a cross section which is a plane before twisting remains a plane after
twisting; and
(2) a diameter before twisting remains a straight line and a diameter
after twisting.
In Fig. 35, sections A and B represent two cross sections a distance dl
apart in a circular shaft. The resultant pull, Fi, on the belt at the left end is
balanced by an equal force on the bearing at the left end. Hence, the left
end of the shaft is subjected to a counterclockwise torque Fin. Similarly,
81
82
Chap. 3
the resultant belt tension Fz and the bearing force at the right end develop
a clockwise torque Fzrz. If the shaft is in equilibrium, the torques must be
equal. Under the action of the applied torque, section A will rotate clock-
wise with respect to B. The relative rotation may be indicated by assuming
B to remain fixed. Then, as shown in an enlarged view of the section AB in
Fig. 35(6), the applied torque will cause the radius OC at A to rotate
through an angle d6 to the position OC', but the radius O'D at B will re-
(a)
H'
(c)
Fig. 35
main fixed. Hence, the straight line CD on the surface of the shaft will be
twisted to the position C'D. The shearing unit strain on the surface (along
C'D) is, by definition (Eq. 7),
CC'
CD'
(14)
The distance CC' may be expressed as the product of the angle of twist
d6 and the radius c of the rod, while the distance CD is dl. Therefore, the
shearing unit strain on the surface of the member is
cdB
dl
(15)
If c is constant with respect to Z, 7, will be constant with respect to I,
and Eq. (15) may be integrated to
Art. 32 TORSION 83
7, = f. (15a)
in which
0 is the total angle of twist in a length L.
The shearing strain along the centerline of the rod (00') is zero since no
movement occurs there, and the shearing strain at any point between the
center and the surface is proportional to the radius of the point because any
diameter of the member remains straight after twisting. Thus, the shearing
unit strain at point E, a distance p from the center of the rod, is
EE' (IK
''^"2-- 7p = OO7 ('
= p| (16a)
= P~
The distortion of a differential block CDGH, formed by two parallel longi-
tudinal lines CD and GH on the surface between section A and B, is il-
lustrated in Fig. 35(c). Under the action of the applied torque the block
takes the shape C'DGH', and it is evident that the angles which were
originally right angles are now distorted as a result of the shearing strain.
The change in angle at each corner of the block is a measure of the shearing
unit strain developed. Similar distortion will occur in a block having one
corner at point E of Fig. 35(6) at a distance p from the center of the cross
section. The magnitude of the distortion will be less, however, since the
total strain is p dO instead of c d6.
32. Shearing Stresses in a Circular Torsional Member.The shearing
strain developed in the block of Fig. 35(c) is accompanied by shearing
forces on the sides of the block as shown in Fig. 36(a). That is, forces are
required to hold the material in equilibrium in the strained position. Conse-
Sear/ng force
Be/t Tens/on
(a) (} (c)
Fig. 36
quently, shearing stresses are developed both on transverse cross sections
from forces Qi and Q2 and on longitudinal radial planes by forces Q3 and Qt.
The distribution of the shearing stresses throughout any transverse cross
section of a circular torsional member may be determined from a considera-
tion of the geometry of the twisted member, the properties of the material,
and the conditions of equilibrium.
Geometry. In the preceding article it was shown that the shearing unit
strain varies directly as the distance from the center of the shaft. Eq. (16b)
divided by Eq. (15) gives
Properties of the Material. If it is assumed that the shaft is homogeneous
and isotropic and that the stresses do not exceed the proportional limit of
the material, Sp = GyP, and S, = Gy,. Hence, from Eq. (17),
f n
I ' 'c (18)
That is, the shearing unit stress at any point in the cross section is pro-
portional to the radius of the point.
Statics. The shaft may be considered to be composed of differential
blocks similar to the one indicated in Fig. 36 (a), each subjected to four
shearing forces as shown. No shearing forces are developed on the outside
surface or on the inside curved surface. Hence, the portion of the shaft of
Fig. 35 (a) between section A and the left end may be diagramed as shown
in Fig. 36(6). The resultant tension in the belt and the resultant force on
the bearing at the left end form a couple; and, if the shaft is in equilibrium,
the resultant couple developed at section A must equal the resultant ex-
ternal torque T at the left end of the shaft.
The resultant torque developed at section A is equal to the sum of the
moments (with respect to a longitudinal axis) of the differential shearing
forces developed on each of the component blocks. The force on the end of
each block is SPda, and its moment arm is p; hence,
T = I dT = SpPda. (19)
Jo Jo
However, Sp may be replaced by its equivalent from Eq. (18), giving
"A
T = I - P*da. (19a)
Art. 33 TORSION 85
At a given section, such as A, S, (the stress at the surface) and c (the
radius) are constant, and may therefore be taken outside of the integral
sign. Then,
-A
(20)
The integral may be recognized as the polar moment of inertia of area of
the cross section with respect to the centroidal axis and is designated as J.
Therefore,
or
and
= M,
c
p
(21)
(21a)
The polar moment of inertia for a(circular area is
Tc
S. = ~ (22)
Li-fJ (23)
in which
d is the diameter of the area.
Eq. (22) is based on a number of assumptions as noted in the develop-
ment, but may be regarded as reliable for portions of straight circular
shafts or tubes at sections at least four diameters removed from any change
in cross section if the material is uniform and not stressed above the pro-
portional limit, and if the shaft is in equilibrium.
33. Power Transmission by Torsional Members.One of the principal
uses of shafts is to transmit power. A given shaft is limited to a maximum
amount of power depending upon the speed of rotation and the maximum
allowable torsional stress in the member.
The work done per revolution by a constant torque is, from the definition
of work,
Wr = TO = 2TT (24)
and the work per min is
in which
Hence,
Wm = 2irTN, (25)
N is the rpm.
hp = 33^00 (25a)
Chap. 3
The horsepower may be expressed in terms of stress by substituting for
T from Eq. (21).
hp =
33,000c
(25b)
34. Stresses on Inclined Planes.Eq. (22) gives the value of the shear-
ing stress at any point in a normal cross section of a circular torsional mem-
ber. The shearing stress on a longitudinal radial plane [the plane of Q3 and
Q^ in Fig. 36(.o)J has the same magnitude at the point. On other planes there
are induced stresses which may be more critical than the shearing stresses.
For example, when loaded in torsion, a brittle material will fail in tension
on an inclined plane rather than on a transverse plane on which the shear-
ing stress is a maximum.
Stresses on planes other than transverse normal planes may be de-
termined readily with the aid of a free-body diagram and the equations of
equilibrium. For example, to prove that the longitudinal shearing stress at a
point is equal to the torsional shearing stress, a differential rectangular ele-
ment similar to the one of Fig. 36(a) may be used. As shown in Fig. 37(a),
SidI
di
(a)
w
Fig. 37
S,d/
(c)
the differential rectangle of width dy and length dl will be subjected to a
shearing force S,dy on the sides of length dy if the differential block is as-
sumed to be of unit thickness. An equal shearing force will be developed at
the opposite end of the block since the shaft is of constant cross section,
but the force will be acting in the opposite direction. Obviously the block
cannot be in equilibrium with the two forces acting as shown. There must be
developed shearing forces along the top and bottom to prevent rotation.
If the unit stress acting along the lower edge of the block is S',, the total
force developed will be S',dl, and an equal force will be developed along the
top edge of the block. The moment equation of equilibrium written with
respect to an axis perpendicular to the zy-plane gives
Art. 34 TORSION 87
2M = 0,
S4y dl - S'4l dy = 0. (26)
Hence,
Ss = S'.. (26a)
Therefore, the longitudinal shearing stress which is developed in a torsional
member is equal in magnitude to the torsional shearing stress in a transverse
plane at the point. If the member were made of a material which is weak in
shear longitudinally as, for example, timber with the grain running longi-
tudinally, failure might be expected to occur along a longitudinal plane.
The magnitudes of the stresses which are developed on inclined planes
may be determined with the aid of a free-body diagram as indicated in
Fig. 37(6). The free-body diagram represents a portion of the differential
block of Fig. 37(a). The relative magnitudes of dl and dy are so selected
that the inclined face makes the desired angle 9 with the horizontal. The
length of the inclined side is designated ds, and the block is assumed to
have a unit thickness.
Shearing forces are developed along the horizontal and vertical sides as
shown. The resultant force on the inclined face of the block may be re-
solved into a normal component and a shearing component, Snds and SQds,
respectively, with the normal component of stress designated as Sn and the
shearing component of stress designated by Sq. The magnitude of the
normal stress may be determined by writing the equation of equilibrium in
the n direction.
SFn = 0 = Snds S*dy cos 6 - S3dl sin 6. (27)
However,
dl = ds cos 6, (28)
and
dy = ds sin 6. (28a)
Hence,
Sn = 2S. sin 6 cos 6 (29)
= S,sin20. (29a)
It is apparent from Eq. (29a) that Sn will be a maximum when 6 = 45,
and under that condition it will be equal in magnitude to S,.
With the shearing stresses acting as shown in Fig. 37(6) and the plane
selected as indicated, the normal stress is compression. However, if the
shearing stresses are reversed or if the direction of the plane is as indicated in
Fig. 37 (c), the normal stress will be tension. If a member which is weak in
tension is loaded in torsion, it will fail along a plane of maximum tension
resulting in a spiral fracture similar to those observed in chalk or cast iron.
However, if the material is strong in shear and strong in tension but weak
in compression, it will fail along a plane at 90 with the plane of maximum
tension. Thin-walled tubing, for example, when subjected to torsion will
frequently fail by buckling as indicated in Fig. 38.
(a)
Fig. 38. Failure of tubing loaded in torsion, (a) Buckling caused by compression
at 45,. (6) Buckling and tension.
35. Shearing Stresses in Noncircular Sections. The evaluation of the
shearing stress in a circular or tubular torsional member is dependent on
the observation that a plane normal section before twisting remains plane
after twisting. In general, this assumption is not valid for cross sections
other than circular.* As a result, the evaluation of shearing stresses in
noncircular torsional members requires either an assumption of the distribu-
tion of strain (or stress) throughout the section or a determination of the
distribution by experimental procedures or by mathematical analysis be-
yond the scope of this text.
Eq. (22) may give results that are entirely misleading if applied to mem-
bers of noncircular cross section. It may be shown, for example, that the
shearing stress at the corner of a torsional member of rectangular section
(where c is a maximum) is zero (not a maximum) and that the maximum
shearing stress occurs at the center of the long side of the rectangle. The
strength and stiffness of a square torsional member are but slightly greater
than the strength and stiffness of the largest circular shaft which could be
turned from the square shaft. That is, the material at the corners of the
square shaft contributes but little to strength and stiffness.
36. Stress Concentration. Discontinuities such as holes, notches,
grooves, keyways, and abrupt changes of cross section cause stress concen-
tration in torsional members just as they do in axially loaded members.
Stress concentration factors are determined experimentally or analytically,
and a few are indicated in Fig. 39. In general, the magnitude of the stress
concentration factor varies directly with the sharpness or abruptness of
the stress raiser.
* The warping of a rectangular section subjected to torsion may be demonstrated by
drawing a line around the outside of a "ruby" eraser to indicate a plane section. If the
eraser is then twisted about its longitudinal axis, the warping of the plane section is clear.
Fig. 39. Stress concentration factors for torsional members.
37. Couplings and Riveted or Bolted Fittings.Torque may be trans-
mitted from one member to another by means of pulleys and belts, by gears,
by chain drives, or by a variety of riveted or bolted connections. The de-
sign of the latter is based on two assumptions: (1) that the average shearing
stress developed on each rivet (or bolt) is proportional to the distance of the
rivet from the center of twist, and (2) that the line of action of the resultant
force on the rivet is perpendicular to the radius from the center of twist.
These assumptions appear to be reasonable by comparison with the distri-
bution of stress in a circular torsional member.
The first assumption may be expressed in the same form as Eq. (18),
SP
S.
(18)
The location of the center of twist may be found by statics. For example,
the force on each rivet in the group shown in Fig. 40 may be resolved into
90
Chap. 3
x- and j/-components in convenient x and y directions. If p is the distance
of any rivet from the center of twist and 6 is the angle which the resultant
force on the rivet makes with the x direction, the z-component of the force
developed on the rivet is
Fx = Spa cos 6.
(30)
0
0 0
L,
0 0
o
1
(aJ
From Eqs. (18) and (30)
in which
(b)
Fig. 40
c
Fx = pa cos 6,
c
(30a)
a is the area of the rivet, and
S, is the stress at a distance c from the center of twist.
From the equation of equilibrium of forces in the x direction,
Spa cos 6 = 0.
(31)
However, S,/c is common to all rivets in the group, and
p cos 6 = y, (32)
in which
y is the ^-coordinate of the rivet with respect to axes through the
center of twist.
Therefore,
(33)
Art. 37
91
TORSION
However, for 2cw/ to equal zero, y must be measured with reference to an
z-axis through the centroid of the rivet areas.
A similar equation may be developed from the equation of equilibrium of
forces in the y direction, thus proving that the center of twist must lie at
the centroid of the group of rivets.
The relationship between the stress and the torque applied to the rivet
group may be determined from Eq. (18) and the moment equation of
equilibrium.
Determine the maximum torque to which the fitting in Fig. 41 may be subjected
if the shearing stress in the rivets is not to exceed 10,000 psi.
la)
Fig. 41
Solution: The first step is to determine the location of the centroid of the rivet
group and thus establish the center of twist. The centroid is located on the axis of
symmetry, and its distance from the line AB is found by the principle of moments
0.0492 (2.5)
2 (0.1105) + 0.0492
0.455 in.
(a)
The distance of rivet C from the centroid is 2.045 in., and the distance of rivets A
and B from the centroid is
A = VI. 52 + 0.455" (b)
= 1.57 in.
Since rivet C is at the greatest distance from the centroid, it will develop the
maximum stress first, and, when the stress on it is 10,000 psi., the stress on each of
the other rivets will be, from Eq. (18),
10,000(1.57) CA
SA= "27645 cl
= 7680 psi.,
and the force developed by each of the rivets A and B is
FA = FB = 7680 (0.1105) * '' > (d)
= 846 Ib,
while the force developed by rivet C is 492 Ib.
For equilibrium the total resisting moment is equal to the applied torque,
T = 2 (846) 1.57 + 492 (2.045) J (e)
= 3668in-Ib.
If the riveted or bolted fitting is subjected to a force (instead of a torque)
the force may be resolved, by methods of statics, into a force passing
through the centroid of the rivet group and a couple. The force developed
on each rivet by the resultant force acting through the centroid of the rivet
group may be determined by the methods outlined in Chap. 2, while the
force developed on each rivet by the torque may be found by the procedure
outlined in the preceding illustrative problem. The resultant force de-
veloped on any rivet is the resultant of these two component forces, and
from it the average shearing stress on the rivet may be evaluated.
38. Thin-walled Members in Torsion.Eq. (22) applies directly to
circular tubes whether the walls are thick or thin, provided that the circular
wall boundaries are concentric. However, a relationship between the torque
and the stress in a thin-walled torsional member may be obtained even
though the outline of the member is not circular and even though the wall
thickness varies.
In the analysis of thin-walled members in torsion, it is convenient to use a
term called shear flow, which is defined as the product of the average shear-
ing stress on a transverse section at a point and the thickness of the wall at
that point. The shear flow may be interpreted as the magnitude of the
shearing force developed per unit length of circumference of tube wall.
In equation form,
q = S.t, (34)
in which
q is the shear flow,
S, is the average shearing stress across the wall at that point.
The magnitude of the shear flow may be shown to be equal at all sections
around the circumference of a thin-walled member. This may be proved by
considering the free-body diagram of an element (A BCD) of length y cut
from the tube shown in Fig. 42(a). The wall thickness along section AD is
Art. 38
93
TORSION
(a)
Fig. 42
4 and the thickness along section BC is 3. If the tube is subjected to a
torque T, a shearing force FI will be developed on the front face (AB) of
the block. A shearing force Fz is developed on the opposite end of the ele-
ment, and Fs and ^4 denote the shearing forces developed on the sides of
the element. From the force equations of equilibrium, it is apparent that
FI = Ft and F3 = F4. However,
(35)
in which
83 is the magnitude of the stress on the longitudinal plane BC and
also the stress on the plane A B at point B,
and
(36)
in which
84 is the shearing stress on the plane AD and is equal to the
magnitude of the shearing stress on the plane A B at point A.
Since F3 is equal to
and
(37)
(37a)
The relationship between the shear flow in a thin-walled tube and the
resultant torque may be developed from the Principle of Moments with the
aid of the diagram of Fig. 42(6), which represents the cross section of a
thin-walled member, such as the one in Fig. 42(a), subjected to torque T.
The force dF denotes the shearing force which is developed on a differential
length ds of the cross section of the tube wall. It is apparent that
dF = S t ds.
(38)
The moment of the force dF with respect to a convenient axis of moments
[a longitudinal axis through point 0 in Fig. 42(6)] is
dT = Stpds, (39)
in which
p is the moment arm of the force dF.
The total torque developed on the cross section will, therefore, be
r
T = / Stpds, (39a)
J 0
in which
I is the length of the centerline of the tube wall.
However, the shear flow (q = St) is constant. Hence,
T = St I pds. (39b)
It will be noted, however, from Fig. 42(6) that, if lines are drawn from the
center of moments to the ends of the differential length ds, the enclosed
area dA is equal to %pds. Hence,
'A
T = St I 2 dA, (39c)
/.
or
T = 2 StA, (39d)
in which
A is the area enclosed by the centerline of the wall of the tube.
The shearing stress at any point in the cross section is, from Eq. (39b),
S = 2ff (396>
in which
t is the wall thickness of the section where the stress
is being evaluated.
The stress is practically constant throughout the thickness, i.e., from the
inner wall to the outer. Eq. (39e) is particularly useful in evaluating the
stresses in thin-walled members, such as wings and other parts of aircraft,
which are subjected to torsional moments. It is, of course, invalid if the
thickness of the tube wall becomes relatively large although little error is
Art. 40 TORSION 95
introduced if the ratio of wall thickness to average diameter of tube is less
than one-tenth.
39. Localized Compression or Buckling.Torsional members which are
of thin-walled construction are subject to failure by localized compression
or by buckling as well as to failure by torsional shear. As was pointed out
in Art. 34, compressive stresses are induced on inclined planes in a torsional
member and are a maximum on planes which make an angle of 45 with the
longitudinal axis of the member. Thus, a diagonal strip such as the one
shown in Fig. 43 is subjected to compressive forces at the ends. These corn-
Fig. 43
pressive forces will tend to cause buckling unless the thickness of the metal
is such that it will resist the lateral deflection which must accompany
buckling. The buckling tendency is aggravated by the fact that the strip
is initially bowed due to the curvature of the tube wall. While the evalua-
tion of the critical torque which will cause buckling in the thin-walled
section is beyond the scope of this text, it may be stated that the tendency
for buckling to occur is dependent on the relative thickness, length, and di-
ameter of the cross section, and on the modulus of elasticity of the material.
40. Stresses beyond the Proportional Limit.The torsion formula,
Eq. (22), was derived on the basis of several assumptions, one of which was
that the stresses did not exceed the proportional limit of the material. In
determining the maximum resistance of circular members to torsion (which
is sometimes desirable for estimating the factor of safety with respect to
failure by fracture), it may be assumed that any diameter remains a di-
ameter for angles of twist to the ultimate. This assumption may be verified
experimentally. Since the diameter remains a straight line above the pro-
portional limit, the unit strains are still proportional to the distances from
the center of the shaft and the geometrical equations of Art. 31 are all
valid.
With the distribution of shearing strain known, the distribution of
shearing stress may be determined from the stress-strain relationships as
obtained from a stress-strain diagram of the material in shear.* For ex-
* An accurate stress-strain diagram of the material in shear may be obtained by testing
a tube in torsion or may be obtained from a test on a solid circular member by methods
of calculation which are beyond the scope of this text.
90
Chap. 3
ample, if the diagram has the shape indicated in Fig. 44(a), the strain
distribution is linear and the stress distribution throughout the cross sec-
tion of the shaft will be as indicated in Fig. 44(6). The stress-distribution
diagram has the same shape as the stress-strain diagram because the
abscissae in the distribution diagram are directly proportional to the
abscissae of the stress-strain diagram for all values of strain (and stress).
If the maximum value of the torque (at fracture) is substituted into the
torsion equation, Eq. (22), the resulting value of S, is known as the modulus
of rupture. The modulus of rupture is not the value of the maximum stress,
although it has the units of stress, but is rather the value which the stress
Shearing Strain
(a)
Fig. 44
would have if the stress-strain diagram were a straight line to the ultimate.
For ductile metals, the actual value of the maximum stress at fracture is
three-fourths of the modulus of rupture.
41. Helical Springs.An axially loaded helical spring of constant cross
section is subjected primarily to torsional stress. This may be demon-
strated by referring to Fig. 45 which indicates a closely coiled helical spring
carrying an axial compressive load. In order to evaluate the forces acting
on any cross section, a free-body diagram is constructed with that cross
section as one of the free surfaces. A suitable free-body diagram in which
the rod is cut by a plane passing through the axis of the helix is shown in
Fig. 45(6). The next step is to apply the equations of equilibrium. Since the
summation of forces in the z direction equals zero, the external load P must
be resisted by an equal vertical shearing force V at the cut section. In ad-
dition, the summation of moments with respect to a y-axis must equal zero;
therefore, a counterclockwise couple (Pe) must be acting at the cut section
to resist the couple produced by the load and the shear. The other equations
of equilibrium are satisfied.
Since this same set of forces will exist on any free-body diagram of a
portion of the spring regardless of the number of coils included, it follows
that every section of the helical spring is subjected to a shearing force V
Art. 41
97
TORSION
and a torque Pe. Therefore, the spring is in effect a torsional member which
is coiled for convenience in handling and loading.
Fig. 45(c) represents a side view of the rod at the cut section. The shear-
ing force V, which balances the load, is vertical, but the vertical plane on
which it acts is not normal to the axis of the rod because of the inclination
of the rod. In order to evaluate the stresses developed by V, it should be
resolved into two forces, Q and N, as indicated in Fig. 45 (d), which develop
shear and compression on the cross section. If the inclination of the rod is
small, the force Q will be practically equal in magnitude to V and the com-
(a)
(c)
Fig. 45
pressive force N will be relatively small. Although the shearing stress due
to Q is not uniformly distributed over the cross section of the rod, it may
normally be considered so distributed with little error, because this stress is
small in comparison with the torsional shearing stress to which it must be
added algebraically.
The moment Pe of the forces in Fig. 45(6) also acts in a vertical plane
but may be resolved into two component moments, one in the plane of the
cross section of Fig. 45 (d), the other in a plane perpendicular to the cross
section. The first component, which for small angles of inclination of the rod
is virtually equal to Pe, develops torsional stress on the cross section. The
other component, which is relatively small, produces bending. The tor-
sional stress may be evaluated by the torsion formula, Eq. (22).
The deflection of a helical spring may be evaluated with sufficient ac-
curacy for most engineering purposes by neglecting the effect of the cross
shear and bending and equating the total work done by the load in de-
flecting the spring to the total work stored in the spring in torsion.
JPA = \TB, (40)
in which
A is the deflection of the spring.
Since T = Pe,
A = Be. (41)
The angle of twist 6 may be evaluated from Eq. (15a) and the fact that
ya = S./G, giving
or
A = (42a)
in which
I is the total length of rod in the active coils of the spring.
A helical spring with an outside diam of 4-3/4 in. and a height of 12 in. consists of
ten active turns of 3/4-in. diam steel rod. If the maximum permissible torsional
shearing stress is 40,000 psi., determine
(a) the maximum axial compressive load to which the spring may be subjected,
(b) the deflection of the spring under the maximum load,
(c) the total energy stored in the deflected spring,
(d) the average shearing stress developed by the force in the plane of the cross
section, and
(e) the average compressive stress on the cross section of the rod.
Solution: The angle of inclination a which the coils make with the horizontal
when the spring is unloaded may be determined by dividing the rise of the coils in
ten turns by the total length of rod.
Sin a = 1210-;(04)75 = 0.0895, (a)
from which
a = 57'. (b)
For this small angle of inclination, the cosine (which is 0.996) may be assumed equal
to unity* and the component of torsional moment in the plane of the cross section
of the rod may be taken equal to the load times the radius of the helix.
(a) The load may be evaluated by the relationship between the torque and stress.
* The cosine of the angle of inclination will be even nearer unity when the spring is
loaded, because of the compression of the helix.
Art. 42 TORSION 99
T = v- (c)
(d)
c
and 9P _ 40,000x(0.375)<
2(0.375)
from which
P = 1660 lb. (e)
(b) The deflection may be evaluated from Eq. (41).
A = ed (f)
(g)
00
(i)
eS.l
Gc
2 (40,000) 10x(4)
12 (10)6 (0.375)
= 2.23 in. (j)
(c) The total energy stored in the spring may be evaluated as the average force
multiplied by the distance through which the force moves in deflecting the spring.
W = J (1660) 2.23 (k)
= 1850in-lb. (1)
(d) The average shearing stress due to the force V acting in the plane of the cross
section of the rod may be evaluated by assuming the stress to be uniformly distrib-
uted over the cross section.
a 1660 , .
S = x(0.375) (m)
= 3760 psi., (n)
which is less than 10 per cent of the assumed maximum stress, 40,000 psi. At one
point on the cross section, the maximum stress will be equal to the sum of the
torsional shearing stress and the stress due to the force V. The latter stress is not
actually uniformly distributed over the cross section, but that fact has a relatively
small effect upon the resultant stress.
(e) The compressive force acting on the cross section of the rod is equal to the
component of the load in the direction of the axis of the rod.
# = 1660 (0.0895) (0)
= 148 lb. (p)
Hence, the stress due to direct compression is
_148_ ( v
* ~ x(0.375)2 W
= 335 psi., (r)
which is relatively small.
42. Statically Indeterminate Composite Torsion Members.Shafts and
other torsional members are sometimes constructed of two materials or
consist of two or more units among which the external torque is dis-
tributed. Fig. 46(a) illustrates a longitudinal section through a circular
shaft composed of two materials. Fig. 46(6) shows the cross section of a
thin-walled cellular member such as an airplane wing which is subjected to
torsional loading; it may be considered to consist of two thin-walled hollow
sections with a common member A B. If a free-body diagram is constructed
of a portion of the length of the composite shaft, Fig. 46(a), or the two-
(a) (b)
Fig. 46
celled unit of Fig. 46(6), it is apparent that one equation of equilibrium
(the moment equation of equilibrium with respect to a longitudinal axis)
may be written
T = T! + TV (43)
in which
T is the external torque,
Ti is the torque developed in one of the units, and
Tz is the torque developed in the other unit.
However, before the stresses may be evaluated, the resisting torques TI
and Tz which each of the component parts develops must be determined.
Although other equations of equilibrium may be written, they will not be
found helpful. Hence, it is necessary to secure additional information from
some other source in order to determine the distribution of the external
torque between the component units of the member. This additional in-
formation may be obtained from geometrical considerations. If the com-
ponent parts of the member are rigidly attached at the ends, the angle of
twist of each of the parts must be the same.
6 = 0i = 02. (44)
Since the angle of twist, 6, may be expressed in terms of the torque in each
component by means of Eqs. (15a) and (22), Eq. (44) may be solved simul-
taneously with Eq. (43) for the two torques Ti and TV With these torques
known, the stresses in any portion of the component units may be evaluated
by the appropriate torque-stress equation, Eq. (22) or Eq. (39c).
43. Design Considerations.Although the analysis of noncircular solid
cross sections subjected to torsion is not presented in this chapter, it may
Art. 43 TORSION 101
be shown that a circular cross section provides the most effective disposi-
tion of material for resisting torque. That is, a given cross-sectional area
will withstand the highest torque for a given maximum stress if it is circular.
However, the material at the center of a circular shaft is subjected to zero
stress and therefore is not effective in resisting torsion. The material at the
outside of the cross section is subjected to the highest stress and in ad-
dition has the greatest moment arm with respect to the longitudinal
centroidal axis. Hence it will develop a maximum torque. It follows, there-
fore, that the maximum torsional resistance is obtained with a given
amount of material, if that material is distributed in the form of a thin ring
at a maximum distance from the center of the member. This may be shown
numerically by applying the torsion formula to a cross section in the form
of a thin ring.
T = (21)
c
However, if all the material is at approximately the same distance from the
centroid of the section,
J = A'c\ (45)
in which
A' is the cross-sectional area of the material.
Hence,
T = S.A'c. (46)
Eq. (46) shows that, for a given value of maximum stress and a given area,
the torque varies directly as the radius. However, there are certain practi-
cal limitations restricting the use of a thin-walled shaft of maximum di-
ameter. Space limitations, the possibility of attaching members such as
pulleys and gears to the shaft, and the possibility of buckling must all be
taken into consideration in design.
Stress concentration is present in practically every shaft and other
torsional member because of holes, keyways, splines, or other devices re-
quired for attaching gears, pulleys, hubs, and other fittings.
PROBLEMS
143. A 4-in. diam circular steel shaft is subjected to a torque which produces a
maximum unit shearing stress of 12,000 psi. at a typical cross section. De-
termine the torque transmitted
(a) by the total cross section,
(b) by the portion of the cross section between the circle having a radius of
1-1/4 in. and the circle having a radius of 1-3/8 in.
144. A 4-in. diam circular steel shaft is subjected to a torque which produces a
maximum unit shearing stress of 10,000 psi.
(a) Determine the torque transmitted by the entire cross section.
(b) Determine the torque transmitted by a ring having a mean diam of 16 in.
and the same area as the original shaft for a maximum unit stress of 10,000
psi.
145. Outline a simple laboratory procedure by which the validity of the assumption
in Art. 31 may be checked.
146. A unit shearing stress of 8000 psi. is developed at the inside of a hollow steel
shaft having an inside diam of 4 in. and an outside diam of 6 in. Determine
(a) the maximum shearing stress developed on a cross section, (b) the total
torque transmitted by the cross section.
147. Determine the minimum outside diam of a hollow steel shaft having an inside
diam of 3 in. which will transmit the same torque as a 4-in. diam solid steel
shaft if both develop the same maximum stress of 10,000 psi. Compare the
weights of the two shafts and the angles of twist in a 6-ft length.
148. A certain shaft is to transmit a torque of 1000 ft-lb with a factor of safety of 2
with respect to failure by slip and to twist not more than 4.8 in a length of 8 ft.
Determine the minimum required diam of the shaft if it is made of (a) struc-
tural steel, (b) alloy steel SAE 2345, (c) aluminum alloy 24S-T.
149. A 4-ft length of a steel tube having an inside diam of 2 in. and an outside diam
of 2-1/4 in. is slipped over the end of a 3-ft length of a 2-in. diam steel rod and
attached by a fillet weld around the circumference to form a shaft 6 ft long.
Determine (a) the maximum torque to which the assembly may be subjected,
(b) the angle of twist in the 6-ft length.
150. Determine the minimum diam of a steel shaft 10 ft long which will transmit
a torque of 12,500 ft-lb with a maximum shearing stress of 12,000 psi. and a
maximum angle of twist of 3 in the 10-ft length.
151. Determine the minimum diam of a brass shaft which will meet the specifica-
tions indicated in Prob. 150.
152. A 17S-T aluminum alloy tube 6 ft long is to transmit a torque of 1600 in-lb
with a maximum shearing stress of 10,000 psi. and a maximum angle of twist
of 10. If the outside diam of the tube is 2 in., determine the minimum wall
thickness required.
153. For what ratio of inside diam to outside diam of tube may the torque be com-
puted as the maximum stress times the area of cross section times the outside
radius with an error of less than 10 per cent? Is the error on the safe or unsafe
side?
154. A 3-in. by 1-1/2-in. solid circular steel shaft is loaded as shown in Fig. P-154.
Determine
(a) the maximum shearing unit stress in the shaft and state where it occurs,
(b) the angle of twist at the right end of the 3-in. portion of the shaft with
respect to its initial unstrained position.
Probs. 144-160
103
TORSION
/5OO
Coup/e
300 ft -to
Coup/e
1
/h.
(C
(
\\7
V
6ft
5ft
155.
P-154
The 4-in. diam shaft shown in Fig. P-155 consists of brass and steel sections
rigidly connected. Determine the maximum allowable torque which may be
applied as indicated if the unit shearing stresses in the brass and the steel are
not to exceed 7000 psi. and 10,000 psi., respectively, and the angle of twist at
the free end is not to exceed 0.05 rad.
n. d/'am -^ | 7"
(r
Stee/
I
Brass
A
>.*
K. 3ft
5ft
D
P-155
156. A stepped steel shaft consists of a 4-ft length of 3-in. diam and a 3-ft length of
2-in. diam solid shafting. The maximum allowable shearing stress is 12,000
psi. and the maximum allowable angle of twist in the 7-ft length is 0.04 rad.
Determine the maximum torque which the shaft is permitted to transmit.
157. Determine the minimum permissible diam of a solid circular steel shaft 5 ft
long which is to transmit a torque of 3000 ft-Ib with a maximum allowable
shearing unit stress of 16,000 psi. and a maximum allowable angle of twist of
0.084 rad.
158. A 2-in. diam solid steel shaft 5 ft long is fixed at one end and is subjected to
two twisting moments of opposite sense. One twisting moment acts at the free
end and has a magnitude of 10,000 in-Ib. The other twisting moment acts 2 ft
from the free end and is of unknown magnitude. If the maximum shearing unit
stress in the shaft is 12,000 psi.,
(a) determine the maximum shearing stress in the outer 24 in.,
(b) determine the magnitude of the rotation of the free end when both tor-
sional loads are removed.
159. Determine the horsepower which a 10-in. diam steel shaft will transmit at
200 rpm if the maximum shearing unit stress is 15,000 psi.
160. The shaft of a Diesel engine is to transmit 360 hp at 240 rpm. Determine the
minimum diam of the shaft required if the shearing unit stress is not to exceed
12,000 psi.
104
Chap. 3
161. A steel shaft 20 ft long and 4 in. in diam must not twist more than 0.06 rad
and the maximum stress must not exceed 11,000 psi. Determine the maximum
power which this shaft will transmit at 270 rpm.
162. A steel shaft 12 ft long is to transmit 1050 hp at 225 rpm without having the
angle of twist exceed 1.2 or having the shearing stress exceed 12,000 psi. What
minimum diam of steel shaft is required?
163. Under certain operating conditions a steel shaft 30 in. in diam and 8 ft long
develops a maximum shearing unit stress of 12,000 psi. Determine the angle
of twist in a 6-ft length of the steel shaft if it is rotating at 240 rpm.
164. The steel propeller shaft on a certain airplane is 16 ft long and is to transmit
1800 hp at 2400 rpm.
(a) Determine the diam of steel shaft required if the shearing unit stress in the
shaft is not to exceed 12,000 psi.
(b) Determine the displacement of a point on the tip of a 12-ft diam pro-
peller resulting from the twist in the shaft if the propeller is geared down
to 900 rpm.
165. The rear axle in a certain automobile transmits 40 hp at 900 rpm.
(a) Determine the minimum diam if the maximum unit shearing stress is not
to exceed 8000 psi.
(b) Determine the angle of twist in a 3-ft length.
166. A motor delivers 160 hp at 1800 rpm to a gear box which reduces the speed to
200 rpm to drive a crusher. If the maximum torsional stress in the steel shaft-
ing is not to exceed 15,000 psi., determine
(a) the size of steel shafting required between the motor and gear box,
(b) the size of steel shafting between gear box and crusher,
(c) the total angle of twist in each steel shaft if each is 6 ft long. Neglect any
loss of power in the gear box.
167. Determine the diam of steel shaft required for each of the portions indicated in
Fig. P-167 if the motor at the left end develops 40 hp and runs at 1800 rpm.
Neglect bending in the shaft, and use an allowable shearing stress of 24,000
psi. Determine the total angle of twist from the motor to pulley B.
tf fee/6
r
==
tQfy
30 1, 'f\.
4ft
=1
__
96 teeth
\_
=
"""' ffft
I-
8ft
. *
->
P-167
168. Explain why the tensile strength of a material may control the amount of
torque a shaft of the material will transmit.
169. A plaster of Paris cylinder 2-1/2 in. in diam and 18 in. long was tested in
torsion. At a torque of 80.4 in-Ib it failed along a spiral making an angle of
Probs. 161-180 TORSION 105
45 with the longitudinal axis of the cylinder. Determine the tensile stress
developed at failure across the plane of fracture. The stress-strain diagram for
plaster of Paris is a straight line to the ultimate.
170. A tube with an outside diam of 3 in. and a wall thickness of 1/16 in. is sub-
jected to a torque of 600 ft-Ib. The tube has a spiral weld making an angle of
30 with a longitudinal axis of the shaft. Determine the normal stress and
shearing stress developed on the weld.
171. A steel tube with an inside diam of 2 in. and a wall thickness of 1/4 in. is
fabricated with a spiral weld making an angle of 60 with the longitudinal axis
of the tube. If the maximum allowable shearing stress along the welded section
is 8000 psi., determine the maximum torque which the tube will transmit.
172. A Douglas fir torsion specimen, made by turning down a 20-in. length of the
material to a 2-in. diam in the center, failed by splitting longitudinally. Was
this reasonable, or did it indicate a defective specimen?
173. Show how the modulus of rigidity may be evaluated from a laboratory test of a
cylinder subjected to torsion.
174. A fillet with a radius of 1/16 in. is used at the section where a 1-1/2-in. shaft is
turned down to a 1-in. diam. Determine the maximum torsional stress de-
veloped in the shaft by a torque of 200 ft-Ib.
175. An 8-in. diam shaft is turned down to a 6-in. diam with a 1/4-in. radius fillet.
Determine the maximum torque which the shaft will be permitted to transmit
if the torsional stress is not to exceed 12,000 psi.
176. Determine the limiting radius of fillet which should be used at a section where
a 5-in. shaft is turned down to a diam of 4 in., if the maximum stress at the fillet
is not to exceed 12,000 psi. when the maximum stress in the 4-in. diam portion
is 8000 psi.
177. Two steel shafts 12 in. in diam were placed end to end and welded around the
outside with a bead 1/2 in. thick. Determine the maximum torque which the
resultant shaft will transmit if the shearing stress in the weld is not to exceed
6000 psi., and determine the maximum stress in one of the shafts at a distance
of 16 in. from the weld.
178. Two 30-in. diam shafts are connected by flanges which are bolted together
with sixteen 4-in. diam bolts located around the flanges at a distance of 18 in.
from the center. Determine the maximum torque which may be transmitted
through the coupling if the stress in the bolts is not to exceed 9000 psi.
179. Two 4-in. diam shafts are connected by a pair of flanges which are held to-
gether with 1/2-in. diam structural steel bolts. If the maximum shearing unit
stress in the shaft is 12,000 psi., determine the number of bolts required to
transmit the corresponding torque. The bolts are set on a bolt circle having a
diam of 6 in.
180. Determine the maximum torque which the connection indicated in Fig. P-180
will resist if the maximum shearing stress in the 1/2-in. rivets is not to excede
10,000 psi.
106
Chap. 4
o
-o
-o
P-180
181. How much will the resistance of the joint of Fig. P-180 to torque be increased
by the addition of a fourth equally spaced rivet?
182. A plate 8 in. wide and 1/2 in. thick is to be attached at right angles to a
second plate of the same dimensions by means of 1/2-in. rivets. Determine
the number of rivets required and a suitable pattern for them if the maximum
shearing stress at the rivets is not to exceed 10,000 psi. for a torque of 10,000
ft-Ib.
183. Determine the maximum shearing stress developed in the four 1-in. bolts of
the joint in Fig. P-183 when it is subjected to a torque of 16,000 ft-Ib.
0
0
ô
6/f?.
P-183
184. By what percentage will the resistance of the joint of Fig. P-183 be increased
by the addition of 1-in. bolts at A and Bl
185. Each of the four rivets indicated in Fig. P-185 has a diam of 3/4 in. Determine
the shearing stress on rivet A.
Probs. 181-188
107
TORSION
IO
/O,OOO/t>
6/n.
P-185
186. Determine the average unit shearing stress on rivet A of Fig. P-186.
4 in. 4 in
P-186
187. A 6000-Ib load is to be applied to a plate which is attached to a vertical mem-
ber with 1-in. diam rivets as shown in Fig. P-187(a) or P-187(6). Which ar-
rangement would produce the greatest average shearing stress in any of the
rivets? Determine the value of the maximum unit shearing stress for this ar-
rangement.
188. Each of the rivets in the joint shown in Fig. P-188 has a diam of 1 in.
(a) Which of the three rivets develops the highest average shearing stress?
Why?
(b) Determine the average shearing stress in this rivet.
108
Chap. 3
/Oin.
P-187
40OO/&
P-188
189. The riveted joint shown in Fig. P-189 transmits the load P as indicated
through rivets 3/4 in. in diam. Determine the maximum value of P if the
average shearing unit stress in rivet A is not to exceed 12,000 psi.
Probs. 189-192
109
TORSION
4 in. -5 in. \ P
O AO
0 0
0 0
P-189
190. A load P is applied to a plate which is riveted to a support with 1-in. diam
rivets as shown in Fig. P-190. Determine the maximum value of P if the
maximum allowable shearing unit stress in the rivets is 10,000 psi.
o
o
o
P-190
191. Two steel tubes 36 in. in diam by 1/16 in. thick are to be spliced by expanding
one tube slightly, slipping it over the end of the other, and riveting. Determine
the number of 1/4-in. diam rivets required to develop the full strength of the
tube if the allowable shearing stress in the tube and rivets is 9000 psi.
192. A sheet of aluminum alloy 24S-T is 8 ft long, 48 in. wide, and 0.051 in. thick.
It is to be fabricated into a tube 8 ft long by bending the strip and welding the
edges together. Determine
(a) the optimum cross-sectional dimensions for resistance to torque if the cross
section is to be rectangular,
(b) the optimum cross-sectional dimensions for resistance to torque if the
sheet may be bent to any shape,
(c) the maximum torque which the completed tube in (a) or (b) will develop
if the shearing stress is not to exceed 10,000 psi.
110
Chap. 3
193. Determine the optimum cross section for a rectangular tube having a wall
thickness of 1/8 in. and an inside area of 48 sq in. if one side of the tube must
be between 4 in. and 8 in. in length. Evaluate the maximum torque which the
cross section will develop for a maximum shearing stress of 8000 psi.
194. A rectangular tube has a wall thickness of 1/16 in. and an internal cross section
6 in. by 12 in. Determine the maximum torque which the tube will resist if the
shearing stress is not to exceed 6000 psi.
195. An aluminum alloy tube is 1/16 in. thick and has a rectangular cross section
with outside dimensions 4-1/16 in. by 6-1/16 in. If the tube is subjected to a
torque of 2500 ft-lb, determine the maximum force developed by each of the
four sides.
196.
The cross section of the wing of a certain airplane may be approximated as
indicated in Fig. P-196. Determine the maximum stress developed in the cross
section by a torque of 12,000 ft-lb.
a ore in.
~0040-ih
0.040//7.
0.030 m./
40//7.
P-196
197. Determine the maximum torque to which an elliptical tube with outside di-
mensions of 6 in. by 4 in. and wall thickness of 0.063 in. may be subjected if
the maximum stress is not to exceed 8000 psi.
198. A helical spring made of a 1-in. diam steel rod consists of fifteen turns with a
pitch of 3/4 in. on a 6-in. helix. Determine the maximum allowable load for the
spring if the allowable unit shearing stress is 8000 psi.
199. Determine the deflection of the spring in Prob. 198 when the maximum tor-
sional stress is 8000 psi. and evaluate the energy stored in the spring under
that condition.
200. A helical spring is made by winding 2.5 ft of 1/2-in. steel rod around a 3-1/2-in.
cylinder. Determine
(a) the torsional unit shearing stress produced by a load which stretches the
spring 0.3 in., neglecting the deflection due to direct shear, and
(b) the average magnitude of nontorsional shearing unit stress developed in
the spring when it is stretched 0.3 in.
201. A helical spring with a mean diam of 6 in. is made with a 1-in. diam steel rod.
If the spring carries an axial load of 600 lb, determine
(a) the maximum unit shearing stress in the rod,
(b) the deflection of the spring,
(c) the total energy stored in the spring.
Probs. 193-209
111
TORSION
202. A spring with an external diam of 1 in. is formed from 1/16-in. diam steel rod.
If the unstretched length of the spring is 8 in. and it contains eighty turns, de-
termine the total elongation of the spring for a maximum stress of 20,000 psi.
What magnitude of load is required to produce this deflection?
203. A coiled spring having an inside diam of 3 in. and an outside diam of 3-1/2 in.
is subjected to a load of 2000 Ib. Determine the amount which the spring will
stretch in a length of 16 in.
204. If possible, design a spring to be wound from 1-in. diam rod if it is to have a
maximum deflection of 1/2 in. and a torsional stress not greater than 40,000
psi. when subjected to a load of 2000 Ib.
205. A hollow circular brass shaft with an outside diam of 4 in. and an inside diam
of 2 in. is rigidly attached outside of a 2-in. diam steel shaft for its entire
length. Determine the maximum shearing unit stress developed in each ma-
terial if the composite shaft is subjected to a torque of 10,000 ft-Ib.
206. An aluminum rod 1-1/4 in. in diam is used as a shaft. Determine the thickness
of hollow steel tubing which must be attached outside of the aluminum rod
(a) in order to increase the torsional resistance 50 per cent, (b) in order to
decrease the angle of twist for a given torque 50 per cent. Assume that the
maximum allowable shearing stress in the aluminum is 8000 psi. and in the
steel is 10,000 psi.
207. In order to increase the torsional resistance of a brass rod 2 in. in diam, a
1/16-in. thick steel tube is rigidly attached as indicated in Fig. P-207. De-
termine the increase in the torque required to produce a maximum stress of
8000 psi. in the brass.
Braze
P-207
208. Determine the maximum shearing stress developed in the composite shaft of
Fig. P-208 if the unit is subjected to a torque of 8000 ft-Ib.
3-in. 00
P-208
209. A hollow steel shaft with an inside diam of 2 in. and an outside diam of 4 in. is
cased with a Monel Metal tube with an inside diam of 4 in. and an outside
diam of 4-1/4 in. If the maximum allowable shearing stress in the steel is
10,000 psi. and in the Monel Metal is 14,000 psi., determine
(a) the maximum allowable torque which the shaft can transmit,
(b) the angle of twist in a 6-ft length when subjected to the maximum torque.
210. A 1-1/2-in. diam cold-rolled steel shaft, for which the maximum allowable
torsional stress is 24,000 psi., has been found to corrode badly in a certain
installation. It is proposed to replace the shaft with one in which an aluminum
alloy tube 1/4 in. thick is bonded to the 1-1/2-in. diam cold-rolled steel shaft.
If the maximum allowable torsional stress in the aluminum alloy is 12,000 psi.,
determine
(a) the maximum torque which the original shaft would be permitted to
transmit,
(b) the maximum allowable torque for the proposed replacement.
211. A composite shaft is made up of a steel core 1-1/2 in. in diam covered by a
brass tube with an inside diam of 1-1/2 in. and a wall thickness of 1/4 in.
which is in turn covered by an aluminum alloy tube with an inside diam of 2 in.
and a wall thickness of 1/8 in., the three materials being bonded so that they
act as a unit. Determine
(a) the maximum torsional stress developed in each material when the as-
sembly is subjected to a torque of 1000 ft-Ib,
(b) the angle of twist in an 8-ft length when the assembly is transmitting a
torque of 1000 ft-Ib.
CHAPTER 4
STRESSES IN FLEXURAL MEMBERS
44. Types of Flexural Members.In general, flexural members (com-
monly called beams) are members which are designed primarily to support
transverse forces or loads, and as such are important components of prac-
tically every engineering structure or machine.
Beams may be classified as straight or curved, and may also be classified
on the basis of type of support. A beam which merely rests on supports (one
of which is usually assumed to be a roller, in order to eliminate longitudinal
components of the reactions) or which is attached at the ends in such a way
that the ends are free to rotate but are prevented from deflecting is known
as a simple beam, while one which is rigidly held at one end and is free at
Sketch of |
Beam 77<X
I
n
Conventional
Diagram
A
(a) Simple Beam
(6) Cantilever Beam
i n
i 1 j 4. i i
(c) Simple Beam
with Overhang
(ctj Fixed Beam
Fig. 47. Types of beams.
113
the other is called a cantilever. These and other types are indicated in
Fig. 47.
A load which is distributed over a relatively short length is usually as-
sumed to be concentrated along the line of action of the resultant as indi-
cated in Fig. 47(a). In general, it is convenient to represent a beam by a
single line as shown in the conventional diagrams. A reaction which permits
rotation but not free deflection is indicated by an arrow designating a force,
and a reaction which permits neither rotation nor deflection is indicated as
at the left end of the beam of Fig. 47(6). Both a vertical force (to resist
deflection) and a couple, or moment, (to resist rotation) will be developed
at the fixed end.
The first three beams shown in Fig. 47 are called statically determinate
beams because their reactions may be evaluated by use of the equations of
statics alone. For example, the beam in Fig. 47(a) has an unknown reaction
800/6
at each end, but the reactions may be evaluated from two moment equa-
tions of equilibrium. The cantilever beam of Fig. 47(6) has two unknown
reactionsa force and a couple at the left end. The beam of Fig. 47 (d) is
statically indeterminate; a force and a couple are required at each end to
prevent deflection and rotation, making four unknowns. Since only two
independent equations of equilibrium may be written for this type of force
system, two additional equations are required for the solution. Methods of
solving for the reactions in statically indeterminate beams are described in
Chap. 6.
In general, any load on a beam requires a force and a moment to be de-
veloped at any cross section of the beam for it to remain in equilibrium.
The force, which lies in the plane of the cross section, is called the shear;
and the moment, which lies in a plane perpendicular to the crocs section, is
called the bending moment. For example, if the simply supported beam of
Fig. 48 is 12 ft long and carries a concentrated load of 2400 Ib 4 ft from the
Art. 45
115
left end, it is subjected to both moment and shear at almost every cross
section. The magnitude of the moment and shear at a given cross section,
such as one 2 ft from the left end, may be determined readily by means of
one or more free-body diagrams. From the free-body diagram of Fig. 48(a)
and the equations of equilibrium, the left reaction is found to be 1600 Ib.
From Fig. 48(6) the shear at a point 2 ft from the left end is found to be
1600 Ib and the moment is 3200 ft-lb. Techniques of evaluation of shear and
moment are discussed in more detail in Arts. 46 and 47.
The moment which is developed at any cross section in the beam will
produce tensile and compressive stresses normal to the cross section, and
shearing stresses in the plane of the cross section. Techniques for evaluating
the tensile and compressive stresses are outlined in Art. 45, while the tech-
niques for evaluating the stresses caused by the shear are discussed in
Art. 49.
45. Flexural Stresses.The stresses which are produced at any cross
section in a beam by the action of the moment at that section may be
Fig. 49
evaluated by combining information coming from statics, from the geometry
of the distorted beam, and from the properties of the material of which the
beam is composed. It will be assumed that all loads and reactions lie in a
plane perpendicular to the plane of the cross section on which the stresses
are being investigated. Obviously, the moment lies in the plane of the loads.
(1) Statics.The resultant moment acting at a section such as A B in the
beam of Fig. 48 (a) or 49 (a) may be considered to consist of two forces,
T and C, one of which produces tension and the other of which produces
compression on the cross section as shown in Fig. 49(6). However, these
forces are not actually concentrated at two points as indicated in Fig. 49(6);
the forces T and C represent the resultants of the tensile and compressive
forces which are in reality distributed over the cross section of the beam as
indicated in Fig. 49(c).
Each of the arrows in Fig. 49(c) may be considered to represent the dif-
ferential force which is developed on a differential area of cross section, and
each may be evaluated as S da in which S is the magnitude of the stress
on that particular differential area. It is apparent that the resultant of all
the differential forces acting on the cross section must be equal to the
couple, M, developed at the section. This couple will, in turn, be equal to
the moment of the external forces (reactions and loads) acting on one side
of the section, if the beam is in equilibrium. The moment of the external
forces is known as the bending moment and the moment of the S da forces is
called the resisting moment. Both moments lie in the plane of the loads.
Since the stresses produced at the cross section are normal stresses and
since the cross section is assumed to be plane, the differential forces (S da)
developed on each of the differential areas of the cross section form a
parallel force system. In order that the resultant of the parallel force
system be a couple of magnitude M,
(47)
or
and
or
(47a)
(48)
M, (48a)
in which
y is the moment arm of each dFx with respect to a convenient axis
perpendicular to the plane of the loads.
The integrals in Eqs. (47a) and (48a) cannot be evaluated directly since
both S and y vary across the cross section. Before the integration can be
Art. 45
117
performed, the variation of <S with y must be known. This information may
be obtained by considering the geometry of a portion of the beam and the
properties of the material of which the beam is composed.
(2} Geometry.Fig. 50 represents a differential length (00') of the beam
c' c' V/
Fig. 50
adjacent to the cut section ABCD of Fig. 49. When the beam is loaded,
it bends, the bending being a result of the compression or shortening of the
top portion of the beam and the tension or elongation of the bottom portion
of the beam. Hence, the short length of the beam which originally was
rectangular will become trapezoidal. Careful observations and measure-
ments on beams show that a cross section which is plane before a beam is
loaded remains plane after the beam is loaded. Hence, section ABCD in
Fig. 50 rotates to A'B'C'D' relative to the adjacent cross section EF with
the lines A'B' and C'D' remaining straight. The axis 00 about which the
plane ABCD rotates is called the neutral axis of the cross section.
Any point G, at a distance y from the neutral axis, will move to G'. From
the similar triangles OBB' and OGG' it is apparent that the total strain
within the length 00' at any point in the cross section of the beam varies
directly as the distance of that point from the line 00 along which there is
no longitudinal strain. That is,
GG' y (At*
(49)
_
BE'
=
c
or
e,
(50)
However, the original lengths of all deformed portions (BF, GH, etc.) are
the same; hence, the unit strain is proportional to the distance from the
neutral axis and
(51)
(3) Properties of the Material.A consideration of the statics of the
free-body diagram led to a pair of equations involving stress. A considera-
tion of the geometry of the cross section led to the information that the unit
strain varies directly as the distance from an axis through some point in
the cross section. It is obvious that these two factors, stress and strain, may
be interrelated if the properties of the material are known. In general,
stresses in engineering materials are held to values below the proportional
limit. Hence, a usable expression for the relationship between the stress and
moment may be developed on the basis of the assumption that the pro-
portional limit of the material is not exceeded. Eq. (51) may be written
Ety
Eec
= 1.
(51a)
c
However, if the proportional limit is i
lot exc
seded
Ety
= Sy,
(52)
in which
Therefore,
Etc = <->c,
(53)
and
Sy
is the stress at
is the stress at
a distance y
a distance c
from the neutral
from the neutral
axis
axis.
Sc
Sy
= i.
(54)
So
c
That is, the flexural stress varies directly as the distance from the neutral
axis. In the beam of Fig. 50 all portions of the cross section above the
neutral axis are subjected to compression, and all portions below the neutral
axis are in tension. The value of Sv from Eq. (54) may be substituted back
into Eq. (47), giving
"A
^ da = 0. (55)
/:
Since Sc and c are constant for a given cross section, they may be taken out-
side of the integral sign, and Eq. (55) reduces to
"A
-- 0. (56)
It will be recognized that this condition is satisfied only if the axis from
which y is measured is a centroidal axis of the cross section. Therefore,
the neutral axis of the cross section must be a centroidal axis.
The value of Sy as determined from Eq. (54) may also be substituted into
Eq. (48) giving
Art. 45
119
/M
/ - y*da = M.
Jo c
As before, Sc/c may be taken outside of the integral sign, giving
f>A
o /
/ y2da = M.
c
(57)
(58)
The integral will be recognized as the moment of inertia of the area of the
cross section with respect to the neutral axis. Hence,
or
I = M
c'
Me
I'
(59)
(60)
The stress at any point in the cross section may be evaluated by substitut-
ing S from Eq. (54) into Eq. (60).
(61)
e -
Sv-
Each equation, Eq. (60) and Eq. (61), is known as the flexure formula.
From them the stress at any point in the cross section of a beam may be
evaluated.
The beam of Fig. 48 has the cross section indicated in Fig. 51. Determine (a) the
//*
Zin.
/;*
2/n.
'_////////,
\
-
\
C
I
<
4 in.
\
(a)
Fig. 51
120 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Chap 4
maximum tensile stress at section AB, (b) the maximum compressive stress at
section AB, and (c) the magnitude of the total compressive force developed at
section AB.
Solution: In general, a problem of this type is solved by the following procedure.
(a) From a free-body diagram evaluate the bending moment at the section under
consideration.
(b) Determine the pertinent properties of the cross section, that is, the location
of the neutral axis and the moment of inertia with respect to the neutral axis.
(c) Apply the flexure formula.
A suitable free-body diagram for determining the moment at section AB is the
one shown in Fig. 48(6), from v/hich the moment is evaluated as 3200 ft-Ib. For use
in the flexure formula, the moment must normally be expressed in in-Ib since the
stress is in psi., the distance c is measured in in., and the moment of inertia ex-
pressed in in.4 The'n the flexure formula becomes
Ib _ in-Ib (in.) , .
m7= in.4
which is dimensionally correct. Therefore,
M = 3200 (12) (b)
= 38,400 in-Ib. (c)
The location of the centroid of the cross section may be determined by taking mo-
ments of area with respect to a convenient axis. With a reference axis selected at the
junction of the web and the flange, the moment equation
becomes
y - (d)
= 0.50 in. (0
Since the section is symmetrical with respect to a vertical axis, the centroid is at
point C in Fig. 51 (a), and the neutral axis is OO because the plane of the loads co-
incides with the axis of symmetry.
The moment of inertia with respect to the centroidal axis may be evaluated as
= 49.33 in4. (h)
(a) The tensile stress will be a maximum at the bottom of the beam and may be
determined from the flexure formula as
38,400 (2.5)
St - 49.33
= 1950 psi. (j)
(b) The compressive stress is a maximum at the top of the beam and is, from
Eq. (58),
, _ 38,400 (3.5) ...
A<- ~493T~ Ui)
= 2730 psi. (1)
Art. 46 STRESSES IN FLEXURAL MEMBERS 121
(c) The total compressive force developed at the section may be evaluated as the
resultant of the differential compressive forces developed on differential areas on the
compression side of the neutral axis. The most convenient area to select will be a
strip of differential height parallel to the neutral axis as shown in Fig. 51(6). The
magnitude of the differential area is 2dy. The stress developed at an elevation y
above the neutral axis is, from Eq. (59),
S" = "49.33~ = 780y- (m)
The resultant compressive force is, therefore,
"A
da (o)
3.6
780y(w)dy (p)
=/;
= 9555 Ib. (q)
The same result may be obtained by a somewhat shorter procedure in this case,
since the area in compression is of constant width. The compressive stress varies
linearly from zero at the neutral axis to 2730 psi. at the top of the beam so the
average stress is 1365 psi. The area over which the stress is developed is 7 sq in.
Therefore, the resultant compressive force is
F, = 1365 (7) = 9555 Ib, (r)
which-agrees with the result obtained by the integration procedure. Similarly, the
total tensile force is
Ft = K390) (1) + i(390 + 1950)8 (s)
= 9555 Ib, (t)
which is equal to the compressive force as is required by the conditions of equi-
librium.
\
46. Limitations of the Flexure Formula.The flexure formula, Eq. (60)
or Eq. (61), is subject to a number of limitations which were introduced in
the derivation of the equations. These limitations may be classified as
limitations of statics, of geometry, and of properties of the material.
(1) Statics.(a) The beam is in equilibrium; that is, the equation does
not hold if the beam is loaded rapidly, as under an impact load, and is not
valid if vibration occurs. However, these limitations are primarily limita-
tions in evaluating the moment. If the bending moment is known or can be
determined for the impact or the vibrating load, the stress may be assumed
to be as given by Eqs. (60) or (61), unless the accelerations are abnormally
high.
(b) The moment M is the moment with respect to the neutral axis of the
cross section. This condition, which was used in writing Eq. (48), tacitly
assumes that the beam is loaded so that the resultant moment at the cross
section lies in a plane perpendicular to the neutral axis. If not, another
component of moment would exist which, in turn, would cause stress with
reference to a centroidal axis at right angles to the neutral axis determined
by Eq. (54). It may be shown that, for the flexure formula to be valid, the
resultant bending moment must lie in (or be perpendicular to) a plane of
symmetry; then, the neutral axis will be perpendicular to the plane of the
moments. In .other words, the flexure formula applies to beams having a
symmetrical cross section only if the beam is loaded so that the resultant
moment lies in (or is perpendicular to) the plane of symmetry.* If these
conditions are not satisfied, the flexure formula is not valid, and other
techniques of evaluating the stress must be used as described in advanced
texts in Mechanics of Materials.
(c) The beam is subjected to no axial stress. If external axial load is ap-
plied to the beam, the resultant stress at any point in the cross section will
be a combination of the stress due to the axial load and the stress due to the
moment M. It should be noted that under certain conditions, the axial
load may cause bending, the effect of which must be added to the bending
produced by the transverse loads.
(2) Geometry.(d) A cross section of the beam which is plane before
bending remains plane after bending. This assumption was introduced in
obtaining an expression for the variation of the unit strain across the cross
section. There is no theoretical basis for this assumption, but it has been
verified repeatedly in the laboratory, even for stresses appreciably above
the proportional limit of the material.
(e) There must be no abrupt change in cross section. A sudden change in
cross section or a change which involves a fillet with a short radius will re-
sult in stress concentration, and the actual stress may be more than three
times the stress as computed by the ordinary flexure formula.
(f) The beam is assumed to be straight. If appreciable curvature of the
beam is present, the total strains in a given length will be proportional to
the distance from the neutral axis, but the unit strain will be greater on the
side nearer the center of curvature than on the other side because of the
shorter gage lengths involved. It may be shown that the ordinary flexure
formula gives results correct within 10 per cent if the depth of the beam
is more than five times the radius of curvature.
(3) Properties of the Material.(g) It is assumed that the stresses are
below the proportional limit of the material. If the stresses exceed the pro-
* If the cross section does not have an axis of symmetry, the flexure formula is not
valid unless the plane of the bending moment contains one of the principal centroidal
axes of inertia of the cross section. A principal axis is one with respect to which the mo-
ment of inertia is a maximum or minimum.
portional limit, Eq. (50) will be invalid even though the unit strain is pro-
portional to the distance from the neutral axis.
(h) The material of which the beam is composed is homogeneous and
isotropic. If these conditions are violated, a cross section that is plane before
bending will not necessarily remain plane after bending, and the stress will
not everywhere be proportional to distances from the neutral axis.
Despite the eight preceding limitations, most beams are designed on the
basis of the flexure formula, Eqs. (60) or (61). A number of the exceptions,
such as those indicated in (a), (b), (c), (e), (f), (g), and (h), invalidate the
flexure formula, but analyses are still available for evaluating stresses.
They may be obtained by reference to a number of advanced texts.
In the ordinary use of the flexure formula, it is apparent that the moment
of inertia of the cross section and the distance from the neutral axis to the
point at which the stress is determined must be known. In many cases, the
stress desired is the maximum stress at the given cross section; then, the
moment of inertia / and the distance c to the extreme fiber may be com-
bined into the one quantity generally known as the section modulus. The
section modulus, Z, is evaluated as
Z = - (62)
c
If this is substituted into Eq. (60), it becomes
S. = ~ (63)
Values of the section modulus for standard rolled and extruded sections
may be found in handbooks.
The other quantity which must be evaluated before the stress at a given
section may be determined is the moment M. In some beams, it is necessary
to determine only the maximum value of the moment in the beam. In other
cases, the moment must be known at intermediate points. As is described
in Art. 49, the shear at the cross section also produces stress; hence, its
value usually must be obtained as well as the value for the moment. Since
both the shear and the moment are required and since the two are related by
statics, they both are usually evaluated before stresses are determined; and
diagrams known as shear diagrams and moment diagrams are constructed
for the beam.
47. Shear Diagrams.The total vertical shear at a cross section is the
transverse force (resultant force lying in the plane of the cross section)
which must be developed at that section if the beam is to remain in equi-
librium. The total vertical shear may be found from a free-body diagram of
the portion of the beam on one side of the section under consideration, and
124
Chap. 4
(a)
(/>)
120 /b per fr
11111111111
UJ
/2 ft
#, -600 /b
y \/20 x
600/t>
rt
'V,
240/b
fft'600/b
600/b
(c)
Shear Diagram
240/b
x,
1 '--^_--
1
1 -360/b
~360/b
240/b
0
Id)
600/b
/20(8) I- 960/b 1
i/r*
1
(e)
<9>
-480ft-/b
Fig. 52. Shear and moment diagrams.
the shear diagram is a diagram indicating the variation in the total vertical
shear throughout the length of the beam. The shear diagram is useful, not
only for aid in evaluating the shearing stresses in the beam, but also for
constructing the moment diagram.
Art. 47
125
The method of constructing the shear diagram is essentially one of de-
termining the shear at a number of cross sections of the beam and plotting
the values at their proper stations along the beam. However, a number of
short cuts may be used in the construction as is illustrated in the following
problem.
A beam 14 ft long is simply supported at the left end and 2 ft from the right end.
It carries a uniform load of 120 Ib per ft over the left 8 ft and carries a concentrated
load of 240 Ib at the free end. Construct the shear diagram.
Solution: The first step is to make a sketch of the beam suitable for use as a free-
body diagram to determine the reactions. An appropriate sketch is shown in Fig.
52(a). By statics, the reactions are found to be 600 Ib each. A general expression
for the equation of the shear diagram in the left 8 ft of the beam may be determined
by constructing a free-body diagram, as illustrated in Fig. 52(6). A convenient
origin is selected, in this case the left end, and the x-axis is taken along the beam. At
the left end the reaction Ri = 600 Ib is acting upward, and the resultant load of
120x is acting downward at a distance of x/2 from the left end. These forces must
be balanced by a force (the shear) Vx and a moment M, at the cut section. If the
sense of the force or the couple is not apparent, it may be assumed and the algebraic
sign of the result will indicate whether or not the proper direction was assumed.
The sign convention commonly used for shear in a beam is as indicated in Fig.
53(a). If the shearing force on the right-hand end of the free-body diagram of a
(a) Pos/t/ve Shear
'JC
30
(6) Positive Moment
Fig. 53. Sign convention for shear and moment.
differential length at the cross section under consideration is downward, the shear
is positive. In Fig. 52(6) a positive shear is assumed. In order to avoid difficulties
with signs it is recommended that the shear always be assumed positive. The result
should, of course, always be checked for reasonableness.
The magnitude of the shear may be determined from the force equation of equi-
librium written in the y direction, with upward forces designated as positive.
from which
-ZF, = 0,
600 - 120s - Vx = 0,
V, = 600 - 120x.
(a)
(b)
(c)
The shear at any section less than 8 ft from the left end may be evaluated from
Eq. (c) and plotted, or that portion of the diagram may be sketched directly by
noting that the graph of Eq. (c) is a straight line starting with an ordinate of 600 lb
at x = 0 and decreasing with a constant slope of 120 lb per ft toward the right. The
magnitude of the slope equals the intensity of the uniform load in lb per ft. Eq. (c)
is valid only from the left end to the section 8 ft from the left end, and is not valid
for values of x greater than 8 because the character of the load changes at x = 8 ft.
For x = 8 ft, the shear is 360 lb as given by Eq. (c). Hence, the shear diagram
for the left 8 ft of the beam is the straight sloping line in Fig. 52(f). Negative values
of shear mean that the shearing force on the right of the cut section is upward in-
stead of downward as shown in Fig. 52(6).
To evaluate the shear between 8 and 12 ft from the left end of the beam, a new
free-body diagram must be used. The diagram of the left portion of the beam is
shown in Fig. 52(d). As before, a positive shear is assumed on the free-body diagram,
even though it is known that the shear is negative. The force equation of equi-
librium applied to this free-body diagram gives
IFy = 0, (d)
600 - 120 (8) - V, = 0, (e)
from which
Vx = - 360 lb. (f)
The minus sign indicates that the shear is not positive, as assumed, but negative.
The fact that the expression for Vx does not contain x shows that the shear is
constant. Hence the shear diagram, Fig. 52(c), is horizontal from x = 8 to x = 12.
Between the right reaction and the right end, an additional free-body diagram must
be constructed. One possibility is indicated in Fig. 52(e). Again the force equation
of equilibrium may be applied.
*F = 0, (g)
600 - 120 (8) + 600 - Vx = 0, (h)
from which
Vx = 2401b. (i)
The same result could have been obtained by using the free-body diagram of the
portion of the beam between the cut section and the right end, Fig. 51(/). From this
2F = 0, (j)
Vx - 240 = 0, (k)
or
V. = 240 lb. (1)
Hence the shear diagram is a straight horizontal line from x = 12 ft to the right end
of the beam. Beyond the right end of the beam the shear is, of course, zero.
It will be noted that the shear diagram may be traced by working from the left
end to the right end from a consideration of the loads and forces acting on the beam.
Just to the left of the left reaction, the shear is zero. Just to the right of the left re-
action, the shear must be equal to the left reaction or 600 lb. From x = 0toa; = 8ft
the shear diagram must drop at the rate of 120 lb per ft since that increment of load
on the top of the beam is opposing the left reaction. This continues to x = 8, at
which point the shear is 360 lb. For values of x between 8 ft and 12 ft there is no
change in the load. Hence there will be no change in the total vertical shear. Just
Art. 48 STRESSES IN FLEXTJRAL MEMBERS 127
to the right of the right reaction the shear must be increased by an amount equal to
the right reaction (600 Ib), making the total vertical shear equal to 360 + 600 or
240 Ib. For 12 < x < 14 there is no change in the load and consequently no change
in shear. At the right end of the beam the 240-Ib force brings the shear diagram
back to zero.
In reality the shear does not change abruptly at x = 0, x = 12 ft, and x = 14 ft.
A vertical rise in the diagram would be possible only if the reaction were actually
concentrated at a point (or along a line across the beam). Since the reaction (similar
to a concentrated load) is really distributed over a short length of the beam, the true
shear diagram would slope upward to the right sharply from a point just to the left
of the reaction to a point just to the right of the reaction. However, it is common
practice to use vertical lines to represent changes in shear caused by concentrated
loads or reactions unless the actual distribution of the load is known.
One additional important characteristic of the shear diagram is the point at which
the shear is equal to zero. This may be found from Eq. (c) or from the geometry of
the left-hand portion of the shear diagram. Since the slope of the diagram is 120 Ib
per ft,
600 c ,, , .
zl = 120 (m)
A shear diagram is useful in indicating the points along the beam at which maximum
resistance to shear must be developed. It is also useful in constructing the moment
diagram, as will be noted in the following article.
48. Moment Diagrams.The moment diagram indicates the variation in
bending moment or resisting moment along the beam. The bending moment
at a section is denned as the algebraic sum of the moments of the loads and
forces acting on the portion of the beam to one side of that section. The
resisting moment at any cross section is defined as the resultant moment
developed by the stresses acting on the cross section. Both the bending
moment and the resisting moment are moments with respect to the neutral
axis of the section under consideration. Obviously, the resisting moment
must be equal in magnitude to the bending moment if the beam is in equi-
librium. Consequently, the moment diagram is most conveniently de-
veloped from free-body diagrams, although it may be obtained from the
shear diagram for the beam as well.
A positive bending or resisting moment, as illustrated in Fig. 53(&), is
defined as one which acts to produce compression in the top of the cross
section, or which bends the beam so that the center of curvature is above
the beam.
Develop the moment diagram for the beam of Fig. 52.
Solution: As in the case of the shear diagram, the first step is to make a suitable
sketch of the beam. Then the moment diagram is obtained by evaluating the mo-
ment from an appropriate series of free-body diagrams of various portions of the
beam. In general, a separate free-body diagram is required for each section of the
beam in which there is a change in the loading. For 0 < x < 8 ft, the free-body dia-
gram of Fig. 52(6), in which Mx is assumed to be a positive moment, may be used.
A general equation for the moment in that portion may be developed from the
moment equation of equilibrium
ZM = 0, (a)
600s - 120a; (|) - M, = 0, (b)
from which Mx = 600a; - 60a;2. (c)
This is the equation of a parabola. Usually a satisfactory sketch of this portion of
the moment diagram may be made with the aid of three ordinates. One ordinate is
that of the left end, where x = 0 and M = 0; a second is the ordinate at the other
end of the range of the equation (x = 8 ft). By direct substitution, in Eq. (c),
Ma = 960 ft-lb. (d)
Then, the portion of the beam from x = 0 to x = 8 ft should be checked for maxi-
mum moment. This may be done by differentiating Eq. (c) and equating the deriva-
tive to 0.
^ = 600 - 120a; = 0, (e)
and
x = 5. (f)
Hence, the maximum moment will occur 5 ft from the left end and may be evaluated
from Eq. (c) as
M5 = 1500 ft-lb. (g)
The three ordinates, M 0, Mi, and M%, are sufficient to permit making a reasonable
sketch of the moment diagram as shown in Fig. 52(<7).
From x = 8 to x = 12 the free-body diagram of Fig. 52(d) may be used to de-
termine the bending moment. From the moment equation of equilibrium
sM = 0, (h)
600a; - 120 (8) (x - 4) - M. = 0. (i)
Therefore,
Mx = -360x + 3840. (j)
Since this is the equation of a straight line, the moment diagram will be a straight
line between x = 8 and x = 12. The value of the moment at x 8 may be de-
termined from Eq. (j) as M8 = 960 ft-lb, which agrees with the result obtained
from the moment equation between x = 0 and x = 8. The moment at x = 12 is
evaluated from Eq. (j) as MJ2 = 480 ft-lb. This value may be checked by con-
sidering the free-body diagram of the portion of the beam to the right of the right
reaction. From this diagram, Fig. 52(/), the moment equation of equilibrium gives
Mx = 240x ft-lb. The fact that the moment is negative is checked by noting that
the beam will bend so that the top fibers are in tension.
Thus the moment diagram, Fig. 52(g0, indicates that the beam is subjected to a
maximum negative bending moment of 480 ft-lb.
Art. 48
129
In many situations it is essential to know which portion of the beam is subjected
to positive bending moment and which portion is subjected to negative bending
moment. For example, in a reinforced concrete beam, steel must be supplied to
carry the tensile forces developed in the cross section because the tensile strength
of concrete is comparatively low. In the portion of the beam which is subjected to
positive bending moment, the reinforcement must go in the bottom of the beam to
prevent failure; but, in the section of the beam subjected to negative moment, the
reinforcement must be placed near the top. Therefore, it is important to determine
the point along the beam at which the sign of the bending moment changes. This
point is known as the point of inflexion or point of contraflexure since it is the point
at which the curvature changes from positive to negative. The point of contra-
flexure may be determined from the moment equation which is applicable by equat-
ing Mx to 0 and solving for a;. In this problem the appropriate equation is the one
which is valid for values of x between 8 and 12, Eq. (j),
0 = -360z + 3840,
z = 10.67 ft.
0)
This value may be checked by considering the two similar triangles which are ap-
parent in the moment diagram between a: = 8 and x = 12.
960 480 , .
= -. . (m)
a 4 a ^'
from which
a = 2.67, (n)
which agrees with the result obtained before, since the distance a is measured from
a point 8 ft from the left end.
The moment diagram may also be developed from the shear diagram be-
cause of the relationship which exists between moment and shear in any
beam. The general relationship for a beam carrying any loading, Fig. 54(a),
may be derived from the free-body diagram of a differential length of the
beam as shown in Fig. 54(6). Although the load is variable it may be as-
(*)
Fig. 54
sumed uniform over the differential length dx. Hence, the total load on the
differential length is w dx. The shear at the left end is called Vx and the
moment at the left end, Mx. The shear at the right end is different from the
shear at the left end and its magnitude may be indicated as Vx + dVT.
Similarly the moment at the right end is Mx + dMx.
The equation of equilibrium written in the vertical direction gives
Vx - w dx - (Vx + dVx) = 0, (64)
from which
w-w (65)
That is, the rate of change of the shear with respect to x, or the slope of the
shear diagram, is equal to the magnitude of the load per unit length. This
relationship was noted in the article on shear diagrams.
The moment equation of equilibrium written with respect to an axis at
the right end of the free-body diagram of Fig. 54(6) gives
2MX = 0, (66)
<t)
Mx + Vrdx - wdx[~) - (Mx + dMx) = 0. (67)
The term w dx {dx/2) may be dropped since it is a product of two differen-
tials which are very small quantities. Then Eq. (67) reduces to
Vxdx = dMz, (68)
or
v. = d-%r (69>
Eq. (69) indicates that the shear at any point is equal to the slope of the
moment diagram at that point. This may be verified in Fig. 52 as, for ex-
ample, the shear is zero for x = 5 ft, at which point the slope of the moment
diagram is also zero. En. (68) may be integrated giving
VJx = I dMx (68a)
(68b)
Since Vxdx may be interpreted as the area of a vertical differential strip
under the shear diagram, Eq. (68b) indicates that the difference between the
moments at two points is equal to the area under the shear diagram between
those two points. For example, in the beam of Fig. 51, the moment 5 ft from
the left end may be determined as the area under the shear diagram between
the point where the moment is zero (the left end) and x = 5 ft.
M6 = |(600) 5 (70)
= 1500 ft-lb. (71)
Art. 49
131
49. Shearing Stress.Eq. (61) gives a means of evaluating the stress
produced -by the bending moment acting at any cross section in a flexural
member, and the two preceding articles have indicated the method for de-
termining the moment at any section in a statically determinate beam as
well as evaluating the magnitude of the maximum moment for which the
beam must be designed.
From a consideration of the shear diagram for a beam, it is apparent that
in the conventional beam a vertical shearing force exists on most cross sec-
tions along the length of the beam. As would be expected, this vertical shear
produces shearing stress. In addition, shearing stresses are developed on
horizontal longitudinal planes. In certain types of beams the magnitude of
these shearing stresses may be sufficiently large to cause failure, serious
distortion, or other unsatisfactory performance. So, before the design of a
beam can be considered complete, the shearing stresses developed in it must
be determined.
In Arts. 6 and 24 it was assumed that the shearing stress was uniformly
distributed across the cross section of the member subjected to a shearing
la)
Ss t
Fig. 55
force. It was further pointed out that this assumed distribution was incor-
rect, but in many cases was usable in design and analysis as a satisfactory
approximation. In certain types of structural units such as rivets and bolts,
the assumed uniform distribution is entirely acceptable since the error is
allowed for in establishing the working stresses and since rivets and bolts
have a circular cross section. However, this assumption is not satisfactory
for all flexural members because of the many shapes of cross sections used,
and because a better approximation of the distribution of shearing stress
must be obtained.
The distribution of the shearing stress in a beam may be determined by
the standard procedurethat of applying the equations of equilibrium to a
free-body diagram so selected that one of the cut faces is the plane on
which the stresses are to be evaluated. A suitable free-body diagram, indi-
cated in Fig. 55, is that of a block of differential length cut from the top
portion of the beam. Compressive stresses are developed on the end planes
BDHF and ACGE of the block, but, in general, the two resultant forces
will not be equal because of the difference in bending moment and stress
at the two sections. It will be assumed that the force on the right-hand face
is the larger as indicated in the figure. Since the block is in equilibrium, an
additional force must exist in the horizontal direction. This force is the re-
sultant shearing force developed on the bottom face ABEF. The block is
now in equilibrium with respect to forces in the horizontal direction, but the
moment equation of equilibrium, SM = 0, is not satisfied unless there is
a downward shearing force on the right-hand face of the block and an up-
ward shearing force on the left-hand face of the block.
The magnitude of the shearing force on the bottom face may be de-
termined from the force equation of equilibrium, 2F = 0 or
Fi + S,t dx - F2 = 0, (72)
in which
t is the width of the beam at the plane ABEF, which is a distance
v above the neutral axis.
The resultant force Ft on the left face may be evaluated as the summa-
tion of the differential forces developed on strips of differential height.
f
Fi = / Svb dy, (73)
in which
b is the width of the beam at the distance y above the neutral axis.
The flexural stress Sv may be evaluated in terms of the bending moment
from the flexural formula. Then
(74)
in which
MI is the bending moment at the left-hand end of the block.
Similarly the force produced by the flexural stress acting on the right-hand
end of the block may be evaluated as
l/l-i i rt fit i
(75)
J v
in which
M2 is the bending moment at section BD.
These values of FI and Fz substituted in the force equation of equilibrium,
Eq. (72), give
I lyf . 1. -J-. / TIT .. L J-.
- 0. (76)
It is apparent that the first and third terms are identical except for the
value of the moment which in each case may be taken outside of the integral
sign. Hence, Eq. (76) reduces to
= 0, (77)
1 Jv
from which
However, M2 Mi, the difference between the moment at section 2 and
the moment at section 1, may be written as dM and in Art. 48 it was shown
that dM = V dx, so Eq. (78) reduces to
(79)
Since b dy is the shaded area in Fig. 55(6) and y is its distance from the
neutral axis, it will be noted that the integral in Eq. (79) represents the
first moment (with respect to the neutral axis) of the area between the
elevation at which the shearing stress is being evaluated and the outside
of the cross section. This first moment of area is designated as Q. Hence,
Eq. (79) becomes
Ss - ^j- (80)
It is apparent that Eq. (80) is subject to all of the limitations involved
in the flexure formula because the flexure formula was used in the deriva-
tion of the equation for shearing stress. In addition, the moment of inertia
was assumed to be constant. Therefore, Eq. (80) is limited to beams of
constant cross section. The value of the stress as determined from Eq. (80)
is an average value of the stress distributed over the plane ABEF of Fig. 55
and will be the maximum stress only if S, is uniformly distributed. Strictly
speaking, the stress cannot be distributed uniformly over the horizontal
131
Chap. 4
longitudinal plane unless the cross section has vertical sides, thus limiting
the formula to rectangular sections. However, Eq. (80) will not be in great
error unless the section has an abrupt change in width. For example, the
stress cannot be uniformly distributed across a plane at the junction of the
web and flange in a T-beam or an I-beam.
By the same method as was used in Chap. 1 in showing that the shearing
stresses on perpendicular planes are equal, it may be demonstrated that the
stress at points A or B on the vertical planes in Fig. 55 is equal to the stress
on the horizontal longitudinal plane passing through A and B. Therefore,
Eq. (80) applies to the stress on the cross section at an elevation A as well
as on the longitudinal plane AB.
The presence of the shearing tendency on horizontal longitudinal planes
may be effectively demonstrated by stacking two or more pieces of heavy
paper or cardboard to form a beam, supporting them at the ends, and ap-
plying a load at the center. The sliding along the planes of contact of the
laminations is clearly visible, particularly at the ends. It is this tendency
to slide that is resisted by the shearing stresses on longitudinal planes.
Direct application of the formula for shearing stress will show that the
shearing stress in a rectangular cross section is parabolically distributed,
being zero at the top and bottom of the cross section and having a maximum
value of 3 V/2A at the neutral axis.
If the beam of Fig. 52 has the cross section indicated in Fig. 51, determine the
distribution of the average shearing stress throughout the cross section which is
subjected to the maximum shearing stress.
Solution: In general, in a problem of this type, the first step is to construct the
shear diagram from which the maximum total vertical shear may be evaluated.
//n. 2 in, I in.
.L.
y=ascf
za
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 56
(d)
(eJ
The shear diagram has already been determined and is shown in Fig. 52(c). Since
the beam has a constant cross section, the maximum shearing stress will occur at the
station (along the beam) at which the total vertical shear is a maximum. From
Fig. 52(c) this station may be identified as the left end, at which the total vertical
shear is 600 lb. i
The second step is to determine the necessary properties of the cross section lead-
ing to the evaluation of the moment of inertia with respect to the neutral axis of the
cross section. This has already been done in a previous illustrative problem in which
the moment of inertia was found to be 49.33 in.4 The cross section is reproduced in
Fig. 56 for convenience.
The third step consists in applying Eq. (80) to the critical elevations in the cross
section. In order to determine the distribution of average shearing stress (across
horizontal lines in the cross section) throughout the depth of the beam, the stress
must be evaluated at five critical elevations:
(a) top of the beam,
(b) neutral axis,
(c) web just above the junction of web and flange,
(d) flange just below the junction of web and flange, and
(e) bottom of the beam.
Direct substitution in Eq. (80) will verify the fact that the shearing stress is zero at
the top and bottom of the cross section, because Q is zero for those sections. The
stress distribution will be parabolic throughout the web attaining the maximum
value at the neutral axis. The stress at that point may be determined as
- i-c-o " iS^4. M Jj-f- _ 600 (2) (3.5) (1.75) A"> * 2 * - *- ' '7^"
- '~ 433(2)~"'
.-'. =74.5psi. (b)
The quantity Q is determined as the first moment of the shaded area in Fig. 56(6).
The average value of the shearing stress in a section just above the junction of web
and flange may be determined from Eq. (80) using for Q the first moment with
respect to the neutral axis of the shaded area in Fig. 56(c).
t ,t. = 600 (2) (4) (1.5) ,
49.33 (2) vc;
= 73.0 psi. (d)
The average value of the shearing stress across the line just below the junction of the
flange and web may be evaluated as
600 (4) (2) (1.5) ,
'49.33 (4) (e)
= 36.5 psi. (f)
In this, the quantity Q may be evaluated as the first moment of the area below the
section, as indicated by the shaded portion of Fig. 56(d). It will be noted that this
value of Q is identical with the one which would be obtained by using the shaded
area of Fig. 56(c). That is, the first moment of the area above a given elevation is
equal to the first moment of the area below that elevation.
The distribution of the average stress is indicated in Fig. 56(e). However, the
value of 36.5 psi. as determined from Eq. (f) is only the average stress across the
width of the flange and is by no means equal to the maximum stress since the stress
distribution is not uniform at that elevation. Stresses near the center of the flange
will approach those in the web, whereas the stresses at the outer edges of the flange
will be practically zero.
Because in general the stresses in the flange are small, it is customary in
the analysis of I-beams to assume that the total vertical shear is uniformly
distributed throughout the total depth of the web.
136
Chap. 4
50. Stresses beyond the Proportional LimitAs was noted in the de-
velopment of the flexure formula, Eq. (61), it is valid only to the propor-
tional limit; but, in spite of this limitation, the formula is extremely useful
because the majority of beams, as well as other structural members, are
designed so that the maximum computed stress will not exceed the pro-
portional limit. However, several standard acceptance tests for materials
such as timber and concrete involve loading a beam of the material to
failure and recording the maximum load. For purposes of comparison this
maximum load is then converted to a stress or equivalent stress by means of
the flexure formula. The stress calculated on the false premise that the
flexure formula holds to the ultimate is known as the modulus of rupture.
The modulus of rupture may be thought of as a hypothetical ultimate
strength in bendingthe ultimate flexural strength if the material had a
straight-line stress-strain diagram to the ultimate. The magnitude of the
actual maximum flexural stress in the beam at failure is less than the
modulus of rupture.
The distribution of the Cexr.ral stress across the section when the pro-
portional limit is exceeded is based on the observation that a plane section
D
"7c
(a) Strain D/'stribut/cn
Strain
(1>J Stress-Strain Diagram
Fig. 57
0
(c) Stress Distn'6ut/on
before bending remains plane after bending even to the ultimate. There-
fore, the unit strain is distributed directly as the distance from the neutral
axis, as is indicated in Figs. 50 and 57(a), and distances from the neutral
axis are proportional to abscissae on the stress-strain diagram. Hence, the
shape of the stress-distribution diagram is similar to the shape of the stress-
strain diagram.
The curves OCD and OC'D' in Fig. 57 (c) are similar to the stress-strain
diagram OAB in Fig. 57(6), and show the stress distribution for the ma-
terial of Fig. 57(6).
The value of the modulus of rupture is approximately the value of stress
at the outside fiber obtained by extending the initial straight-line portion
of the distribution diagram as indicated by the line OCE in Fig. 57(c).
Even though the modulus of rupture is not the true value of the maximum
stress in a flexural test carried to failure, it is extremely useful for compara-
Art. 51
137
tive purposes and is entirely valid for comparing geometrically similar
specimens of like materials. Hence, its use in standardized tests on stand-
ardized test specimens is entirely justified.
51. Stress Concentration.Geometrical discontinuities such as holes,
notches, scratches, and cracks which cause an abrupt change in the cross
section of a flexural member result in stress concentration. A quantitative
measure of stress concentration is given by the stress concentration factor
which is defined as the ratio of the maximum stress developed at the dis-
continuity to the maximum calculated stress at the cross section based on the
assumption that the stress raiser is not present.*
If the material of which the beam is composed is ductile and the beam is
subjected to static loading, the stress concentration factor is of relatively
little importance because of the localized yielding which occurs in the
vicinity of the stress raiser. For example, if a beam contains a pair of sym-
metrical notches as indicated in Fig. 58(a), the stress distribution at the net
Strain
la)
Fig. 58
section before the proportional limit is reached will be as indicated by the
solid lines in Fig. 58(a). If the stress exceeds the proportional limit and the
material has the stress-strain diagram indicated in Fig. 58(6), the high
strain at the base of the notch will result in a stress no higher than the pro-
portional limit and the stress distribution will be as shown by the dotted
lines in Fig. 58(a). However, if the material is brittle or if the beam is sub-
jected to dynamic loading or repeated loading, the stress concentration
cannot be ignored because the ductile yielding indicated in Fig. 58 cannot
occur. The relatively high strain at the base of the notch will result in the
formation of a crack which in general will serve to increase the stress con-
centration factor and lead to the ultimate failure of the flexural member
* Some writers define the stress concentration factor in a flexural member as the ratio
of the maximum stress to the stress at the point assuming that the discontinuity does
not alter the validity of the flexure formula. This definition requires the calculation of
the stress on the basis of the moment of inertia of the net section.
138
Chap. 4
c
/O
So/ id Lines
/V
= Appro*. 3
c
n
lofted Lines
\2
'
1
L
X
S.O
^=3.0
Fig. 59. Stress concentration factors for flexural members.
at the reduced cross section. Some typical values of the stress concentration
factor for flexural members are shown in Fig. 59.
52. Beams of Two Materials.Several important engineering materials
have tensile properties which are appreciably different from their compres-
sive properties. Concrete, for example, has a tensile strength of only about
10 per cent its compressive strength. For these materials, a beam of rec-
tangular cross section is not usually economical and a beam of other than
rectangular cross section may cause difficulties in being formed. While the
use of T-beams is one possibility for employing these materials more
economically than would be possible in a rectangular cross section, another
common procedure is to reinforce the beam on the weak side with a material
which is stronger. For example, a concrete beam is normally reinforced
with steel rods on the tension side of the cross section so that the concrete,
which is relatively strong in compression, resists the compressive force, and
the steel resists the tensile force. Obviously, the flexure formula, Eq. (61),
cannot be used for evaluating the stresses in a beam of this type since, in
the derivation of the formula, it was assumed that the material was
homogeneous.
Beams of two materials may be analyzed, however, by the use of what is
called the transformed cross section. In the transformed cross section, one
material is considered to be replaced by an amount of the other material
such that the total force developed in the substitute material is exactly
equal in magnitude and line of action to the force which is developed in the
original material. Since the force system is not altered, the flexure formula
may be applied to the transformed cross section using for 7 the moment of
inertia of the transformed cross section with respect to the centroidal axis.
A timber beam 4 in. wide and 8 in. deep is reinforced with a steel plate 4 in. wide
and 1 in. deep which is firmly attached to the bottom. Determine the maximum
stress in the wood and the steel if the beam is used to support a load of 1200 Ib at
the center of a 16-ft span.
Solution: The first step is to determine the maximum moment. With the aid of the
free-body diagram shown in Fig. 60(6), the moment diagram may be developed, and
the maximum moment (at the center of the span) evaluated as 57,600 in-Ib.
Next, the transformed cross section may be sketched and its moment of inertia
evaluated. To determine the transformed cross section, it may be assumed that any
cross section of the beam which is plane before bending remains plane after bending.
As a result, the unit flexural strain at any point will be proportional to the distance
of the point from the neutral axis as indicated in Fig. 60(c). Since, in the wood, stress
is proportional to strain, the stress distribution will be the straight line AB as indi-
cated in Fig. 60(d). However, the stress in the steel will be greater than the stress
in the wood at the same distance from the neutral axis because the modulus of
elasticity of steel is greater than the modulus of elasticity of the wood. Hence, the
stress distribution in the steel will be indicated by line CD in Fig. 60(d).
At the junction of the steel and wood the unit strain is the same (ei) in both
materials. The unit stress in the wood (BE) is
140
Chap. 4
E.
and the stress in the steel (CE) is
Therefore,
s,t
= E.tti
8.,
= Ej,
Ew
= n,
Otl
= nSw,
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
in which
n is the ratio of the modulus of elasticity of the steel to the
modulus of the wood.
Since E = 30,000,000 psi. and Ew = 1,500,000 psi., n = 20.
The transformed cross section is developed by imagining the steel to be replaced
by an amount of wood such that the force system is unchanged and such that the
flexure formula is valid. Therefore, it is apparent that the stress-distribution dia-
gram will have to be the straight line ABF in Fig. 60(d). That is, the stress in the
lower inch is reduced to \/n of its former value. In order that the same resultant
force be developed in the lower inch, the area must be increased to n times its
original value or to 20 (4) = 80 sq in. In order that the moment of the force de-
veloped in the lower inch of the cross section be unchanged, the moment arm must
remain the same; hence, the increased area must be obtained by adding area hori-
zontally, and the transformed cross section will be as shown in Fig. 60(e).
With the dimensions of the transformed cross section established, the analysis
may proceed as though the original beim were the inverted-T section shown in
Fig. 60 (e). The neutral axis passes through the centroid of the transformed cross
section which may be located by taking moments with respect to an axis at the
junction of the web and flange of the T. This gives
_ 4 (8) 4 - 80 (1) j
9 4 (8) + 80 (1) (e)
= 0.785 in.
The moment of inertia of the transformed cross section with respect to the hori-
zontal centroidal axis is
4 TS13 SO (IV
1 = 12 + 4 (8) (3'215)2 + ^2 + 80 (1) (L285)2 (f)
= 640 in.4
The maximum compressive stress in the timber will occur at the top of the cross
section and may be evaluated from the flexure formula as
_ 57,600 (7.215) , .
, - ' ~ 640 (s>
= 649 psi.
The maximum tensile stress in the steel may be obtained by first calculating the
maximum tensile stress in the transformed cross section. This will be developed at
the bottom of the beam and is evaluated by the flexure formula as
, 57,600 (1.785) ,,.
S ' = 640 }
= 161 psi.
However, from Eq. (d) the stress in the steel is 20 times the stress in the timber at
the same distance from the neutral axis. Therefore, the maximum stress in the steel
is
20 (161) = 3220 psi.
53. Design Considerations.The important stresses in beams are normal
stress (tension and compression) and shear (vertical and longitudinal)
which may be evaluated by Eqs. (61) and (80). It will be noted that in each
of these formulas for stress, the moment of inertia appears in the de-
nominator of the equation. Hence, minimum stresses will be developed in
both flexure and shear at a given cross section if the moment of inertia is as
large as possible. This may be accomplished by spreading the material as
far as possible from the neutral axis of the cross section, but also has the
effect of increasing c in Eq. (61) and increasing Q in Eq. (80). However,
both c and Q increase less rapidly than I with an increase in distance from
the neutral axis. For example, the resisting moment developed by the
square cross section of Fig. 61 (a) is
re
M = (60)
_. (81)
142
Chap. 4
-S
c
stfr,
st>'s,
-c
AS
* *
(a)
(6)
(C)
Fig. 61
In the free-body diagram of a short length of the flexural member, the
tensile and compressive forces which constitute the resisting couple are
shown.
If the same area were divided into two parts, each a distance d/2 from
the centroid as shown in Fig. 61(6), the resisting moment would be, from
Eq. (60),
M =
(8) Z 2 {4)1
d b
2 + 4
(82)
If b is small in comparison with d, Eq. (82) will reduce to
-S
M =
d
2
bWS
in which
=Hi>.
A is the area of the cross section.
(82a)
(82b)
(82c)
Eq. (82c) shows that, for a given area and maximum stress, the resisting
moment varies directly with the distance of the area from the neutral axis.
If the distance d is large in comparison with b, the flexural stress will be
distributed practically uniformly over the area, and the force developed on
the area in compression will be AS/2. An equal force will be developed on
the area in tension, and the resultant couple, which is the resisting moment,
is ASd/2, which checks Eq. (82c).
Art. 53
143
A comparison of the free-body diagram of (a) and (6) of Fig. 61 shows
that the tensile and compressive forces developed in the square cross sec-
tion are only one-half of those developed in the section with two flanges.
In the latter, all of the material is subjected to the maximum stress, whereas
in the square cross section only the material at the top and bottom is sub-
jected to the maximum stress, while an equal amount of material at the
neutral axis develops no stress. Thus, in the section of Fig. 61 (6) all of the
material is effectively utilized.
While this distribution of material appears to be ideal for resisting bend-
ing moment, it is not satisfactory for resisting the shear which is almost
always present in flexural members, because there is no way for the shear to
be transmitted from the top member to the bottom member. By adding a
thin web which connects the two flanges, as indicated in Fig. 61 (c), con-
tinuity is provided and the cross section will act as a unit because it can
develop shearing resistance. The web also serves to lessen the danger of the
compression flange buckling due to the axial load which it carries.
1
I I
fa/
Fig. 62
The standard I-beams and wide-flange beams rolled from structural grade
steel are of this general type. The thickness of the web is established on the
basis of providing the necessary resistance to shear with the minimum of
weight. The web must be thick enough that it will not buckle.
The largest standard I-beam has a depth of 36 in. When a beam of greater
depth is required, as in a short span bridge, a built-up section composed of
angles (or channels) and plates welded or riveted together is used. While the
details of such built-up sections are predicated by the load and span, they
consist of a pair of heavy flanges connected by a relatively thin web, as
indicated in the plate girder of Fig. 62(a). If longer spans and larger loads
are involved, it becomes more economical to concentrate the web rather
than having it continuous; this leads to various forms of trusses, one type
of which is indicated in Fig. 62(6). In these flexural members, the top flange
(or chord) carries the compression and the bottom flange resists the tension
similar to the section of Fig. 61 (b). The diagonal and vertical members
essentially resist the shear.
144
Chap. 4
It will be noted that all of the sections of Figs. 61 and 62 are resistant to
flexure if the bending moment lies in the plane of symmetry of the cross
section but are much less resistant to bending if the bending moment lies
in a plane at right angles to the vertical axis of symmetry.
PROBLEMS
NOTE: Unless instructed otherwise, ignore the weight of the beam in evaluating
stresses and deflections in the problems of this and the following chapters. This pro-
cedure is indicated in the interests of simplicity and is not in accordance with stand-
ard engineering practice. Weights of rolled sections are given in some of the problems
for identification purposes.
212. The flexural stress at each of the points A in a beam having the cross section
shown in Fig. P-212 is 1000 psi. tension. Determine
(a) the maximum tensile stress in the cross section, and
(b) the maximum oompressive stress in the cross section.
ffia.
213. Fig. P-213 represents the cross section of a beam in which the flexural stress is
2000 psi. compression along a horizontal line 1 in. below the top of the cross
section. Determine the maximum compressive stress and the maximum tensile
stress developed on the cross section.
\^
4 irf.
P-213
Probs. 212-221
145
STRESSES IN FLEXTJRAL MEMBERS
214. Determine the moment required to produce a maximum unit strain of 0.001
in a steel scale having a cross section 3/4 in. by 1/64 in.
215. Show how the total resisting moment developed at one cross section in a beam
may in general be evaluated from a single reading of strain along a line parallel
to the longitudinal axis of the beam. Indicate one situation in which this
method of evaluating resisting moment would not work.
216. Prove or disprove each of the following statements with reference to a beam
subjected to pure flexure under the conditions outlined near the beginning of
the chapter.
(a) The total compressive force developed on the cross section equals the total
tensile force.
(b) The moment of the compressive force developed on the cross section with
respect to the neutral axis equals the moment of the tensile force.
217. In the first analysis of the strength of beams of which we have record, Galileo
assumed a rectangular cantilever beam with a concentrated load at the end
to be a lever with a fulcrum at the bottom of the beam at the support. The
load was held in equilibrium by a tensile force which the support developed on
the beam. Discuss the validity of this analysis.
218. A beam has a cross section in the form of a T with a flange 6 in. wide and 1 in.
deep and a web 1/2 in. wide and extending 4 in. below the bottom of the flange.
The beam is loaded so that the maximum tensile stress occurs at the bottom
of the web and has a magnitude of 2000 psi. Determine (a) the maximum
compressive stress developed in the cross section, (b) the resisting moment
which the entire cross section develops.
219. Determine the magnitude of moment required to produce a maximum stress of
16,000 psi. in a beam having a rectangular cross section 2 in. by 1 in., if the
beam bends about the axis parallel to (a) the 1-in. faces, (b) the 2-in. faces.
220. A stress of 1000 psi. compression is developed at point A in the T-beam of
Fig. P-212. Determine
(a) the total compressive force developed in the flange,
(b) the magnitude of the total tensile force developed on the cross section, and
(c) the resisting moment which the cross section will develop.
221. The maximum flexural stress developed in a beam having the cross section
indicated in Fig. P-221 is 1800 psi. Determine the total force developed on the
shaded element at point A, at point B. Each element is 1/4 in. high.
B
1
P-221
146
Chap. 4
222. Determine the minimum required diam of a member having a circular cross
section if it is to
(a) resist a bending moment of 1000 ft-lb with a maximum flexural stress of
12,000 psi.,
(b) resist a torsional moment of 1000 ft-Ib with a maximum shearing stress of
12,000 psi. Discuss.
223. Determine the minimum cross section required for a rectangular timber beam
which is to resist a bending moment of 40,000 in-Ib. The depth of the beam is to
be 1/2 the width and the maximum fiber stress is not to exceed 1200 psi.
224. Determine the maximum bending moment which a 12-in. I-beam at 35 Ib per ft
will develop if the flexural stress is not to exceed 20,000 psi. The beam is to be
loaded so that bending occurs with respect to an axis (a) parallel to the web,
(b) perpendicular to the web.
225. If the maximum flexural stress developed in a structural steel beam having the
cross section indicated in Fig. P-225 is 18,000 psi., determine the percentage
of the resisting moment developed by the flanges.
/O/n.
P-225
226. Determine the maximum resisting moment which will be developed by the hat
section of Fig. P-226 if the maximum flexural stress is not to exceed 10,000 psi.
and bending is about a horizontal axis.
ifc
i
I
M
3m.
4m.
3//7.
P-226
227. Select an economical I-beam to resist a bending moment of 30,000 ft-Ib if the
maximum flexural stress is not to exceed 20,000 psi.
Probs. 222-231
147
228. A 1/2-in. by 12-in. cover plate is riveted to two 10-in. channels at 30 Ib per ft to
form a beam as indicated in Fig. P-228. Determine the maximum bending
moment which the resultant beam will develop with respect to a horizontal
axis if the maximum allowable flexural stress is 18,000 psi.
P-228
229. Two 6-in. by 6-in. by 1/2-in. angles are riveted together as indicated in Fig.
P-229. Determine the moment required to develop a maximum flexural stress
of 22,000 psi. if bending occurs with respect to (a) a vertical axis, (b) a hori-
zontal axis.
6 /'/?.
*
P-229
230. Solve Prob. 228 if a 1/2-in. by 12-in. cover plate is attached both top and bot-
tom.
231. A beam composed of two 12-in. I-beams at 31.8 Ib per ft is to be spliced by a
pair of 6-in. by 1-in. plates welded to the top and bottom as shown in Fig.
P-231. Determine the maximum stress which may be developed in the I-beam
if reasonably allowable stresses are not exceeded in the splice plates.
P-231
148
Chap. 4
232. Two segments of a timber beam 6 in. square are to be spliced by bolting 2-in.
by 6-in. strips to the top and bottom as indicated in Fig. P-232. If the maxi-
mum allowable flexural stress in the timber is 600 psi., determine the number
of 1/2-in. diam bolts required, and the maximum moment which the beam will
resist.
P-232
233. The cross section of a wing spar at its connection to the fuselage of an airplane
is indicated in Fig. P-233. If the wing supported by the spar has a length of
20 ft and an average width of 6 ft 2 in., determine the uniform load per sq ft
of wing surface which would develop a maximum flexural stress of 20,000 psi.
in the spar under ideal conditions of pure bending.
O.OS/ /n.
&/0in. ang/es
P-233
234. A beam 20 ft long is supported at a point 2 ft from the left end and at the right
end. It carries a uniform load of w Ib per ft. With an origin at the left support,
write a general equation for (a) the shear developed at any section along the
beam between the two reactions, (b) the moment at any section between the
two supports.
235. A beam which is simply supported at the ends carries a load which varies uni-
formly from zero at the left end to k Ib per linear ft at the right end. With
reference to an origin at the left end, write a general equation for (a) the mo-
ment developed at any section of the beam, (b) the shear developed at any
cross section in the beam.
Probs. 232-244
149
236. The moment equation which applies between two supports at the ends of a
beam is
,, . wLx wx*
M. = -T2- + -2 --- r
Draw the shear diagram and determine the type of load on the beam.
237. The moment equation which applies between two supports at the ends of a
beam is
M. =
Draw the shear diagram and determine the type of loading which the beam
carries.
238. The moment equation which applies to a beam for the interval between x = 0
and x = L is
30v
Draw the shear diagram and determine the type of loading on the beam.
239. The equation for the shear at any point along a beam of span L is Vx =
Kx'/ZL. Construct the shear and moment diagrams if it is known that the
moment is zero at the origin, and identify the type of loading on the beam.
240. The equation for the total vertical shear at any point between two supports of
a beam is Vx = (w/32)(25L 32z). Determine the type of loading which the
beam carries and construct a possible moment diagram.
241. The equation for the shear at any point along a beam which is supported
at the ends is 7* = K(3L3 - 12L2z + 4Lz2)/12L2. Determine the type of
loading which the beam carries and construct a possible moment diagram.
242. Construct the shear and moment diagrams for a simply supported beam carry-
ing equal concentrated loads at a distance of one-third of the span from each
end.
243. Draw complete shear and moment diagrams for the beam as shown in Fig.
P-243 giving all important values.
/OOO Ji>
BOO /b per ff
FT
\
\
\
Tl
7^-
*7
3ft
2ft
6ft
2ft
P-243
244. Draw complete shear and moment diagrams for the beam loaded as shown in
Fig. P-244.
120
Chap. 4
>.50 /t> per ft
,\ \
/OOO&
14**
77?
*r
4ft
^7^77^
4ft
aft \ 'ft
P-244
245. Draw complete shear and moment diagrams for the two beams indicated in
Fig. P-245.
/OO/i>perfr
ii i i i
/OO /6 flfr ft
i i
4ft
4ft
(a)
P-245
246. Draw complete shear and moment diagrams for the beam shown in Fig. P-246.
\
4OO to per ft
'//////////////////////////// Y/A
A d
6ft
*7
SA
eft
%
4ft
/Off
^ft
P-246
247. Construct complete shear and moment diagrams for the beam shown in Fig.
P-247.
80O/i>
4OO /> per ft
V///////////////////////////////////A
1
3ft \
'*
8ft
-
P-247
248. A beam 20 ft long is supported at the right end and 5 ft from the left end. It
carries a uniform load of 200 Ib per ft from the left end to a point 5 ft from the
right end and a concentrated load of 900 Ib 5 ft from the right end. Draw com-
'^te shear and moment diagrams for the beam.
Probs. 245-253 STRESSES IN FLEXURAL MEMBERS
151
Fig. P-249.
eOO to per ft
3000 lt>
//}}//
4ft
4ft
4ft
%
77777
4ft
P-249
2S0. Construct complete shear and moment diagrams for the beam shown in Fig.
P-250.
200 /t> per ft
Willi
20O0/i>
/ooo /t>
SOO //> per ft
/Oft
I4 ft 8 ft 8 ft \3ft\
'*p *p *T H
6O00ft-ll>
P-250
251. Construct the complete shear and moment diagrams for the beam shown in
Fig. P-251.
/eoo/i>
200 /i per ft
xzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz
/000/>
4ft
I
/Oft
4 ft
S|
P-251
Fig. P-252.
SOO /> per ft
/eooftvt l l j j 1 1 i
eooo/b
1
2ft
<
4ft
i
8ft
4ft
2ft
*
'
P-252
253. Determine the maximum flexural stress in the beam indicated in Fig. P-253
and state where it occurs.
152
Chap. 4
2in.
2/0 /b per ft
1 1 1 111 L_L|
7777 7777
/eft I 4ft
1
^r
^
Cross Section
O
8 in.
(a)
(t>)
P-253
254. The beam indicated in Fig. P-254(a) has the cross section shown in Fig.
P-254(6). Determine the total normal stress acting on the shaded area ABCD
at section 66.
\2in.\2 in., 2 in.,
I*
| 200 /t> per ft
V/////////A///////////////////A
4ft
4-
</?
I*
/tf/7"
^;
P-254
255. A beam having the cross section shown in Fig. P-254(a) is loaded as shown in
Fig. P-255(6). Determine the maximum flexural stress and state where it
occurs.
(",.
//7.
/in
1 1 .,. .
sr
m
^
i;
3
1
.^
v
^
m
S
X,
(a)
I 400/i>
\ 20Q /> per ft
11 11 1 TT
Zft
8 ft
P-255
Probs. 254-267 STRESSES IN FLEXURAL MEMBERS 153
256. A 10-in. I-beam at 25.4 Ib per ft is simply supported on a span of 12 ft. If the
allowable working stress in flexure is 18,000 psi., determine the maximum total
load which the beam may be permitted to carry if it is (a) concentrated at the
center of the span, (b) uniformly distributed over the entire span.
257. Determine the maximum allowable load which a Douglas fir beam 1-5/8 in.
by 3-5/8 in. in cross section will carry at the center of an 8-ft span if the long
dimension is (a) vertical, (b) horizontal.
258. Select a suitable rolled section (I-beam or two channels back to back) for the
member AB shown in Fig. P-34. The concentrated load is movable hori-
zontally.
259. Determine the minimum cross-sectional dimensions of a white oak member to
be used as the beam indicated in Fig. P-3(a). The depth should be twice the
breadth.
260. Determine the minimum diam required for the axle of a locomotive if the axle
load of 52,000 Ib is equally distributed between the two journals which are
13 in. outside of the wheels. Assume the maximum allowable flexural stress to
be 10,000 psi.
261. Determine the minimum diam required for the horizontal member of the
glider landing gear illustrated in Fig. P-6 if it is made of an alloy steel for
which the allowable flexural stress is 40,000 psi. The wheel load is 2360 Ib.
262. Select a suitable I-beam to carry the loads indicated in Fig. P-252 if the
maximum flexural stress is not to exceed 18,000 psi.
263. The beam indicated in Fig. P-249 is to be built up of two channels riveted back
to back with cover plates added if necessary. Select suitable channels using a
reasonable maximum flexural stress.
264. The beam shown in Fig. P-247 is to be built up from four 3-in. by 3-in. by
3/8-in. angles riveted to a 1/2-in. web. How deep should the beam be made if
the maximum flexural stress is not to exceed 18,000 psi.?
265. A 5-in. I-beam at 10 Ib per ft is proposed for the loads indicated in Fig. P-250.
s Is this section adequate for the entire length? If not, indicate in detail how it
may be strengthened satisfactorily.
266. A timber beam 4 in. wide and 6 in. deep is simply supported on a 10-ft span
and carries a concentrated load of 1000 Ib 6 ft from the left end. Construct the
free-body diagram of the top 1 in. of the beam between cross sections 4 ft and
5 ft from the left end. Evaluate all forces acting on this free body which is 12 in.
long, 4 in. wide, and 1 in. high. Determine the average unit shearing stress
developed on the bottom surface, and compare with the value obtained from
the formula for shearing stress.
267. A built-up timber box beam is to carry a concentrated load of 800 Ib at the
section 4 ft from the left end of a 10-ft span. Three possible methods of fabri-
cation are indicated in Fig. P-267. The first two utilize four rectangular strips
154
Chap. 4
P-267
glued together, while the third makes use of two hollowed-out sections glued
together. For each cross section, draw a free-body diagram of the length of
component A between the sections 2 ft and 3 ft from the left end of the beam.
Evaluate each force and determine the shearing stress which must be de-
veloped by each glued joint. Which cross section is preferable from the stand-
point of (a) minimum shearing stress in the joint, (b) probable cost of fabri-
cation?
268. Compare the average unit shearing stresses which must be developed by the
glued joints of the built-up wooden beams having the cross sections indicated
in Fig. P-268. The beams are to carry a concentrated load of 800 Ib at the center
Bin.
. 2 in.
\ 2in.\
P-268
of a 12-ft simply supported span. Evaluate the stresses from suitable free-body
diagrams of a 1-ft length of a portion of each cross section.
269. A 10-in. I-beam at 25.4 Ib per ft is to be strengthened by riveting 6-in. by 1-in.
structural steel plates to the top and bottom. The beam is simply supported
at the ends of a 12-ft span and carries a uniform load of such magnitude that
the maximum flexural stress is 22,000 psi. If a shearing stress of 12,000 psi. is
permitted in the 3/4-in. diam rivets used to attach the cover plates, determine
the rivet spacing at (a) the ends of the beam, (b) the center of the beam, (c) 2 ft
from the end.
270. A simply supported timber beam having the cross section shown in Fig. P-270
has a span of 12 ft. Determine the maximum value of a uniformly distributed
load which will produce a flexural unit stress not to exceed 1200 psi. and a
shearing stress not to exceed 120 psi.
Prohs. 26&-274 STRESSES IN FLEXURAL MEMBERS
156
SI
4/fT.
<*>
Zin
P-270
271. A beam having a rectangular cross section 4 in. wide and 6 in. deep is simply
supported at the ends of a 12-ft span and carries a concentrated load of 600 Ib
4 ft from the left end. Determine the total shearing force transmitted across a
horizontal plane 1 in. from the top of the beam and extending from the right
end to a point 3 ft from the right end.
272. A T-beam having a flange width of 6 in. and a total depth of 8 in. with flange
and web thicknesses of 2 in. is simply supported at the ends of a 10-ft span and
carries a uniform load of 100 Ib per ft over its entire length. Determine
(a) the highest value of average shearing stress developed on any horizontal
plane at the center cross section,
(b) the resultant shearing force which must be transmitted from flange to web
between the center and the right end, and
(c) the effect of inverting the beam on the stress and the force determined in
(a) and (b).
273. Determine the average unit shearing stress developed on section A A, BB, and
CC of the cross section shown in Fig. P-273 if it is resisting a total vertica'
shear of 2000 Ib.
I'"
^..c +
_/4
B
**
Sin.
P-273
274. The beam having the cross section indicated in Fig. P-274 develops an average
unit shearing stress of 80 psi. on section A A. Determine the total vertical shear
which the beam is resisting.
Chap. 4
A -i
*'
'
Zin.
6/n.
2 in.
P-274
275. Construct a diagram showing the distribution of average shearing stress
on horizontal planes through the beam having the cross section shown in
Fig. P-270 if it is subjected to a constant total vertical shear of 3000 Ib.
276. Determine the maximum load which the beam having the cross section shown
in Fig. P-268(a) will support at the end of a 10-ft cantilever span if the
average shearing stress at the junction of flange and web is not to exceed 60 psi.
277. Determine the highest value of average shearing unit stress in the beam of
Fig. P-277, and state where it occurs.
..
V
.
V
.5'
^
Sat
Zia.
gm.
P-277
278. Determine the highest value of average unit shearing stress developed in the
beam in Fig. P-253. State where it occurs.
279. Determine the vertical shearing unit stress at point O just to the right of the
right-hand support in the beam of Fig. P-253.
280. A 6-in. by 6-in. by 1/2-in. angle is used as a cantilever beam with the axis of
symmetry vertical as shown in Fig. P-280. If the beam carries a concentrated
load of 800 Ib 30 in. from the fixed end, determine the average shearing unit
stress on the section A A 10 in. from the fixed end.
Probs. 275-282
157
STRESSES IN FLEXTJRAL MEMBERS
P-280
281. A beam 10 ft long is supported at the ends and has the cross section shown in
Fig. P-281. It is specified that the flexural tensile stress shall not exceed 1200
psi. and that the average horizontal unit shearing stress on any plane shall not
exceed 200 psi. Determine the maximum total load that the beam will carry
without violating the specifications if the load is uniformly distributed.
P-281
282. A beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-282(a) has the cross section as shown in
Fig. P-282(6). Determine
(a) the maximum flexural stress at section A A which is 2 ft from left support,
(b) the average unit shearing stress at point B which is 2 ft from the left sup-
port and 4 in. below the top of the beam.
/OO /A per ft
6ft
(a)
Zft
'
\
B
'.
<0
Sin.
&//1.
2//?.
P-282
158
Chap. 4
283. Determine the maximum fiber unit stress and the maximum shearing unit
stress developed in the beam having the cross section and loading shown in
Fig. P-283. Indicate clearly where in the cross section and where along the
beam each occurs.
ZOO /t> per ft
8 ft
Zft
(a)
P-283
284. A 6-in. by 10-in. timber beam simply supported on a 10-ft span is to carry \
concentrated load at midspan. It is specified that the flexural stress in the
beam shall not exceed 1250 psi., and that the unit shearing stress shall not
exceed 120 psi. Determine the maximum allowable value of the load.
285. A timber beam 6 in. wide by 8 in. deep is simply supported at the ends of a
10-ft span. What maximum total load, uniformly distributed over the entire
length, may this beam carry without exceeding an allowable flexural stress of
1200 psi. or an allowable shearing stress of 120 psi.?
286. The timber beam shown in Fig. P-286 has a rectangular cross section 6 in.
wide and 12 in. deep. If the maximum allowable fiber stress is 1000 psi. and
the maximum allowable shearing unit stress is 100 psi., determine the maxi-
mum allowable intensity of uniform load.
1. 4" .
"1
4ft
*1
P-286
287. The beam indicated in Fig. P-287(a) has the cross section shown in Fig.
P-287(6). If the maximum allowable flexural stress is 1200 psi. and the maxi-
mum allowable horizontal shearing stress is 100 psi., determine the maximum
allowable total load for the beam.
Probs. 283-289 STRESSES IN FLEXURAL MEMBERS
159
m /> per ft
i i i I i 1 i
3ft
6 ft
'in. 6 in.
(a)
P-287
288. The maximum allowable flexural stress for the beam loaded as shown in Fig.
P-288(a) is 1200 psi. and the maximum allowable shearing stress is 120 psi.
Determine the maximum allowable uniformly distributed load for the beam.
w /b per ft
/Oft
4ft
fa)
6 /n.
Sin.
P-288
289. A simply supported T-beam having the cross section shown in Fig. P-289 and
//a. Z in. ./in
$
^
?
_
C^J
P-289
100
Chap. 4
290.
a span of 10 ft carries a concentrated load of 12,000 lb 6 ft from the left end.
Determine
(a) the flexural stress 2 in. below the top surface of the beam 8 ft from the left
end,
(b) the maximum horizontal unit shearing stress in the beam, and
(c) the maximum vertical unit shearing stress in the beam.
A simply supported beam with a span of 15 ft and a cross section as shown in
Fig. P-290 carries a single concentrated load 6 ft from the left support. If the
maximum allowable flexural stresses are 2000 psi. in compression and 1200
psi. in tension and if the maximum allowable shearing stress is 100 psi., de-
termine the maximum allowable load.
.3 //7.
1
P
W,
m.
w,
>
8/n
P-290
291. By what percentage is the flexural strength of a timber member 6 in. square
reduced by drilling a transverse 1-in. diam hole through the centers of two op-
posite faces if the beam is loaded so that the axis of the hole is (a) vertical,
(b) horizontal?
292. An aluminum alloy flexural member 3/4 in. thick must change from a depth
of 3 in. to 1 in. at one section. What minimum radius of fillet should be used if
the stress concentration factor is to be held below 1.50?
293. The beam of Prob. 292 is constructed with a fillet having a radius of 1/4 in.
Determine the maximum moment which the beam will resist if the maximum
flexural stress is not to exceed 20,000 psi.
294. By what percentage is the flexural strength of a stainless steel strap 2 in. deep
and 1/2 in. thick reduced by a pair of semicircular notches with 1/4-in. radius
cut from the top and bottom?
295. A 4-in. by 1/2-in. steel plate is firmly attached to the top surface of a white oak
beam 4 in. wide and 8 in. deep. Determine the maximum flexural stress in the
steel when the maximum flexural stress in the oak is 1250 psi. Determine the
average shearing stress which must be developed in the bond between the steel
and oak.
296. Determine the moment developed by the composite beam of Prob. 295 when
the maximum flexural stress in the oak is 1250 psi.
Probs. 290-302
161
297. By what percentage may the maximum resisting moment of a 6-in. by 12-in.
oak beam be increased by bolting 6-in. by 1-in. steel plates to the top and bot-
tom?
298. A composite beam is made by attaching a 4-in. by 1-in. aluminum alloy plate
to the bottom of a 4-in. by 6-in. Douglas fir beam. What maximum load will
the composite beam safely carry at the center of the 10-ft span if the maximum
stress in the fir is not to exceed 1000 psi. and the maximum stress in the
aluminum alloy is not to exceed 16,000 psi.?
299. Draw the transformed cross section for the composite beam indicated in
Fig. P-299 and determine the maximum stress in the beam if a bending mo-
ment of 40,000 ft-lb is applied to the section.
P-299
300. Determine the maximum resisting moment which may be developed by the
composite beam of Fig. P-300 if reasonable working stresses are not to be ex-
ceeded.
A/ A//oy
'////////. .
Stee/S
Oak
Doug/as Fir
Sree/}
Oak
v///////.
2 in.
4in.
Zin.
.
* >
.C >
P-300
301. Determine the thickness of steel plate which must be added to the top of the
composite beam of Fig. P-300 if its strength is to be increased 30 per cent.
302. A white oak beam having a rectangular cross section with depth twice the
breadth carries a uniform load of 50 lb per ft over a span of 8 ft. If the beam is
162
Chap. 4
simply supported, over what portion of the length does the shearing stress con-
trol the design and over what portion does the fiexural stress control?
303. Design a built-up structural steel beam of constant cross section to carry a
concentrated loud of 120 tons at any point along its 24-ft span. Use AREA
allowable stresses in Table 1.
304. A cast steel member 2 in. thick is to be used as a simply supported beam with a
span of 8 ft to carry a concentrated load of 4 tons at the center. Determine the
minimum required depth at 1-ft intervals along the beam if the allowable
flexural and shearing stresses are 18,000 psi. and 12,000 psi., respectively.
305. Two 24-in. I-beams at 120 Ib per ft are to be spliced using two 1-in. by 8-in. by
20-in. steel plates. The splice plates may be welded to the top and bottom of
the beams as shown in Fig. P-305(a) or may be welded to the sides as indicated
in Fig. P-305(6). Determine the maximum bending moment and the maximum
total vertical shear which may be transferred by each splice.
(a)
P-305
306. Determine the minimum required cross section for the left-hand 8 in. of the
horizontal member of Fig. P-306, if it is to be constructed of aluminum alloy
17S-T with a factor of safety of 2.5 with respect to failure by slip. The thick-
ness should be one-half of the depth. If the cross section of all portions of the
member is as determined, evaluate the maximum stress in each of the othei
two portions.
7OOO /i>
8/n
6 /n.
P-306
307. Determine the maximum normal and shearing stresses developed on section
A A of Fig. P-2(a) if the link is 3/8-in. thick.
CHAPTER 5
DEFLECTION OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS
54. Introduction.The design of a flexural member often involves the
determination and control of deflections as well as a consideration of stresses
as outlined in the preceding chapter. A well-designed beam must not only
be strong enough to carry, with an adequate factor of safety, the loads to
which it will be subjected, but it must also be sufficiently rigid so that it
will not deflect unduly in service. Therefore, the engineer who is responsible
for the design of the beam must be able to predict the deflections which will
occur when the beam is loaded. In addition, the evaluation of reactions and
moments in statically indeterminate beams requires application of certain
aspects of deflection theory.
Several different techniques, each of which has its particular advantages
and disadvantages, have been developed for the evaluation of deflections.
However, all deflection procedures are based on the same fundamental
relationships which are derived in Art. 55. Of the methods which are avail-
able for the evaluation of deflections, two are presented in this textthe
method of double integration and the method of area moments. Each is de-
veloped independently of the other starting with the basic relationships
derived in Art. 55.
55. Fundamental Geometrical Relationships in a Bent Flexural Mem-
ber.Fig. 63 (a) represents a length of a straight beam of constant cross
section. If moment is applied to each end of the beam, section CD will ro-
tate to C'D' relative to A B and the deformed beam will take the shape
indicated in Fig. 63(6). Since a cross section which is plane before bending
may be assumed to remain plane after bending, lines A B and C'D' (the
new position of CD) are straight. The extension of line C'D' will intersect
the extension of AB at point O, the center of curvature of the bent beam.
The distance OE from point O to the neutral axis of the cross section, or the
radius of curvature, is designated as p. From the similar triangles OEF and
FCC' of Fig. 63(a), it is apparent that
c CC"
-P = -w
in which
c is the distance from the neutral axis to the bottom of the beam.
163
164
Chap. 5
H5
(a)
(b)
Fig. 63
However,
CC
EF
8
E'
HO,
c = S
p JE7-
(84)
(84a)
The value of S from the flexure formula, Eq. (60), may be substituted in
Eq. (84a), giving
It is known from calculus that
1
p
c _ MxC
P~ El
dx2
2 -.3/2
['+(!)]'
(85)
(86)
However, if the deflections are small, dy/dx is negligible in comparison with
1, and Eq. (86) reduces to
Hence,
1 = d2y
p dx2
dx2 ~ EI
(87)
(88)
Art. 56 DEFLECTION OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS 165
Eq. (88) is the fundamental differential equation for the deflection of the
beam. In it, y denotes the deflection of the neutral surface of the beam, x de-
notes distance measured along the beam from a suitable origin, M is the
bending moment, E is the modulus of elasticity of the material, I is the
moment of inertia of the cross section. The deflection or deflection equation
is sometimes called the elastic curve of the beam.
With positive moment defined as moment producing compression in the
top of the beam, positive values of y denote upward deflections. All of the
various methods for the evaluation of the deflections of beams may be de-
veloped from the fundamental differential equation, Eq. (88). The two
methods considered in this chapter are (1) the double-integration method
and (2) the area-moment method. Each is developed independently of the
other.
DOUBLE INTEGRATION
56. General Integration Procedure. The method of double integration
for the evaluation of deflection of a beam consists in simply integrating
Eq. (88). In general, the moment M varies along the beam, so the moment
equation which applies to the particular beam under consideration must be
used. If no axial loads are present, the moment will be a function of x, the
distance along the beam.
Since the differential equation is of second order, its solution must con-
tain two constants of integration. These two constants of integration may
be evaluated from "boundary conditions," which are simply the known
conditions of deflection (y) or slope (dy/dx) in the particular beam under
consideration. The method may best be mastered by application to prob-
lems.
Determine the equation of the elastic curve of a simply supported beam of length
L carrying a uniformly distributed load of w Ib per ft over its entire length. Evaluate
the maximum deflection.
Solution: The first step is to prepare a suitable sketch of the beam, to select an
origin, and to sketch the approximate deflection curve. Such a sketch is indicated
in Fig. 64(a). The origin is taken at the left end of the beam with the x-axis along the
beam, and the ?/-axis is taken as positive upward. It is apparent that each reaction
will be equal to wL/2. The moment equation with reference to the origin at the left
end may be determined from the free-body diagram in Fig. 64(6).
,, wLx wx2 , ,
If this is substituted in Eq. (88), there results
v1tPy wLx wx2
,,-.
2 ('
166
Chap. 5
\y
w /b per
ft
X
L
^"".
. (
r
(a)
I wx
</
3
Mx
v*
ti>)
Fig. 64
This equation may be integrated directly, giving
ax
wLx2
+ Cx
A second integration gives
EIy = -w~
^ + C* + C.
(c)
(d)
The two constants of integration may be evaluated from the known conditions of
deflection at the end of a beam. For example, it is known that the deflection at the
left end (x = 0) is zero. Hence, by direct substitution in Eq. (d), there results
0 = d. Similarly the deflection at the right end {x = L) is zero, from which
0 =
oL* wL*
12
24
+ CiL,
or
Ci =
wL3
24'
This value of C\ may be substituted back in Eq. (d), giving
wLx3 wx* wL3x
or
Ely-
y
12
24
24
247
(2Lx2 - x3 - L3).
(e)
(f)
(g)
00
Eq. (h) is the equation of the elastic curve of the beam; i.e., it indicates the de-
flection of the neutral surface of the beam measured from its original unloaded
position.
The maximum deflection may be evaluated readily from Eq. (h). The point of
maximum deflection may be located by the general procedure of differentiating the
expression for y with respect to x, equating the derivative to 0, and solving for x;
or, in this problem, it may be determined by inspection (with reference to the
sketch) as x = L/2. This value of x substituted in Eq. (h) gives a deflection at mid-
span of
- 5toL4 m
y ~ 384J5/' w
The minus sign indicates that the deflection is downward. If the deflection had been
upward from the original position of the beam, the deflection would have come out
positive.
In evaluating the deflection a dimensional equation is helpful to avoid confusion
of units. The denominator of Eq. (i) is normally expressed in Ib-in.2, so the numer-
ator must be in Ib-in.3, if the deflection is to be in in. If W is in Ib per ft, L4 may be
considered as L (in ft) tifhes L3 (in in.) or Eq. (i) may be written
5WL3 ,..
y=~ 38417' (J)
in which
W is the total load (in Ib), and
L is the span (in in.).
Determine the equation of the elastic curve for a beam of constant cross section
simply supported at the ends and carrying a concentrated load P at two-thirds of
the span from the left end. Determine the maximum deflection.
Solution: A sketch of the beam is indicated in Fig. 65. The origin is taken at the
Y
-X
(a)
ft*
1 (c>
Fig. 65
left end of the beam with the z-axis along the beam, and the 2/-axis is positive up-
ward to conform with the usual sign convention. A general moment equation may be
written for the left portion of the beam (0 < x < 2L/3), but that equation will not
hold for points to the right of the concentrated load. Hence, the deflection equation
must be developed in two parts, one valid between the left end and the load, the
other valid between the load and the right end.* The left reaction may be evaluated
as P/3 from the free-body diagram of Fig. 65(a); and, from the free-body diagram
of Fig. 65(6), it follows that
,, Pa; , .
M. = -3- (a)
* A single moment equation which is valid for the entire span may be written in the
form of an infinite series (Fourier series), but in most cases it is more practicable to con-
sider the beam in two portions and write two polynomial moment equations.
Hence, from Eq. (88),
" T (>)
Since the moment is a function of x only, Eq. (b) may be integrated directly.
VJdy _ Px1
EIdx -6-'! Cl> (c)
Ely = ^ + C& + CV (d)
One constant of integration, 2, may be evaluated from the boundary condition at
the left end of the beam, the condition that y = 0 for x = 0. These values sub-
stituted into Eq. (d) show that C2 = 0.
Since the slope is not known at any point along the beam and since the deflection
(in the range over which Eq. (d) is applicable) is unknown except at the left end, the
other constant of integration, Ci, cannot be evaluated from the available data.
It may, however, be determined with the aid of supplementary information ob-
tained by considering the right-hand portion of the beam.
The general moment equation for the right-hand portion of the beam may be de-
termined from the free-body diagram of Fig. 65 (c) as
,, Px D ( 2Z
Mx = T ~ P (x ~ T
Therefore, fromEq. (88),
Eq. (f) may be integrated twice, giving
WJdy -Px* 2PLx
EIdx= -^ + 3-
_
Ely = - - + - + C& + Ct. (h)
,! O
One of the constants of integration may be evaluated from the condition that the
deflection is 0 at the right end of the beam. If y = 0 for x = L is substituted in
Eq. (h), the result is
0 = + C,L + <74. (i)
The constants Ci and C3 may be determined by equating the expressions for the
slope as obtained from Eq. (c) (for the left half of the beam) and Eq. (g) (for the
right half of the beam) at their common point under the load and by also equating
the deflections under the load and solving these two equations together with Eq. (i).
Since the slopes are equal under the load,
+ Ci = ^- + ^ + C,, (j)
which reduces to
-2PL2
= C, - d. (k)
If the deflections are equated at x = 2L/3, there results
'()'
18
which reduces to
+ -r- - -s^- + V^ + ^ + ct, (i)
= ^ + C< - ^. (m)
81 3 '' 3
Eqs. (i), (k), and (m) may be solved simultaneously to evaluate the constants.
Ci = ^?, C3 = I^PH, c4 = ^P-^!- (
These values substituted into Eq. (d) give
-8L2)
162E7
(o)
which is the elastic curve equation for the portion of the beam between the left end
and the load. The equation of the elastic curve between the load and the right end is
obtained by substituting the constants in Eq. (n) into Eq. (h).
P (4L3 - 22L2z + 27Lx* - 9z3). (p)
* 81EI
The maximum deflection occurs where the slope is zero and, from the sketch in
Fig. 65(a), appears to be between the left end and the load. Its location may be
determined by equating the slope in Eq. (c) to zero and solving for x.
n Px* 4PL2 , .
0 = - --- -. (q)
(r)
which is between the left end and the load as assumed.
The maximum deflection is found by substituting the value of x in Eq. (o)
. - O. 0/79
y -\ ~
AREA MOMENTS
57. General Relationships.The double-integration procedure consists
in integrating the general differential equation for the elastic curve of the
beam.
^ - ^5- (88)
M - W (88)
From the illustrative problem in the preceding article, it is apparent that
this procedure may lead to extensive calculations particularly for beams
carrying concentrated loads. Then a number of constants of integration
may be involved and an undue amount of computation may be required.
The area-moment procedure consists in performing an equivalent of those
integrations with certain visual aids. The procedure as developed* is par-
ticularly useful in dealing with beams which carry concentrated loads.
The first area-moment theorem may be derived from the differential
equation of the elastic curve of a beam, Eq. (88). Each side of Eq. (88) is
multiplied by dx and integrated between limits A and B (referring to two
arbitrary points A and B along the beam).
/D
/ g<fc= / T7T> (89)
JA 'Ll
dy dy i j., u-o- , ..
dxB dxA L El' (
or
CB
I *f J*.
(90a)
The first term on the left-hand side of Eq. (90a) may be interpreted as the
slope of the elastic curve at point B and the second term indicates the slope
at point A. Hence, the left-hand side of the equation represents the differ-
ence between the slope at point B and the slope at point A. The right-hand
side of Eq. (90a) represents the area between points A and B of the mo-
ment ciagram with each ordinate divided by El. The use of this relation-
ship may be illustrated with reference to a cantilever beam carrying a con-
centrated load at the free end, as indicated in Fig. 66. The moment diagram
for the beam is the triangular diagram indicated in Fig. 66(6) and the M/EI
diagram will be as indicated in Fig. 66(c) if the beam is homogeneous and
of constant cross section. It is apparent that the ordinate of the shaded area
is M/EI and the magnitude of the shaded area is (M dx)/EI. Hence the
area between two points A and B is identical with the right-hand side of
Eq. (90). The relationship expressed in Eq. (90) is known as the first theo-
rem of area moments.
Theorem 1.The difference between the slopes of the elastic curve of a
beam at any two points is equal to the area of the M/EI diagram between
the two points.
That this theorem gives a simple and direct method of evaluating the
slope, particularly in cantilever beams, may be illustrated with reference to
* The basic principles of the method were apparently developed independently at
about the same time by Otto Mohr, "Beitrag zur Theorie der Holz-und Eisencon-
struktionen," Z. Arch. Ing.-Ver. Hanover (1868), and C. E. Greene, Michigan Technic
(1869). Subsequently, a number of derivations for the method of area moments have been
published.
Art. 57
171
P
,8
(al
(c)
Fig. 66
Fig. 66. The slope at the free end of the beam (point B) may be evaluated
as the difference between the slope at that point and the slope at the fixed
end (point A), which is zero. Hence, the slope at B, 6B, is the area under the
M/ El diagram for the entire beam.
/r>r\
(91)
(91a)
For the beam of Fig. 66 the moment is negative and the angle change OB is
negative, as indicated in Fig. 66(a).
The second theorem of area moments, which is used for evaluating de-
flections, may be derived from Eq. (90) and the geometrical characteristics
of a bent line. In Fig. 67(a), AB represents a line which is bent at points
C and D through the angles 0i and 02, respectively. The lengths Xi and *2
denote the distances of points C and D from the point B. It is apparent
from the geometry of the figure that the deflection BB" of point B from a
tangent at A is equal to the sum of the displacements resulting from the
two angle changes 0i and 02. For small angles
y = 0i*i + 02*2; (92)
if several angle changes are involved,
y = 20iZ;. (92a)
The deflection of the elastic curve of a beam, such as the one in Fig.
67(6), is a result of angle changes which, instead of being concentrated at
172
Chap. 5
MKCHANICS OF MATKRIALS
a"
/
ffc
D
X,
s
specific points (such as C and D), are distributed along the beam. The angle
changes, or changes in slope, are a result of the bending moment to which
the beam is subjected. Hence, from Eq. (92a), the deflection of a point B
in a beam from the tangent at a point A may be expressed as an integral
rather than the summation of finite quantities.
FB
y =
(93)
However, from Eq. (90) it follows that dB = M dx/EI. Hence
fB
Mxdx
El
y =
(94)
Thus, the deflection of point B from a tangent at point A may be de-
termined by direct integration of Eq. (94). However, in the method of area
moments for evaluating deflections, the right hand side of Eq. (94) may be
interpreted as the moment (with respect to point B) of the area of the
M/EI diagram between points A and B. For example, in the cantilever
beam of Fig. 66 the quantity (M x dx)/EI is seen to be equal to the moment
(with respect to the free end of the beam) of the shaded area. Hence, the
total deflection of the free end from a tangent at the support is equal to the
moment of the entire area under the M/EI diagram with respect to the free
end. However, by the principle of moments, the summation of the moments
A.rt. 58 DEFLECTION OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS 173
of the differential areas is equal to the moment of the resultant area so the
deflection may be evaluated as
PL3
= -ggj- (95a)
The bending moment is negative, and the deflection is negative (downward)
as shown in Fig. 66(a).
It is apparent that, for this problem, the area-moment procedure is much
simpler than double integration. For some other problems, double integra-
tion is more advantageous, and may be more desirable because it gives the
equation of the elastic curve of the beam, whereas the method of area
moments gives the deflection of a point. The second theorem of area mo-
ments follows from Eq. (94).
Theorem 2.The deflection of point B in a straight beam from a tangent
at point A is equal to the moment (with respect to point B) of the area of
the M/EI diagram between points A and B.
The two theorems of area moments are subject to all of the limitations
of the flexure formula, since it was used in their derivation.
58. Application of Theorems.The evaluation of the deflection of a
beam at any point by the area-moment procedure consists in the direct
application of the second theorem. In many instances the first theorem
also must be used to determine the rotation of the tangent to the elastic
curve at the reference section.
Determine the deflection at the center of a uniform beam simply supported at the
ends and carrying equal concentrated loads at the third-points.
Solution: The first step in the solution is to sketch a free-body diagram of the
beam and an approximate deflection curve as indicated in Fig. 68(a). Each of the
concentrated loads is designated as P and the total span is L.
Next, the moment diagram may be determined by statics. As shown in Fig.
68(6) the moment is zero at the left end, increases uniformly to a value of PL/3
under the first load, is constant to the second load, and decreases linearly to zero at
the right end.
Then the M/EI diagram is constructed. Since the beam has a constant cross
section and is homogeneous, the M/EI diagram will have the same general shape as
the moment diagram, each ordinate being divided by the constant El.
The next step is to select suitable points (A and B) for the application of the
second theorem. In this problem, the deflection at the center may be evaluated
most conveniently by considering point A to be at the center and point B to be at
one support. Because of symmetry, the beam is horizontal at the center, so the up-
ward deflection of one support with reference to the horizontal tangent at the
174
Chap. 5
(a)
(cJ
(d)
center is equal to the downward deflection of the center. This deflection is desig-
nated as y, and is conveniently evaluated by dividing the portion of the M/EI
diagram between A and B into a triangle and a rectangle, as indicated in Fig. 68 (c),
and taking moments with respect to an axis through point B.
PL3
iV9
5PL3
81EI "*" 216.E7
23PL3
r (a)
(b)
(c)
The result is positive, indicating an upward deflection of point B (the end) with
respect to a tangent at point A (the center), or a downward deflection of the center,
which checks the original sketch in Fig. 68(a).
If point B is taken at the center of the beam and point A at one end, the direct
application of the second theorem will give the resultant deflection yd which, as
indicated in Fig. 68(d), is the deflection of the center of the beam from the tangent
Art. 58
175
at the left end. The deflection y, of the center of the beam from its original position
is ijd minus the deflection caused by the rotation of the tangent. The rotation of the
tangent at the left end is the slope of the beam at the left end, and may be de-
termined by application of Theorem 1. From Fig. 68(c), the rotation 6A may be
evaluated in terms of the load, the length, and El.
B
BO,
'-
_l( PL\L
- 2\3El} 3
_PL L
SEI
6 A =
-PL?
QEI'
(90a)
(d)
(e)
From the geometry of Fig. 68(d)
L rif PL\ L (5L\
~ 3 VI8/
PL L\ L
PL2 (L\ _ ( 5PL3 \
2/ V648E7/
PL3
9#7
= ^^, (i)
6487 w
which agrees with the result determined previously in Eq. (c). The deflection is
downward as shown in Fig. 68(d).
Determine the maximum deflection of the beam in Fig. 69.
u It per ft
(a)
Fig. 69
176
Chap. 5
Solution: The moment diagram, which may be developed from a free-body dia-
gram of a portion of the beam, is parabolic with a maximum ordinate of wL*/2.
The M/EI diagram also is parabolic and has a maximum ordinate of wL2/2EI.
The deflection of any point is equal to the deflection from a tangent at the wall, and
it is evident that the maximum deflection will occur at the free end. The deflection
of the free end from the tangent at the wall may be evaluated from the second
theorem, taking point B at the free end and point A at the wall.
(a)
(b)
Z\ 2EI
-wL4
8EI'
The area and location of the centroid of the parabolic segment may be determined
by integration or from Fig. 70.
Area = "
(a)
Fig. 70
From the two foregoing illustrative problems, it is evident that the
moment-area method is most advantageous in evaluating deflections and
slopes in cantilever beams carrying concentrated loads. One extension of the
area-moment method, known as the conjugate beam method, provides a
relatively simple procedure for evaluating deflections in a beam having
simply supported, fixed, or free ends. Values of deflection for some of the
more common types of beams and loadings are given in Table 4.
59. Deflections by Superposition.If a beam carries more than one
concentrated load or has two or more segments of uniform load which ex-
tend over only a portion of the beam, the method of superposition may be
more convenient than a routine solution by double integration or area
moments as outlined in the preceding articles.
The principle of superposition states that the slope or deflection at any
point in a beam is the resultant of the slopes and deflections at that point
caused by each of the loads acting separately. It is based on the assumption
that none of the loads influences the behavior of the beam with respect to
the other loads. So far as flexure is concerned, this assumption requires, in
addition to all of the conditions involved in the flexure formula, that the
TABLE 4
Maximum Moments and Deflections in Common Types of Beams
t/n/form /.oad
Tbta/ /octet = W - wL
Concentrated Load
Total load = P
.11111111
z
MmaX ^/S
a h |
>|
;'
I 3
L
i
-.3-^-/J
>Wjr - 384 SI
at x ='-/
ymax- -JT7EIL
at X'fainir, for xâ
11111111 r
h
at x=0
Vmax=-PL
ymax - jj
at X =0
1 1 I 1 I I I 1
/ii/s ~ w/z-f
r
A
S,
V
M=-**>&. 4l
. -WL-
- 2Pa3As
3CI +ea)*f
ymax
38* eI
at X = 44
y^(7jr!
at x= 2aL , for xa
178
Chap. 5
combination of loads will not produce stresses above the proportional limit
of the material at any point along the beam. The deflections and slopes
resulting from the individual loads may be evaluated by any of the standard
procedures, such as double integration and area moments.
Determine the deflection at the end of the cantilever beam of Fig. 71 which is
carrying a uniform load over its entire length and a concentrated load at the free
end.
p
w
/b per ft
\
\
\
\\\-
\
Fig. 71
Solution: The deflection at the free end may be considered to be the sum of the
deflections produced individually by the uniform load and by the concentrated load.
These may be evaluated by any of the standard procedures or may be taken (in this
case) directly from Table 4. Hence
_ LL
y 8EI
(a)
60. Deflections Caused by Shear.In the derivation of Eq. (88) only the
deflection due to the bending moment was taken into consideration. De-
flection also occurs as a result of the shearing forces developed on the cross
section. For all but relatively short deep beams, the shearing deflection is
small in comparsion with the deflection due to flexure and may be neglected
without introducing appreciable error.
efx
(a)
Fig. 72
In those beams in which shearing deflection is not negligible, it may be
determined by considering the way in which shear causes the beam to de-
flect. As indicated in Fig. 72, shearing stress developed on the cross section
is accompanied by shearing strain, the effect of which is to cause one cross
section to slide relative to an adjacent cross section. A differential length
of beam is distorted approximately as indicated in Fig. 72(6), the increment
of deflection being dy. However, dy may be evaluated in terms of the unit
shearing strain j and the length dx from Eq. (7).
dy = ydx. (96)
The unit shearing strain y may be expressed in terms of the shearing stress
and the modulus of rigidity, so
i g ,- .
dy = -Q- (96a)
If the variation in S, with respect to x and y is known, Eq. (96a) may be
integrated to evaluate y, the shearing deflection. If, for example, the
cantilever beam of Fig. 72(a) is an I-beam, the shearing stress may be as-
sumed uniformly distributed throughout the full depth of the web, and
[
I
JO
(97)
JO
from which
-{ (98)
A reasonable estimate of the shearing deflection of beams of other cross
section may be obtained by assuming the shearing stress to be uniformly
distributed over the cross section; a more nearly exact solution is obtained
by substituting the value of the shearing stress from Eq. (80) into Eq.
61. Design Considerations.All of the expressions for deflection due to
flexure reduce to the general form
y
MI
in which
P is the total load on the beam and a is a dimensionless number
dependent upon the type of supports of the beam, the type of
loading, the position of the load, and the location of the point
at which the deflection is evaluated.
From Eq. (99) it is evident that the deflection varies as the cube of the
length, and inversely as the modulus of elasticity of the material and the
180
Chap. 5
moment of inertia of the cross section. In the expressions for the flexural
stress and the shearing stress, the term / also appears in the denominator;
hence, a large moment of inertia tends to reduce both stress and deflection.
Further control of deflection is possible through the quantity E. Two beams
may have the same strength, by virtue of the same cross section and the
same proportional limit, but may have widely different deflections due to
different values of E. An aluminum alloy beam, for example, will deflect
three times as much as a steel beam of identical cross section under the
same load. However, the aluminum beam will be lighter in weight than the
steel beam. In fact, by increasing the moment of inertia of the aluminum
alloy beam properly, it may be made to have the same deflection as the
steel beam under the same load, and still be lighter in weight than the steel
beam.
PROBLEMS
308. For what ratio of depth to radius of curvature is the maximum unit strain de-
veloped in a beam equal to 0.001? How does this value of strain compare with
the elasticity of most engineering materials?
309. Determine the conditions under which the approximation involved in the ex-
pression for the radius of curvature amounts to 10 per cent.
310. Determine the radius of the smallest circle into which a strip of hardened steel
3/4 in. wide and 1/64 in. thick may be bent if the maximum flexural stress is
not to exceed 40,000 psi.
311. In the fabrication of a glued laminated timber arch, a 2-in. by 1-in. strip of
Douglas fir is bent to a radius of 12 ft. Determine the maximum flexural stress
developed in the timber.
312. A strip of aluminum alloy 24S-T is formed to fit the equation y = (jx2. De-
termine the maximum bending stress developed in the strip if it is 0.063 in.
thick.
313. Determine the minimum radius to which the section indicated in Fig. P-313
may be bent if the maximum flexural stress is not to exceed 2000 psi.
tin.
/in.
P-313
I'robs. 308-325 DEFLECTION OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS
181
314. A bimetallic temperature-control element consists of a 0.020-in. thick strip of
aluminum alloy 17S-T firmly bonded to a 0.020-in. thick strip of copper. The
assembly is clamped at one end. Determine the type of curve taken by the as-
sembly due to a change in temperature and evaluate the distance through
which the free end (10 in. from the clamp) moves for a temperature drop of
40F.
315. Determine by the double-integration procedure, the equation (with respect to
an origin at one end) of the elastic curve of a uniform beam subjected to equal
bending moments at the ends. Is this the equation of a circle? Explain.
316. The equation for the moment developed by a concentrated load on a simple
beam is normally written in two partsone on each side of the concentrated
load. What mathematical process may be utilized to develop a single equation
for the moment which will be valid from one support to the other?
317. Derive the equation for the elastic curve of a simply supported beam carrying
a load which may be expressed by the equation
, . TTX
w A sin f
318. Develop the equation for the elastic curve of a uniform cantilever beam
which is subjected to a couple M, at the free end.
319. A beam which is pinned at each end is subjected to a moment M, at the left
end. Develop the equation for the elastic curve of the beam.
320. A beam having a length L + a is placed on a knife-edge support at a distance
L from the left end. At the right end the beam carries a concentrated load P,
and at the left end a concentrated load of sufficient magnitude to keep the
beam in equilibrium. Determine the equation for the elastic curve of the beam
with reference to its original horizontal unloaded position.
321. A uniform cantilever beam carries a uniformly distributed load of w Ib per ft.
Develop the equation for the elastic curve of the beam.
322. A cantilever beam carries a concentrated load P at the free end. Develop the
equation of the elastic curve of the beam and check the maximum deflection
with the value given in Table 4.
323. Develop by double integration the equation for the elastic curve of a simply
supported beam carrying a concentrated load at the center.
324. A beam which is simply supported at the ends carries a load that varies uni-
formly from zero at the left end to a maximum of k Ib per ft at the right end.
Develop the equation for the elastic curve of the beam.
325. Develop the equation for the elastic curve of the beam indicated in Fig. P-325.
{/-/uid Surface
Y//////////
P-325
326. A beam having a span L is pinned at the ends and is subjected to a counter-
clockwise couple M a at a distance a from the left end. Determine the equation
for the elastic curve of the beam.
327. A beam of span L is simply supported at each end and carries a uniformly
distributed load w for a distance L/3 from each end. Determine the maximum
deflection by double integration.
328. A beam of uniform cross section and length L + la is simply supported at a
distance a from each end. Determine the elastic curve of the beam if it is carry-
ing a concentrated load P at each end.
329. A beam of length L is loaded so that the equation of the elastic curve is
24EIy = wx(2Lx* - x3 - L').
Determine the end conditions and the type of loading on the beam.
330. For a certain beam of uniform cross section, the equation of the elastic curve
between zero and a is
Px*
162EIy = - -jj- (6a-7x).
Determine the conditions at x 0 and x = a and if possible identify the type
of loading which the beam carries.
331. The equation for the elastic curve of a beam between zero and L has been de-
termined as
VAEIy = -w(3L< - 4L'x + x4).
Identify the type of beam and loading conditions.
332. Determine the type of loading and end conditions in a beam for which the
equation of the elastic curve is
GEIy = -B(x* - 3L2z + 2L3).
333. In a certain beam of uniform cross section the equation of the elastic curve be-
tween x = 0 and x = L is
= -Px*(L - x)*.
Identify the end conditions and the type of loading which the beam carries.
334. In a certain beam of uniform cross section, the equation of the elastic curve
between x = 0 and x = 2L is
24EIy = -kx(l2L3 - 8L2z - Lz2 + x3}.
335. In a certain beam of uniform cross section, the equation of the elastic curve
between x = 0 and x = L is
24E7?/ = wL(4x3 - 3Lz2 - 6L2x + 5L3).
Probs. 326-350 DEFLECTION OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS 183
336. If the slope at each point in a beam is plotted against the location of the point,
to what is the area under the curve between two points equal?
337. A beam of span L is simply supported at the ends and carries three equal
concentrated loads at equally spaced points. Determine the maximum de-
flection.
338. A cantilever beam is subjected to a moment at the free end. Determine the
slope and the deflection at the free end.
339. A beam of uniform cross section is pinned at each end and is subjected to a
moment M, at one end. Determine the slope at each end and the maximum de-
flection.
340. A beam rests on a single support with a load P applied at a distance L on one
side of the support. At a distance a on the other side of the support is a load of
sufficient magnitude to hold the beam in equilibrium. Determine the deflection
under each of the loads.
341. Check the value given in Table 4 for the maximum deflection under the con-
centrated load at the center of a simply supported beam.
342. Determine by area moments the maximum deflection in a cantilever beam
carrying a uniform load.
343. Use the method of area moments to check the value given in Table 4 for the
deflection at the end of a cantilever beam carrying a concentrated load at the
end.
344. A beam of span L is simply supported at the ends and carries a uniform load
extending for one-third of the span from each end. Use the method of area
moments to evaluate the deflection at the center of the beam.
345. A beam rests on two supports a distance L apart and overhangs for a distance a
on each side of the supports. Determine the deflection at the ends and at the
center of the beam caused by a concentrated load P at each end.
346. Solve Prob. 337 by superposition.
347. Show how Prob. 342 may be solved by superposition, if the beam is considered
to carry a series of concentrated loads of magnitude w dx.
348. Show how Prob. 344 may be solved by superposition, if the beam is considered
to carry a series of concentrated loads of magnitude k dx.
349. A simply supported beam carries a uniform load over its entire length and a
concentrated load at the center of the span. Determine the maximum de-
flection.
350. A "moment indicator" for use with flexible models of beams consists of two
arms attached to the beam as indicated in Fig. P-350. A scale is fixed to one
arm, and the other serves as a pointer. Derive an expression for the moment
corresponding to a movement S of the pointer relative to the scale.
184
Chap. 5
C[
P-350
351. A 10-in. I-beam at 25.4 Ib carries a concentrated load at the center of a 12-ft
span. If the magnitude of the load is sufficient to develop a maximum flexural
stress of 20,000 psi. in the beam, determine the deflection which occurs at the
center as a result of (a) flexure, (b) shear.
352. A cantilever beam of rectangular cross section carries a concentrated load at
the free end. Under what conditions will the deflection under the load caused
by bending equal the deflection caused by shear?
353. An aluminum alloy cantilever beam has a rectangular cross section 1 in. wide
and 3 in. deep. If it carries a uniform load of 100 Ib per ft, for what length of
beam will the shearing deflection at the end equal the bending deflection?
354. Derive an expression for the shearing deflection that occurs at the end of a
cantilever beam carrying a uniform load. Assume that the cross section of the
beam is rectangular.
355. A beam of rectangular cross section is simply supported at the ends and carries
a uniform load over its entire length. Develop a general expression for the de-
flection at the center due to shear.
356. A white oak beam 6 in. wide and 12 in. deep is fixed at one end and free at the
other. A moment of 1800 ft-Ib is applied 10 ft from the fixed end. Determine
the deflection at the point where the moment is applied.
357. If the beam of Prob. 356 extends 2 ft beyond the section where the moment is
applied, determine the deflection at the free end.
358. A Douglas fir beam 6 in. wide and 12 in. deep is supported at the left end and
12 ft from the left end. It projects 4 ft beyond the right-hand support. De-
termine the deflection of the right-hand end when a load of 4000 Ib is applied
midway between the supports. Determine the deflection under the load.
359. A cantilever beam 12 ft long is made by riveting together two 6-in. by 6-in.
by 1/2-in. angles as shown in Fig. P-359. Determine the deflection at the free
P-359
Probs. 351-367 DEFLECTION OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS
185
end if a load of 1000 Ib is placed 8 ft from the support. Determine the deflec-
tion under the load.
360. A 24-in. I-beam at 120 Ib per ft is used as a cantilever 14 ft long. Determine the
deflection at the free end due to (a) the weight of the beam, (b) a load of
300 Ib applied at the free end.
Assume that the long axis of symmetry is horizontal.
361. Solve the preceding problem if the long axis of symmetry is vertical.
362. A 20-in. I-beam at 95 Ib per ft is simply supported on a span of 20 ft with the
web horizontal. Determine the maximum stress and deflection due to the
weight of the beam.
363. Determine the additional load which may be applied at the center of the beam
of the preceding problem if the maximum stress (due to both live load and
dead load) is not to exceed 20,000 psi. Determine the additional deflection
which would be produced by this load.
364. A Douglas fir beam having the T-shaped cross section indicated in Fig. P-364
a 'in.
2 in.
în.
2 in.
2/r>.
P-364
is used as a cantilever 12 ft long to support a uniform load of 200 Ib per ft.
Determine the magnitude of the concentrated load applied at the free end
which would make the resultant deflection at the center equal to zero. De-
termine the deflection at the free end.
365. An 18-in. I-beam at 70 Ib per ft is simply supported on a span of 36 ft. A con-
centrated load is applied at the center of the beam subject to the specification
that the deflection at the center be not greater than 1/8 in. Determine the
maximum stress which the concentrated load develops in the beam.
366. A simply supported beam with a span of 16 ft carries a uniformly distributed
load of 200 Ib per ft over its entire length. If the beam is not to deflect more
than 1/8 in., determine a suitable cross section using (a) a rolled steel section
or sections, (b) a white oak section.
367. Douglas fir beams 2 in. by 10 in. are to be used to support a floor which carries
a uniform load of 80 Ib per sq ft. The beams may be assumed to be simply
186
Chap. 5
supported on a span of 16 ft. Determine the maximum spacing of the beams if
the maximum flexural stress in the beams is not to exceed 1200 psi., the maxi-
mum deflection is not to exceed 1/2 in., and the maximum shearing stress is
not to exceed 100 psi.
368. The spring suspension system for a certain vehicle consists of a 1-5/8-in. steel
rod with a length of 68 in. to which is attached a bracket on which the wheel is
mounted at point A, indicated in Fig. P-368. If the maximum equivalent
Bear/ny
68/fi.
/6/n.
P-368
static wheel load is 6240 Ib, design a suitable bracket AB to transmit the wheel
load to the shaft. The maximum flexural stress in the bracket is not to exceed
20,000 psi. Determine the distance through which point A near the end of the
bracket moves for a static wheel load of 6240 Ib.
369. Determine the deflection at the center of the axle of a locomotive if the total
axle load of 52,000 Ib is equally distributed between the two journals 13 in.
outside of the wheels which are 4 ft 8-1/2 in. apart. The steel axle is 10 in. in
diam.
370. Two 12-in. channels at 30 Ib per ft are attached back to back and used as a
simply supported beam (with the webs vertical) on a span of 20 ft. The beam
carries a concentrated load at the center, the load having sufficient magnitude
to develop the limiting allowable stress of 20,000 psi. at a point 6 ft from the
end. Determine the thickness of steel cover plates 6 in. wide which must be
welded to the top and bottom surfaces to keep the maximum stress at the
center from exceeding 20,000 psi. Determine the deflection at the center of the
strengthened beam.
371. A 12-in. I-beam at 40.8 Ib per ft is used as a cantilever 10 ft long and carries a
load of 12,000 Ib at the free end. The inner 4 ft of the beam is strengthened by
the addition, to the top and bottom, of an 8-in. channel at 11.5 Ib per ft. The
channels are placed with the flanges projecting outward. Determine the de-
flection at the end of the beam.
372. A 4-in. by 6-in. Douglas fir beam was designed for a concentrated load at the
center of a 12-ft span with the load developing a maximum stress of 1000 psi.
A later modification of the structure for which the beam was designed required
that the load be two and a half times the original load. The beam is to be
strengthened by the addition of 4-in. wide steel or aluminum plates top and
bottom. Determine the thickness of plates required and evaluate the resultant
deflection under the load.
CHAPTER 6
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE BEAMS
62. Introduction.A statically indeterminate beam is one which has
more supporting reactions (forces and couples) than are required for equi-
librium. Consequently, it is not possible to evaluate all of the reactions by
applying the equations of statics alone. As was pointed out in the preceding
chapter, some of the basic relationships involving the geometry of the beam
(slopes and deflections) may be utilized in determining the unknown reac-
tions in a statically indeterminate beam.
Statically indeterminate beams are frequently used as they may be more
economical of material than statically determinate beams. For example, a
beam may be designed to carry a certain maximum uniformly distributed
load when it is simply supported at the ends. It is obvious that the addition
of a center support at the same level as the end supports will decrease
the maximum deflection. Similarly, the addition of a prop under the free
end of a cantilever beam will obviously decrease the maximum stress and
deflection, thereby strengthening and stiffening the beam with no addition
of material to it directly. Under some circumstances, the addition of extra
(or redundant) reactions may be undesirable, but in general they tend to
improve the characteristics of the beam.
63. Solution of Statically Indeterminate Beams.The "solution" of a
statically indeterminate beam involves the determination of the reactions.
When they are known, the shear and moment diagrams may be constructed,
and the stresses and deflections evaluated by the conventional procedures
already outlined.
A number of methods have been developed for evaluating the reactions
in a statically indeterminate beam, each of the methods having character-
istic advantages and disadvantages. The adaptation of both the double-
integration procedure and the area-moment procedure is discussed in the
following articles.
64. Double Integration.The double-integration procedure for the
evaluation of reactions in a statically indeterminate beam starts with the
differential equation for the beam, Eq. (88). Since this is an equation of
second order, its solution (for y) will involve two constants of integration
which may be evaluated from known boundary conditions. However, in a
statically indeterminate beam, one or more additional unknowns will be
involved in the expression for Mx. These will carry through the integration
187
188
Chap. 6
and appear as additional unknowns in the deflection equation. Therefore,
additional boundary conditions are required for the evaluation of the un-
knowns. These additional boundary conditions are obtained from the
geometry of the deflected beam. In other words, the equations of statics
are supplemented by geometrical relationships pertinent to the specific
beam being analyzed.
The method may be illustrated most advantageously with a problem.
Determine the reactions at the ends of a beam fixed at both ends and carrying a
uniform load throughout its entire length.
Solution: The first step is to make a sketch of the beam, indicating on it an ap-
proximate elastic curve. As is shown in Fig. 73(a), it is evident that the beam has
n
i i
la)
P/r,
\ V*
Fig. 73
four reactions (a shear and a moment at each end). Since there are only two inde-
pendent equations of equilibrium available for the force system involved, the beam
is statically indeterminate to the second degree.
A free-body diagram of a portion of the beam is indicated in Fig. 73(6). All un-
known shears and moments are assumed to be positive, even though it is evident
that the moment at the left end will be negative.* From the free-body diagram the
moment at any point may be evaluated as
Mx
+ V,x -
MW2
(a)
in which
M, and Va are the unknown moments and shear at the left end.
The expression for Mx is substituted in the general differential equation for de-
flection, Eq. (88), giving
* Many engineers prefer to indicate the moment as negative when it is obvious from
the sketch that the moment must be negative. Then, a positive final answer indicates
that the moment is negative as assumed on the free-body diagram.
Art. 64 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE BEAMS 189
7g=M.+ F,x-^f2. (b)
This may be integrated directly giving
From the geometry of Fig. 73(a) it is evident that the slope of the beam is hori-
zontal at the left end. If this information is substituted in Eq. (c), it follows that
, Ci = 0. (d)
The beam is also horizontal at the right end; hence,
n Tlf 7 I T7 i N
0 = MoL + V,-~ --- _ (e)
A second integration of the differential equation gives
El y = M.% + V.? ~^ + C,. (f)
The fact that the deflection is zero at the left end, where x is zero, makes
C2 = 0. (g)
From the condition that the deflection is zero at the right end, it follows that
_ M.l? V,L* wV ...
"~ 2 ' 6 "- 24' W
The two equations, Eq. (f) and Eq. (h), involve only two unknowns, M, and V,.
Hence, the unknowns may be evaluated as
IT wL ,.,
K = --- (i)
,.,
(j)
The results show that the shear at the left end is positive, and equal to one-half the
total load on the beam. Both of these conclusions are reasonable. In addition, the
moment is indicated as negative, which is correct from the configuration of the
elastic curve at the left end.
The two remaining unknowns, the shear and the moment at the right end, may be
evaluated by the two independent equations of equilibrium applied to the free-
body diagram of the entire beam. It is found that the shear and the moment at the
right end of the beam are numerically equal to the shear and the moment at the
left end of the beam, respectively. The result is reasonable by symmetry.
Determine the moments developed at the ends of a beam which is fixed at both
ends and which carries a concentrated load at a distance a from the left end.
Solution: A line diagram of the beam and an approximate deflection curve are
first sketched as shown in Fig. 74(a). Because of the concentrated load on the beam
190
Chap. 6
L-a
(a)
y
'1
ve\
X
p
V.
M*
fc)
Fig. 74
the moment equation must be written in two parts, one valid between the left end
and the load, the other between the load and the right end. The moment equation
for the left portion may be developed from the free-body diagram of Fig. 74(6) in
which the origin is taken at the left end. The unknown moments and shears are as-
sumed to be positive, so that the signs of the results will indicate the proper sign of
moment and shear. From the equilibrium of this portion of the beam, the moment
at a distance x from the left end is found to be
AT, = M. + V,x.
(a)
From the free-body diagram of a portion of the beam extending to the right of the
concentrated load, Fig. 74(c), it is apparent that
Mx = M, + V,x - P (x - a).
(b)
As the next step, these two moment equations are substituted in the general
differential equation for the deflection of the beam, Eq. (88), and the two equations
integrated. The resulting equations will contain six unknowns (V,, Ma, and four
constants of integration) so six boundary conditions, or geometrical conditions,
must be used to evaluate the unknowns. These are apparent in Fig. 74(a). For
0 < x < a.
j.. TT" a
- d. (c)
From the condition that the slope is fcero at x = 0, it follows that
Ci = 0.
A second integration of the equation gives
(d)
pr
El y =
.
h
.
h
2 6
From the condition that the deflection is zero at the left end, it follows that
C2 = 0.
(e)
The deflection (times El) under the load may be evaluated as
, M,a2 V,a3 . ,
&1 Va = g 'I' -g > (g)
and the slope (times El) under the load is
(h)
A similar procedure may be followed for the right-hand portion of the beam,
where a < x < L
El J = Max + Va |2 - ^f + P ax + C3. (i)
From the condition that the slope is zero at the right end, it follows that
C3 = -MaL -V,^ + ^~- PaL. (j)
A second integration gives
Ma* , V,x* Px3 Paz2 ,, T V.ltx PUx
-2T + -Q ----- g- + -T- - M,Lx -- 2T + -2~
- PaLx 4- C4. (k)
Similarly, C4 may be evaluated in terms of the other variables by making use of the
condition that the deflection is zero at the right end. Hence,
from which
M,U V.U PL3 PoL*
C4 = g- r-j 3- + -2-
The deflection (times El) under the load may be evaluated as
wr MM* . Vaa* . Po5 ,, T 7.L2a . D ,T
El ya = ^ -- h -g- + -g -- M,La -- ^ -- 1 -- g --
, M,L2 , V,L* PL3 , PL , PaL2 . .
+ -T-'' ~3 3 '' 2 ! 2 w
The slope (times #7) under the load may be evaluated by substituting the value of
C3 from Eq. (j) into Eq. (i).
vjdy M , V'.o'Po11 ,, , 7aL2,PL2 p, ,
El ^ = M,a H 2 -- r -^ -- M,i, -- 2 --"" -2 -- ^^
However, the values for slope and deflection from Eqs. (n) and (o) must be equal to
the values as determined in Eqs. (g) and (h), since they are evaluated at the same
point. If these pairs of values are equated, there result two equations which may be
solved simultaneously for the unknowns, M , and V,.
M,=-(L-a)2 (p)
V. = 3 '2a +L)(L- a)*. (q)
Eq. (p) indicates the moment at the left to be negative, which agrees with the
sketch in Fig. 74(a), and Eq. (q) shows V, to be positive, which is correct. The
reasonableness of the results may further be checked by letting a equal L/2.
Ma = -?, (r)
V. = f (s)
The shear checks the result which would be obtained by consideration of the
symmetry, and the magnitude of the moment is one-half of the moment at the
center of a simply supported beam carrying a concentrated load at the center. The
moment at the center of the fixed beam may be evaluated from statics as
Af. = ^- (t)
Hence, the maximum moment in the fixed beam carrying a concentrated load at the
center is one-half of the maximum moment in a similar, simply supported beam.
This indicates the economy of a statically indeterminate beam.
With the shear and moment at the left end determined, the shear and moment
may be evaluated at all other points by statics.
65. Area Moments.The area-moment procedure also may be used for
the evaluation of redundant reactions in statically indeterminate beams,
making use of the geometrical relationships which are involved in the
boundary conditions imposed by the redundant reactions. While it is diffi-
cult to establish a procedure which will give the most direct solution in all
cases, the following sequence of steps is usually advantageous.
(1) Indicate the approximate deflection curve on a sketch of the beam.
(2) Construct a free-body diagram of the entire beam and obtain re-
lationships among the unknowns by writing the equations of equilibrium.
(3) Note the number of redundant reactions.
(4) Select one geometrical condition (usually a condition of zero slope or
zero deflection) for each of the redundant reactions.
(5) Write an equation from the area-moment theorems for each of the
geometrical conditions noted.
(6) Solve these equations together with the equations obtained from
statics for the reactions.
The procedure will be followed for two illustrative problems.
A beam is simply supported at the left end and fixed at the right end. Determine
the reactions and the moment at the right end due to a concentrated load at mid-
span.
Art. 65
193
Solution: The sketch of the beam and an approximate deflection curve are shown
in Fig. 75(a) and a free-body diagram is indicated in Fig. 75(b). The unknown shear
and moment are assumed to be positive.*
(a)
Fig. 75
The force equation of equilibrium and the moment equation of equilibrium with
respect to an axis at the right end of the beam give, respectively,
R, - V, = P,
-pi
R,L - ~ - Mi = 0.
(a)
(b)
It is noted that the load P develops three reactions, R,, Vi, and Mi. The force
system involved is a coplanar parallel nonconcurrent force system, so there are two
independent equations of equilibrium, Eqs. (a) and (b). Hence, there is one re-
dundant reaction, and one additional equation must be obtained. This equation
may be obtained from any one of the three following conditions.
(1) The deflection is zero at the left end.
(2) The deflection is zero at the right end.
(3) The slope is zero at the right end.
In this problem, probably the most convenient condition to use is the first. In
order to apply it, an M/EI diagram must be constructed. This may be done with
the aid of the free-body diagram, the final result being indicated in Fig. 75(c). The
moment at the right end is shown as positive to agree with the assumed positive Mi.
* Many engineers prefer to indicate the moment as negative where it is obvious from
the sketch that the moment must be negative. Then, a positive final answer indicates that
the moment is negative as assumed on the free-body diagram.
From the second theorem of area moments, it follows that the moment of the en-
tire M/EI diagram with respect to an axis through the left end must be zero, be-
cause the deflection of the left end with respect to a tangent at the right end is zero.
The M/EI diagram of Fig. 75(c) may conveniently be treated as two triangles, one
above the dotted line and the other below the dotted line. From the second theorem
of area moments, it follows that
[RaL _ Mi \ L ( L\ I .Mi ,,.. 2L_ _ , ,
\2EI 2EI/ 2 \2/ 2EI() 3'
3R,L + 5Ml = 0, (d)
Ml = - WjL. (e)
This is the third equation necessary for the solution. If this value of MI is sub-
stituted back in Eq. (b), there results
. = if- (f)
Then, from Eq. (e),
Mi-
16 ^'
The minus sign shows that the moment at the fixed end actually is negative, which
agrees with the sketch of the deflection curve in Fig. 75(a). The correct moment
diagram is shown in Fig. 75(d). The shear Vi at the right end may be determined
from Eq. (a)
V, - - 00
Hence, the shear is upward on the right end of the beam, which is reasonable.
A beam which is fixed at both ends carries a uniform load over its entire length.
Determine the moments at the ends of the beam.
Solution: The loading diagram and an approximate deflection curve are shown in
Fig. 76(a) and a free-body diagram of the beam is indicated in Fig. 76(6). As in the
preceding problem, all of the unknown shears and moments are assumed to be posi-
tive, although some of them are obviously negative. A shear and moment are de-
veloped at each fixed end, so there are four unknown reactions. Since the force
system is coplanar, nonconcurrent, and parallel, there are two independent equa-
tions of equilibrium. Therefore, the beam has two redundant reactions; that is, it is
statically indeterminate to the second degree. Two equations of equilibrium may be
written from the free-body diagram of the beam.
K = Fi + wL, (a)
and
Ma+ V,L = wLJt + Mi. (b)
Art. 65
196
Two additional equations must be obtained from the geometrical conditions and the
area-moment theorems. At least four geometrical conditions are available since it is
apparent that both the slopes and the deflections are zero at each end of the beam.
In this problem, the calculations may be simplified by taking advantage of the
symmetry involved. Since the end conditions are identical and the loading is sym-
Fig. 76
metrical with respect to the centerline of the beam, the moment at the left end must
be numerically equal to the moment at the right end, and the shear at the left end
must be identical in magnitude with the shear at the right end. Hence, Eq. (b) re-
duces to
and Eq. (a) gives
V -,
v, ~ 2
i= -V..
(c)
(d)
Thus, the reaction at the right-hand end of the beam is upward, as would be ex-
pected.
The moment at the left end may therefore be evaluated by using only one of the
area-moment theorems, since only one additional equation is now required. Prob-
ably the most convenient condition to use is that of the slope at the right-hand end
being equal to the slope at the left-hand end. The M/EI diagram is indicated in
Fig. 76(c). Point A is taken at the left-hand end and point B at the right-hand end
of the beam. Since the slope at point B is equal to the slope at A, the area of the
M/EI diagram between A and B must be equal to zero. The area is most con-
veniently evaluated by dividing it into two parts by the construction line CD.
Then, from the first area-moment theorem,
area ACBD + area CED = 0, (e)
M, , 2 (M. - Ma) , _ m
-EIL + 3 El L-0,
or
M. = -2Me. (g)
The moment at the center, M,, may be evaluated in terms of M, with the aid of the
free-body diagram indicated in Fig. 76(d). The moment equation of equilibrium
written with respect to an axis at the center of the beam gives
,, wLI L \ . V,L ., n ,, v
.>~-2\T/+-2 -- "=' (h)
from which
,, ,, wL2 , VL ,.,
M . = M, -- g~ + - (i)
, . wLJ ,.,
= Ma + -g- (j)
If this value is substituted in Eq. (g) the value of M a may be determined as
The minus sign indicates that the moment at the end is actually negative. This
agrees with the sketch in Fig. 76(a). The moment diagram for the beam is shown in
Fig. 76(e). The maximum moment in a simply supported beam carrying a uniform
load is wL?/8 or 50 per cent greater than the maximum in the fixed beam.
66. Superposition of Structures. Another method for the solution of
statically indeterminate structures is based on the idea that an inde-
terminate structure or beam may be resolved into a series of component
statically determinate structures or beams which, when superimposed, will
be identical with the original structure. The necessary additional equations
evaluating the reactions of the indeterminate beam may be obtained by
equating the sum of the deflections or rotations of the individual component
beams at certain key points to the deflection or rotation of the original
indeterminate beam. The deflections and rotations of the component beams
may be evaluated by any convenient method.
In general, an indeterminate beam may be resolved into several different
Art. 66
197
combinations of component beams. Some of the more common possibilities
are indicated in the following illustrative problem.
A cantilever beam is propped at the free end. Determine the magnitude of the re-
action developed at the prop by a uniform load over the entire length of the beam.
Solution: The first step is to sketch the beam and its approximate deflection
curve, as in Fig. 77(a). Then a free-body diagram is constructed, as in Fig. 77(fc).
(a)
(6)
^
P
\y
Fig. 77
There are three unknown reactions, R, M, and V; and, since the force system is
parallel, nonconcurrent, and coplanar, there are but two independent equations of
equilibrium. Therefore, the beam is indeterminate to the first degree, and one ad-
ditional equation is required before the reaction may be evaluated.
The indeterminate beam may be resolved into a cantilever beam fixed at the
right end and carrying a uniform load, plus a cantilever beam fixed at the right end
and subjected to an upward concentrated load at the left end, as indicated in Fig. 78.
Fig. 78
The beam carrying the uniform load will deflect downward at the free end a distance
2/i, whereas the component beam carrying the concentrated load at the free end will
deflect upward a distance 2/2- If the two component beams, when superimposed, are
to be equivalent to the original indeterminate beam, the deflection at the left end
must be zero. This supplies a necessary condition from which an additional equation
may be written
0.
(a)
198
Chap. 6
From Table 4, by double integration, or by area moments, the deflections yi and j
may be evaluated. If these values are substituted in Eq. (a)
__
8EI "" 3EI
from which
R =
ZwL
8
(b)
(c)
The condition of zero slope and zero moment at the right end is automatically
satisfied since each of the component beams satisfies the conditions. Values of M
and V may be determined from the value of R and the equations of equilibrium
which may be written for the free-body diagram of Fig. 77(6).
*--T.
7= -
5wL
8
(d)
(e)
Hence, both the shear and the moment at the right-hand end of the beam are nega-
tive, which agrees with the physical setup at the fixed end.
The resolution process may be thought of as involving two steps: first, the re-
moval of the left reaction, which causes the beam to deflect at the left end; and,
second, the evaluation of the force required at the end to push the beam back to its
correct position.
Another possible solution consists in resolving the original cantilever beam into a
simply supported beam carrying a uniform load and a simply supported beam with a
moment at the right end as indicated in Fig. 79. Supports are necessary at the ends
A A A A A A A.
= AAAAiAAT
H
Fig. 79
of the second component beam to prevent deflection at the end. The third equation
necessary to supplement the two equations of equilibrium may be obtained from the
fact that the resultant rotation at the right end must be zero. That is, the first com-
ponent simple beam of Fig. 79 will undergo a rotation <t>i at the right end. The mo-
ment M at the right end of the second component beam will produce a rotation &
For the two component beams to be equivalent to the original statically inde-
terminate beam,
= 0.
0)
The rotations <j>i and fa may be evaluated by the double-integration procedure or by
area moments, and values substituted in Eq. (f) giving
wL3 ML
24E7 3EI'
(g)
Art. 67
190
from which
M =
(h)
which agrees with the result determined by the previous method.
In the second component beam the moment at the right end is shown as a nega-
tive moment, and it produces a negative angle change <fo at the right end. The value
of the moment in Eq. (h) is positive, which means that the assumed moment in
Fig. 79 is correct, that is, that the moment is negative.
In most statically indeterminate structures, several different combinations of
component statically determinate structures may be used.
67. Theorem of Three Moments.Statically indeterminate beams which
are continuous over several nondeflecting supports may be solved readily
by the application of a relationship known as the Theorem of Three Mo-
ments. The theorem involves the load and the moments over three con-
secutive supports. It is assumed that the beam carries uniform loads which
are continuous and of constant magnitudes between supports, but the
magnitude of the uniform load may be different in different spans, as shown
in Fig. 80(a).
(a)
\ fto~o-Ji
I f ]
+'
rZEEHG
{
I 1
C1
(c)
(d)
/%
c
Fig. 80
A free-body diagram of two adjacent spans is indicated in Fig. 80(6).
The left end of the free-body diagram is taken just to the right of a support
and is subjected to a shear V A and a moment M A, both of which are as-
sumed to be positive. The right end of the free-body diagram is taken at a
section just to the left of the support and is likewise subjected to a shear
V, and a moment M c, both of which are assumed to be positive. The length
of the first span is indicated as LI and the length of the second span is I/s.
The magnitude of the uniform load in the first span is WiLi and in the second
span wzLz; the moment over the middle support is designated as MB; and
the middle reaction is RB- With an origin at the left end of the free-body
diagram, the differential equation for deflection may be written for the
first span as
(100)
Eq. (100) may be integrated twice with respect to x giving
Ctf + C,. (102)
The constant (7 2 may be evaluated from the condition that the deflection is
zero at the left end. That is, it is assumed that the beam does not deflect
at the support. This restriction makes C% = 0. Another boundary condi-
tion is that the deflection is zero at the middle support. Therefore,
r _ MALi F/iLi2 ,
Ci- -
The moment in the second span, with an origin at B, is
Mx = MB + VBx - ^ (104)
in which
VB is the shear just to the right of the second support.
This value may be substituted in the differential equation of the elastic
curve and integrated, giving
mdy ,, . FflZ2 w$xs . ~
EI-^ = MBx H -- ^ --- g- + Ca-
A second integration gives the expression for the deflection.
B . B z . -, ,incN
El 7/2 = 2 -- 1 -- g --- 24- + CV + C4. (106)
As before, one constant of integration, d, is zero because the deflection is
zero at the center support and the other constant, 3, may be evaluated
from the fact that the deflection is assumed to be zero at the third support.
6
, 22 , .
r -~ ('
Since the slope from the equation for the first span must equal the slope
from the equation for the second span at their point of tangency over the
second support, Eq. (101) for x = LI is equal to Eq. (104) for x = 0.
. -
-I -
+ ^J- (108)
The quantity El is cancelled out on the basis of the assumption that the
beam is homogeneous and of constant cross section throughout the two
spans. Eq. (108) may be simplified by replacing VA by its equivalent ex-
pressed in terms of MA, MB, and w as determined from the free-body dia-
gram of Fig. 80(c)
MA + VALi - ^|^ - MB = 0, (109)
and
',! = -MA + ~- + MB. (110)
Similarly, VB may be evaluated in terms of MB, Me, and Wz from the equa-
tion of equilibrium applied to the free-body diagram of Fig. 80 (d).
VBL2 = -Ms + + Mc. (HI)
These values may be substituted in Eq. (108) to eliminate the shears, giv-
ing
MAL, + 2MB(Ll + L2) + McL* = Kîli3 + u;2I23). (112)
Eq. (112) is known as the Theorem of Three Moments and is useful in
solving for moments and reactions in continuous beams which carry uni-
form loads.
Determine the moments over the supports in the continuous beam of Fig. 81,
assuming that the supports do not settle.
202
Chap. 6
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS -
/6O0/t>
240 /t> per ft
240 fi> per ft
. 1
,, ,.
t
(a)
. i
Zft
4 ft 6 ft
/iff
/r, /tt
*3
*4
6 ft i zeao/b
r >|
1
1
2834 ff/A
C|
*
(h)
i
Va
**
Fig. 81
Solution: Since there are four unknown reactions and only two independent equa-
tions of equilibrium, the Theorem of Three Moments must be applied twice to
evaluate the unknowns. The theorem may be applied first to the two spans between
R\ and R3. For this range Ma is the moment over Ri and may be evaluated directly
as -3200 ft-lb. From Eq. (112),
or
-3200 (4) + 2M2 (4 + 8) + M3 (8) = -} [120 (6)3 + 0] (a)
3M2 + M3 = 790. (b)
The theorem may now be applied over the two spans from R2 to Rt. In this, Ma is
the moment over R2, or Af2, etc.
M2 (8) + 2M3 (8 + 12) + 0 = -HO + 240 (12)],
or
M2+ 5M3 = -12,960.
Eqs. (b) and (d) may be solved simultaneously for Mi and M3.
Mi = 1208 ft-lb,
M3 = -2834 ft-lb.
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
With the moments known at all of the supports, the reactions may be evaluated by
constructing appropriate free-body diagrams and writing the equations of equi-
librium. For example, R4 may be determined from the free-body diagram of Fig.
81(6) and the moment equation of equilibrium with respect to an axis on the line
of action of V3.
2834 + 12R4 - 2880 (6) = 0,
R* = 1204 lb.
(g)
A Theorem of Three Moments may be derived for concentrated loads as
well as for uniform loads.
Probe. 373-384 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE BEAMS
203
PROBLEMS
373. A beam of uniform cross section fixed at one end and pinned at the other is
subjected to a moment M at the pinned end. Determine the reactions.
374. A beam which is fixed at each end is subjected to a moment M at a distance a
from one end. Determine the reactions.
375. Determine the reactions developed at the ends of a fixed beam which carries
a uniform load over the interval from x = p to x = L/2.
376. A beam fixed at each end carries a pair of symmetrical concentrated loads each
at a distance a from a fixed end. Determine the reactions.
377. A beam which is fixed at both ends carries a load which is expressed by the
equation
w = a sin -
TX
Determine the moment developed at each end.
378. A beam simply supported at one end and fixed at the other end carries a load
which varies uniformly from zero at the simply supported end to A; lb per ft at
the fixed end. Determine the reactions.
379. Solve the preceding problem if the beam is fixed at each end.
380. Determine the reactions of the beam indicated in Fig. P-380.
I
m
i/B
I
P-380
381. Determine the reactions developed at the ends of a fixed beam which carries
a concentrated load at the center.
382. A propped cantilever beam of a span L carries a concentrated load at a distance
a from the propped end. Determine the reactions.
383. Determine the reactions of the beam shown in Fig. P-383. It is pinned at the
left end.
4
|> -gnnm
*/t
P-383
384. A beam of span L carries a uniform load of k lb per ft over the entire span. It is
rigidly fixed at the left end and partially fixed at the right end, the slope at
204
Chap. 6
that point being kL3/48EI. Determine the moment at the left support in
terms of k and L.
385. The Douglas fir beam shown in Fig. P-385 has a hollow box cross section 8 in.
\ 1 1 I i 1 1
/ ml
3*
J //?.
/^ in. \
P-385
by 16 in. outside with 2-in. walls. Determine the force P at the left end of the
beam required to make the slope zero over the left support.
386. Determine the reactions developed by the beam of Fig. P-383 by a uniform
load over the entire length.
387. Determine the reaction at B of the beam shown in Fig. P-387.
J
k /# />ff/" t/att /er>gth
11111
r
/ ^
P-387
388. The slope of the left end of the beam shown in Fig. P-388 is 0.018 upward to
Y
"/z ft
tfft
P-388
the left. If the beam is a 10-in. I at 25.4 Ib per ft, determine (a) the magnitude
of the load P, (b) the reaction at the left end of the beam.
389. A 6-in. wide by 16-in. deep by 24-ft long timber beam is simply supported at
the ends and at the center, and carries a uniformly distributed load of w Ib
per ft. The center support settles a distance equal to wL4/lQ2EI relative to the
end supports. If E is 1,200,000 psi., the maximum allowable flexural stress is
1200 psi., and the maximum allowable shearing unit stress is 80 psi., determine
the maximum permissible value of w.
Probs. 385-395 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE BEAMS
205
390. A continuous beam is loaded as shown in Fig. P-390. Determine the vertical
shear just to the left of the center reaction.
6 OO / per ft
Y/////////////
Sff
/eft
ir
^
V
/Off
tf
P-390
391. Assume that the beam shown in Fig. P-380 is partially fixed at the right end
so that the slope there, after the load is applied, is wL3/8EI upward to the left
instead of zero. Determine the left reaction. The supports do not deflect
vertically.
392. Determine the left reaction of the beam shown in Fig. P-392 if the supports do
not deflect.
SOOO/6
500 /b per ft
rm
777?
i
5ft
20ft
/5ft
P-392
393. Determine the left reaction of the continuous beam shown in Fig. P-393.
/oOe> /t>
/OO /& per ft
rm
4OO / per ft
nrrm
6ft
/Ofe
4ft
P-393
394. Determine the right reaction of the continuous beam shown in Fig. P-393.
395. Draw the shear diagram of the beam shown in Fig. P-395. Assume that the
beam is prevented from deflecting at the supports.
/SO 't> per ft
S00/t>
y-//A - 1
/t
3ft
* ck
\ 0 />,
I
3
8ft
aft
8ft
JOO /i>
P-395
206
Chap. 6
397. A continuous beam is loaded as shown in Fig. P-397. Determine the vertical
shear just to the left of the center reaction.
800 /t> per ft
111111
/OOO lb
5*
/Oft
/Oft
P-397
399. Determine the left reaction of the continuous beam loaded as shown in Fig.
P-399.
/OOO /b per ft
F2222^
777T /77T
4 ft 6 ft >k
33r
P-399
400. Construct the shear diagram of the continuous beam shown in Fig. P-399.
401. Determine the reaction Ri for the beam loaded as shown in Fig. P-401.
/ZOO /t>
2 ft 1
/OO /i? per ft
~mT m7
80 /* per ft
8ft
6 ft
4 ft
P-401
402. A 20-in. I-beam at 75 lb per ft is continuous over two 18-ft spans and carries a
uniform load over its entire length, the magnitude of the load being such that
the maximum flexural stress in the beam is 17,200 psi. Determine the maxi-
mum stress developed if the center support settles 1/4 in.
403. Solve Prob. 402 if it is one of the end supports that settles 1/4 in.
404. A timber beam 4 in. wide and 8 in. deep is simply supported on a 32-ft span
and carries two concentrated loads as shown in Fig. P-404. An increase in the
loads to 1000 lb each necessitates strengthening the beam. It is proposed to at-
tach a steel wire or rod to the center of the beam and to a rigid overhead sup-
port and tighten the rod sufficiently to carry part of the load. Determine the
Probs. 396^09 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE BEAMS
207
i
i
1
7/v/V
I 8ft 3ft
8ft 8ft \
P-404
minimum diam of the rod required if the flexural stress in the timber is not to
exceed 1200 psi. and if the allowable tensile stress in the steel is 18,000 psi.
Assume the modulus of elasticity of the timber to be 1,200,000 psi.
405. Solve Prob. 404 using an aluminum alloy rod having the same allowable work-
ing stress.
406. If a 1/4-in. diam steel rod is used to strengthen the beam of Prob. 404 and if
the three supports are level before the loads are applied, determine the tensile
stress in the steel and the maximum flexural stress in the beam developed by
the two 1000-Ib loads.
407. The beam of Prob. 404 is strengthened by placing a 4-in. square timber 12 ft
long under the center instead of supporting the center with a wire. If the top of
the prop is level with the end supports before the loads are applied, determine
the maximum flexural stress developed in the beam and the compressive stress
in the prop developed by the two 1000-Ib loads.
408. The timber beam ABC shown in Fig. P-408 is 4 in. wide and 8 in. deep. The
supplementary cantilever beam DE, also of timber, is 4 in. wide and 6 in.
deep. If the points A, B, and C lie in a straight line before the load is applied,
4OO /b per ft
^
\\\\\
/Off
-- /3O /n *
/Oft
P-408
determine the deflection of D when the k ad is added. Neglect the shortening
of the strut BD and assume the modulus of elasticity of the timber to be
1,200,000 psi.
409. Determine the maximum stress in the beam ABC of Fig. P-408.
410. A 3-in. I-beam at 7.5 Ib per ft is simply supported at the ends of a 12-ft span,
and at the center rests on the top of a 5-in. I-beam at 10 Ib per ft which is also
simply supported at two points, each 8 ft from the point of contact with the
5-in. beam. The longitudinal axes of both beams are horizontal but make
angles of 90 with each other. Determine the increase in maximum stress in
each beam if a 1200-Ib vertical load is uniformly distributed along the 3-in.
beam.
411. What important difference would occur in the structural action of the beams
of the preceding problem if they were welded together at their intersection
and the uniform load were only over one-half of the top beambetween the
center and one end?
412. Each member represented in Fig. P-412 is a 4-in. square timber with a modulus
i/OOO/t
. ** .\t
I gKl
S//?//
P-412
of elasticity of 1,200,000 psi., and the two are rigidly connected at point B.
Determine the reaction developed at A by the 1000-Ib load.
413. Determine the moment developed at section C in the frame of the preceding
problem.
414. Determine the maximum flexural stress and maximum shearing stress in the
frame of Prob. 412.
415. A 12-ft beam, made of two 4-in. by 4-in. by 1/2-in. angles riveted back to back
to form a T-section, is fixed at both ends. One end is moved vertically 1/2 in.
with respect to the other, but the slope of each end remains horizontal. De-
termine the maximum flexural stress developed in the beam if the material is
steel.
416. Solve Prob. 415 if the angles are aluminum alloy.
417. A square steel beam simply supported at the ends is to carry a uniform load
over its entire length. Determine the saving in weight of beam which may
be obtained by placing an intermediate support at the center.
418. An aluminum alloy beam having a constant rectangular cross section with
depth twice the width is to carry a concentrated load at the center. Compare
the relative weights of beam required if the ends are (a) simply supported
and (b) fixed.
CHAPTER 7
COLUMNS
68. Introduction.A column is a member which, although designed pri-
marily to carry an axial compressive load, is sufficiently slender that there
is a tendency for it to buckle under load rather than be uniformly com-
pressed. Relatively short, stocky members which carry compressive loads
are often called struts or compression members. In most structural columns,
bending is present because of intentional or accidental eccentricity of load
or cross section.
For a given cross section, it is a matter of observation that, as the length
of the column increases, the tendency for buckling or bending of the entire
cross section increases. A short member subjected to an increasing axial
compressive load will fail by flattening and bulging on all sides or by shear,
as indicated in Fig. 82 (a) or (6), whereas a long compression member will
(a) (A) (c> (d)
Fig. 82. Types of failure under compressive loading.
normally fail by generalized buckling as shown in Fig. 82 (c). The dimen-
sions of many structural columns are such that their behavior lies between
these two extreme classes, and the columns, if loaded to the ultimate, may
fail by compression, shear, or generalized buckling or may fail by localized
buckling or compression as indicated Fig. 82(d). From the standpoint of
design it is important to note that the load required to cause buckling of a
long column is much less than the load required to cause the same cross
section to fail in compression if the length is sufficiently reduced. For ex-
ample, a select straight-grained oak specimen nominally 2 in. square may
209
210
Chap. 7
carry 25,000 Ib without damage if 10 in. long, but only 1000 Ib if 100 in.
long.
In elementary column theory it is assumed that the material is ho-
mogeneous, that the cross section is uniform, and that the column is sub-
jected to an axial load or to a compressive load having a known eccentricity.
First, an expression will be developed for the load which will cause general
buckling in a long column, and then means of determining the critical loads
in shorter columns will be discussed.
69. Euler Column Theory.The universal approach to the evaluation
of the axial load which will cause a long column to buckle is that of the Euler
column theory.*
A member of uniform cross section is assumed to buckle as shown in
Fig. 83 (a) when loaded in compression. A free-body diagram of a portion of
(a)
Fig. 83
the deflected column is shown in Fig. 83 (6). It is acted upon by the applied
compressive load P, a resisting force F at the cross section investigated,
and a bending moment M. The moment is assumed positive in accordance
with the usual convention with respect to the x- and t/-axes as shown. The
deflection of the cross section with reference to the original axis of the
column is y, and the column is assumed to be free to rotate at the ends so
that there is no moment at the ends.
From the free-body diagram, it is apparent that
M = -Py. (113)
That is, the moment is actually negative in accordance with the usual con-
vention for beam theory. Since buckling occurs and the section is bent in a
* First developed by Leonhard Euler, "De Curvis Elasticis," Methodus Inveniendi
Lineas Curvas Maximi Minimive Proprielate Gaudentes (Lausanne, 1744).
Art. 69 COLUMNS 211
manner similar to that in a beam, the differential equation developed in the
flexure theory may be assumed to apply.
dx1 El
Since the variable y appears on both sides of the equation, the equation may
not be integrated directly as was possible in beams where the moment is
independent of y. However, the equation, which states that the second
derivative of y with respect to x must equal a negative constant times y,
suggests a solution of the form
A* 7T3/ . -. TTiC / i i r\
sm -j- + B cos -j- (115)
Li Lt
In order that this equation satisfy the conditions that the deflection be zero
for x = 0 and for x = L, it is apparent that B = 0. In addition, it follows
that the constant A is equal to the maximum deflection ym of the buckled
column. ,
To check the validity of the assumed solution, it is substituted back in
the original differential equation.
. 1T2 . TTX P..irX /11C\
A^-: sin -j- = -prr" A sin -f-> (116)
Li L Eil Li
which reduces to
= -JI W
or
P = ^ (H8)
Since this result does not contain x or y, it satisfies the differential equation
and is, therefore, a solution of the differential equation. Inasmuch as the
differential equation is an equation of equilibrium, Eq. (118) applies when-
ever the buckled column is in equilibrium. Since it does not contain y or
ym, the load is the same for any value of deflection (below the proportional
limit). Therefore, the load which causes an infinitesimal deflection is the
maximum load which the column will support. Hence, the value of P in
Eq. (118) is the critical load. If this load is applied and the column starts to
deflect, it will continue to deflect with no increase in load. Since there is
usually enough eccentricity present in an actual column to serve in effect as
a slight initial deflection, the load P in Eq. (118) may be considered to be
the ultimate load for a pin-ended or pivot-ended column, that is, a column
which develops no resisting moment at the ends. The effect of end restraint
is discussed in a subsequent article.
It may also be noted that the value of P in Eq. (118) is the value re-
quired to maintain equilibrium below the proportional limit of the material
and is not the load required to produce slip or fracture in the material. If
the column is prevented from deflecting too far, it may be subjected to the
critical load without damage to the material; the column will resume its
original condition when the load is removed.
The moment of inertia in Eq. (118) is usually replaced by its equivalent
Ar2, in which r is the radius of gyration of the cross section with respect to
the axis about which bending takes place. Hence,
P =
or
TT*E
(7)'
In Eq. (119) the quantity P/A denotes the unit load which will cause
buckling to occur. It is not considered to be a stress since the maximum
stress in the column after it buckles will be much larger than P/A because
of the bending moment developed. The quantity L/r is known as the
slenderness ratio.
The Euler equation, Eq. (119), agrees with experimental results obtained
on long columns. It is the formula most widely accepted for the design of
columns having a slenderness ratio greater than a specified value which is
dependent upon the material of which the column is composed. To be used
as a design formula, a factor of safety should be included giving
A factor of safety of 1.80 is often regarded as satisfactory for long structural
steel columns.
It should be emphasized that the radius of gyration used in Eqs. (119) or
(119a) is the radius of gyration which results in the highest slenderness
ratio. If the ends of the column permit rotation with equal ease in all direc-
tions and if there are no intermediate supports, r is the least radius of gyra-
tion of the cross section. In any case, it is the radius of gyration with respect
to the axis about which rotation of the cross section occurs when the column
buckles.
Art. 70 COLUMNS 213
70. Alternate Solution of Differential Equation.In the preceding
article, it was noted that the differential equation suggested a solution of a
certain form. A somewhat more rigorous development which leads to the
same result follows.
Eq. (114a) may be written as
dx.
or
dy = - (120)
dy,(dy\ _ P y dy
dx \dx/ El
which integrates to
2\dx/ 2EI
The constant of integration may be evaluated from the condition that the
column will have zero slope where the deflection is a maximum (at the
center), and is thereby found to be
Ci = ^ (122)
in which
ym denotes the maximum lateral deflection of the column at mid-
height.
Eq. (121) may therefore be written as
or
(123a)
\i/m y I "*
which integrates to
sin-1 j- = y~ x + C2. (124)
From the condition that the deflection is zero at the end of the column, the
constant of integration Cz is found to be zero. Hence,
y = 2/msin|/-gj x. (125)
214
Chap. 7
The column may be assumed to be carrying its maximum (or buckling)
load when the deflection at the center becomes a maximum. That condition
will occur when the angle y/P/EI x becomes equal to n(ir/2) for x = L/2,
in which n is any integer. That is,
I
PL2 _ T
4E7 ~ n 2
nVEI
(126)
(127)
which agrees with Eq. (118) and reduces to Eq. (119) when n is equal to 1.
71. Intermediate Columns.Eq. (119) or the Euler equation for long
columns agrees well with experimental data for values of L/r above a
60 so /oo
S/endemess Atot/o, */r
Fig. 84. Effect of slenderness ratio upon strength of aluminum-alloy columns.
(Test data courtesy of Dr. J. A. Van den Broek.)
certain minimum, but gives values of P/A which are too high as the
slenderness ratio becomes small. As values of L/r approach zero, P/A ap-
proaches infinity. A steel strut having a value of L/r equal to 10 will fail by
compression or shear at stresses much smaller than the unit load of ap-
proximately 3,000,000 psi., which is given by the Euler formula.
A set of test results for a series of columns having different values of
L/r is indicated in Fig. 84. For the larger values of L/r failure took place by
generalized buckling, while for small values of L/r failures occurred by
Art. 71 COLUMNS 215
bulging in compression, by shear, or by localized buckling. For the range
below that in which the Euler formula is valid, most column formulas
simply represent attempts to fit a curve to test data similar to those indi-
cated in Fig. 84. The empirical formulas thus obtained are divided by an
appropriate factor of safety to give a safe design .formula. Literally dozens
of column formulas have been proposed in attempts to obtain an equation
which fits test data reasonably well, and which at the same time is not too
cumbersome for rapid use in a design office.
The principal formulas which have been developed may be classified in
three general groups: (1) straight-line formulas, (2) parabolic formulas,
and (3) Gordon-Rankine type formulas.
(1) Straight-line Formulas. A relatively simple formula may be derived
by noting that a straight line extending from the yield strength at or near a
value of L/r of zero to the Euler curve fits the test data reasonably well and
is, for the most part, on the safe side. The equation of such a line may be de-
termined readily since it is of the form
(128)
in which
Sv is the intercept for L/r = 0, and
C is the magnitude of the slope of the line.*
If a straight line of this type is fitted to test data and the right-hand side
of the equation divided by an appropriate factor of safety, a suitable
straight-line formula results. One commonly used straight-line formula for
mild steel columns is that specified by a joint committee of the American
Society of Civil Engineers and the American Railway Engineering Associa-
tion.
j = 15,000 - 50 ~ (129)
for values of L/r between 50 and 150. If L/r is less than 50, P/A = 12,500
psi.
Other column formulas of this general type are indicated in Table 5.
They have been employed widely and are found in many specifications be-
cause of their relative simplicity.
(2) Parabolic Formulas. It will be noted in Fig. 84 that the test data
fall somewhat above the straight line for small values of L/r. It has there-
fore been suggestedf that a parabola having its vertex on the P/A axis
might fit the test data better. Such a curve is indicated by the dotted line
in Fig. 84 and will be seen to have an equation of the general form
* This type of formula was first proposed by T. H. Johnson, Trans. ASCE (1886),
15:517.
t Prof. J. B. Johnson (1892).
TABLE 5
Examples of Column Formulas
Li
MITATIONS
Material
p
> P L
(max)
No.
Steel
A
A
1
Source
18,000
1
Structural
1+ ' (LY
15,000 ' - < 60
NYC
(1)
T 18,000 Vr/
17,000 - 0.485 f-Y
7 < 120 (f)
AISC
(2)
--i(*y
7 < 140 (t)
AREA
(3)
16,000 - 70 (j\
7 < 140 ()
(4)
36,000 - 1.172 (jY*
7 < 124 ()
ANC-5
(5)
Heat-t rented alloy.
100,000 - 8.74 f-Y*
7 < 91-5 ()
ANC-5
(6)
165,000 - 23.78 f-Y*
7 < 58.9 ()
ANC-5
(7)
Aluminum alloys
135,000 - 1200 f-Y
7 < 75 ()
(8)
3S-0
6200 - IS { I
7 < 194 ()
7<83()
7 < 79.2 ()
ALCOA
(9)
(10)
(11)
Vr/
17S-T
43,800 350 ( )
\LCO \
24S-T
50,000 - 421 f-Y
48,000
\NC 5
Magnesium alloys
1 + 0.00075 f-Y*
7 < 80 ()
Am. Mag.
Corp.
(12)
11,000 - 53.6 f-)
7 < 120 ()
Am. Mag.
(13)
(14)
Timber
4>-!()>
7 < k ()
Corp.
For. Prod.
Lab.
* Does not contain factor of safety,
(t) For - > 120, use (1).
(J) For > 140. use secant formula.
r
(5) For higher values of use an Euler formula.
('!> S = allowable compressive stress parallel to grain,
d = least lateral dimension.
2 f 6S
Art. 71 COLUMNS 217
d30)
in which
Sp is the intercept on the P/A axis and
A; is a constant.
A design formula may be obtained by dividing the right-hand side of Eq.
(130) by an appropriate factor of safety. A commonly used parabolic
formula for steel columns is
for values of L/r up to 140. If L/r is greater than 140, an Euler formula
should be used. Other parabolic formulas are indicated in Table 5.
(3) Gordon-Rankine Type Formulas.The S-shaped curve of the test
results may be fitted approximately by an equation of the form*
*-' (iw
in which
S is the stress at which the curve intersects the P/A axis, and
<f> is a constant.
A curve of this type is shown in Fig. 84. As with the other two formulas,
a design formula of this type may be obtained from Eq. (132) by dividing
by an appropriate factor of safety. As an example, the formula
P _ 18,000
1 + 18
,000 ( r)
is specified by the New York City Building Code for steel columns having
values of L/r greater than 60.
Ritter suggested that the coefficient <t> be determined by equating the
value of P/A in the Gordon-Rankine formula to the value in the Euler
formula, inasmuch as the two should agree for large values of L/r. Thus,
CT 9 77T
(132a)
When L/r is large </>(L/r)2 is large in comparison with unity and the latter
may be dropped in the denominator of the left-hand side of the equation.
Then
* Proposed by Prof. W. J. Rankine (1860). A formula of this type was derived by
Schwart (1854).
For structural steel, with Sp = 18,000, 0 is approximately 0.00006 which
agrees well with the value of 1/18,000 in Eq. (133).
In all of these formulas, both of the Euler type and the empirical for-
mulas, an idealized column is assumed. The equations are subject to the
condition that the column is homogeneous, that it is pivoted (free to rotate
in any direction) at each end, and that it carries only axial loading. There-
fore, the L/r is computed using the least radius of gyration of the cross
section. Nonhomogeneity or the application of eccentric loading will re-
duce the critical load for a given column. Adding restraint at the end of
the column or adding bracing to reduce the unsupported length in the direc-
tion of buckling will normally increase its load carrying capacity.
Determine the maximum safe load which a 10-in., 30-Ib I-beam may carry as a
column 7 ft long. Assume that the column is axially loaded and that no end restraint
is developed.
Solution: The least radius of gyration is found from the tables as 0.93 in., and the
slenderness ratio is computed as
L _ 84 n M
r 0.93' w
which identifies the column as being in the intermediate range. The load will be
determined by three appropriate formulas.
(a) Straight-line Formula.Eq. (129)
-j = 15,000 - 50 (^
= 15,000 - 4525
= 10,475 psi.
P = 91,500 Ib.
(b) Parabolic Formula.Eq. (131)
= 15,000 - 2730
= 13,270 psi.
P = 116,000 Ib.
Art. 72
219
COLUMNS
(c) Gordon-Rankine Formula.Eq. (133)
.P _ 18,000
A =
1 +
18,000 \r
18,000
1.455
= 12,360 psi.
P = 108,000 Ib.
The difference among the allowable loads as computed by the different formulas
simply reflects the differences in the factors of safety involved. All give safe results
under the conditions assumed.
72. Effect of End Conditions.The column formulas given thus far in
this chapter have been for the idealized condition of no moment at the
ends. In the usual situation the connections at the ends of the column will
offer some restraint to rotation, but not enough to prevent rotation entirely.
The effect of end restraint is, in general, to increase the load carrying ca-
pacity of the column.
An indication of the effect of end restraint may be determined by apply-
ing the differential equation of the elastic curve of a beam to a .fixed-ended
column. The portion of the column in the free-body diagram of Fig. 85 is
la)
(e)
subjected to a restraining moment M, at the lower end. The moment equa-
tion of equilibrium written with respect to an axis at a distance x from the
origin, gives
M, = M,- Py (134)
Hence,
<Py = Ms_Py
dx2 EI EI'
(135)
One solution of this equation is
. nirx M ,,,
y = A cos -j- + -p-> (136)
which may be verified by substitution in Eq. (135),
. nV n-KX M PA nvx Ma /,-\
_A _ cos_ = _ _ _ cos_ _ _, (137)
or
nV
V EI
(138)
The assumed solution must also satisfy the boundary conditions of zero
slope and zero deflection at each end of the column. For zero deflection at
the lower end (x = 0)
M
0=4+^, (139)
or
A = --p
and Eq. (136) may be written
M(, riTx\ ,10- .
y = -p-l l - cos -J-J- (136a)
For the deflection to be zero at the upper end (x = L), it is obvious that
n in Eq. (136a) must be an even number. The deflection at midlength
(x = L/2) is equal to ym; so, from Eq. (136a)
V
= f (l - cos =f). (140)
Eq. (140) is satisfied if n = 2. Then
J/m = -p~ (141)
and, from Eq. (136a),
J/ = hym (l - cos )- (136b)
Art. 72 COLUMNS 221
The slope may be found by differentiating Eq. (136b) with respect to x.
*L _ a- sin ? (142)
ax L L
This gives zero slope at z = 0, x = L/2, and x = L. Thus Eq. (136b)
satisfies the equation of equilibrium and the boundary conditions of slope
and deflection. If the value of n = 2 is substituted back into Eq. (138),
there results
P = ^ (138a)
which indicates, by comparison with Eq. (118), that a column which is
fully restrained at both ends will support a load four times as great as a
column which is pivoted at both ends.
In engineering practice, it is impossible to produce a completely re-
strained end on a column. The degree of restraint actually attained varies
with the type of end connection. In order to take varying degrees of re-
straint into account, Eq. (138a) may be written.
(143)
~
or
z - So- (143a)
in which
a is an end-restraint factor.
In a column with rigid, well-designed end connections which approximate a
fixed end, a may be assumed to be 4.00 although some specifications limit
its maximum value to 2.00. This type of formula is valid, of course, only in
the Euler range of slenderness ratios.
A comparison between the equation for the deflection of a restrained
Euler column and the shape of the column may be made by plotting Eq.
(136b) with the z-axis shifted to the left a distance ym/2, as is shown in
Fig. 85(c). Eq. (136b) becomes
i 2irx ,,., .
y = il/m cos f (136c)
L
It will be noted that this curve has inflection points at A and B in Fig.
85(c), where the ordinates are zero. These points are a distance L/2 apart.
Since they are inflection points, there will be zero moment in the column
at those points, and the portion of the column between A and B will be
identical with a pinned column of length L/2. Therefore, the load which
a fully restrained Euler column of length L will support is equal to the load
which a pinned Euler column of length L/2 will support. In other words, the
critical load for the restrained column may be determined by substituting
L/2 for L in Eq. (118). This substitution gives
r-^L (im)
m
which is the same as Eq. (138a).
A column which is partially restrained at the ends will develop some
moment at the ends, and some rotation will take place there; so, it may be
represented on Fig. 85(c) as a column of length between L and L/2. The
length CD represents a conventional "fixed" column, in which partial re-
straint is developed, and for which a = 2.00.
The strengthening effect of end restraint is a maximum in slender (Euler)
columns and is virtually negligible in short compression members, since the
latter fail by compressive bulging or shear rather than by buckling. For
columns in the intermediate range of slenderness ratios, the end restraint
factor a may be used as in the Euler range, but only for columns with well-
designed end connections will the value of a approach 4.00.
Another method of taking end restraint into account is to replace L in
the formula by an equivalent pivot-end length L' which is less than the
free length of the restrained columns. For complete restraint, L' = L/2.
73. Eccentric Loads on Compression Blocks.Thus far in this chapter,
all of the columns and compression members have been assumed to be
axially loaded. However, in many practical situations the resultants of the
compressive forces on the ends of the member do not act along its longitudi-
nal centroidal axis. This may occur as a result of the type of loading, or as a
result of nonuniformities within the member itself.
If the compressive load is not axial, it may be resolved into an axial load
and a couple. If the eccentric load does not lie on an axis of symmetry (or
principal axis) of the cross section, it should be resolved into an axial load
and two couples, one in the longitudinal plane of symmetry and the other
in the perpendicular plane. The stress developed by the axial component
may be assumed to be distributed uniformly over the cross section, and the
stress developed by the couple may be determined by the flexure formula.
By the principle of superposition, the resultant stress at a distance y from
the neutral axis of the cross section is
8 = % + &, (145)
Art. 73 COLUMNS 223
in which
P, M, and y all carry their own signs.
As generally used by engineers, Eq. (145) is written as
s = J ^F (145a)
and the signs of the stresses are determined by inspection. Since the mo-
ment M is equal to the load P times the eccentricity e, Eq. (145a) may be
written as
8 = j ^ (146)
-IM>
(146a)
in which
r is the radius of gyration of the cross section.
A post 6 in. by 12 in. in cross section and 4 ft long carries a concentrated load of
72,000 lb, the resultant of which lies 1-1/4 in. from the centroid on the centroidal
axis parallel to the 6-in. sides. Determine the stresses on a cross section 2 ft from the
top.
Solution: A free-body diagram of the upper half of the post is shown in Fig. 86(a).
It is evident that bending will tend to take place with respect to axis yy. The force F
which is colinear with the 72,000-lb load is replaced by a force F acting through the
centroid and a couple M as shown in Fig. 86 (b). The magnitudes of F and M are
found, from the equations of equilibrium applied to the free-body diagram of
Fig. 86(6), to be
F = 72,000 lb,
M = 90,000 in-lb.
The stress developed by the axial force of 72,000 lb is
& = J (a)
72,000 lrvv, . ,,,
= '72 = 1000 psi., (b)
which is uniformly distributed over the cross section.
The moment of 90,000 in-lb develops a stress of
St = -j- (c)
I
90,000a;
12 (6)3
417x psi.
(d)
12
224
Chap. 7
/torn.
7Z,000/i>
zesOfisi
(a) (c) Comfi-
Fig. 86
The resultant stress is, by superposition,
8 = 1000 + 417x.
(e)
The maximum occurs for x = 3 and the minimum for x = 3, so the extreme
values are
S = 1000 1250. (f)
Hence, the stress varies linearly from 250 psi. to 2250 psi., as shown in Fig. 86(c).
These results may be checked by direct substitution in Eq. (146).
S
72,000
72
(g)
(h)
(i)
72,000 (1.25) (3)
216
= 1000 1250
= 250 psi. tension
= 2250 psi. compression.
If the load were eccentric with respect to both of the centroidal axes, it
would be resolved into an axial load and two couples, one with respect to
each of the principal centroidal axes. The resultant stress would be found
as the algebraic sum of the stresses computed from each of the components
acting separately.
_ P Myx Mxy
S ~ A ~T'
(145b)
Art. 74 COLUMNS 225
This illustrative problem brings out the fact that a compressive load may
actually produce tensile stresses over a part of the cross section. Since a
number of engineering materials which are strong in compression are com-
paratively weak in tension, it is imperative that the stresses be carefully
checked if such materials are subjected to eccentric compressive loads.
The maximum eccentricity which will result in compressive stress over
the entire cross section may be found from Eq. (146a) by solving for e when
S = 0 at the extreme fiber.
(147)
For a member of rectangular cross section c = d/2, and r2 = d2/12, so
e = -2- (148)
Therefore, to prevent the possibility of developing tension on any part
of the cross section of a rectangular member, the line of action of the com-
pressive load must fall within the middle one-third of the cross section.
If the load is on the edge of the middle one-third, the stress on one edge of
the cross section will be zero and the stress on the other edge will be 2P/A.
The portion of the cross section within which the resultant compressive
load must lie to prevent tension on any part of the cross section is called
the kern of the cross section.
74. Eccentric Loads on Columns.The formulas given in Art. 71 are for
axially loaded columns, and the allowable loads must, in general, be re-
duced if the load is eccentric. The accepted method of taking eccentricity
into account is to equate the maximum stress, as determined from Eq.
(146a) to the critical unit load as evaluated by the appropriate column
formula.
For example, if a straight-line formula, Eq. (128), is to be used,
+ ?)-*-<>(*} (')
The critical unit load is
Cf fl I
P" \ r)
- = ^~ (149a)
fi -t . &C
226 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Chap. 7
Similarly, if a parabolic formula is used,
and the critical unit load is
p
A
(150)
(150a)
If a Gordon-Rankine formula is used,
(151)
and the critical unit load is
P ^
A"
Eqs. (149) to (151a) are limited to the range of slenderness ratios within
which the component formulas are valid and are based on the assumption
y
Fig. 87
that the eccentricity is with respect to the axis about which the radius of
gyration is a minimum. That is, the formulas may be used when the line
of action of the resultant load falls at point A of the cross section in Fig. 87.
Data are lacking concerning the critical loads where the eccentricity is in
the strong direction, as at point B in Fig. 87, or when the load is eccentric
Art. 75 COLUMNS 227
with respect to both principal centroidal axes of the cross section, as at
point C in Fig. 87. In the absence of more exact information, it is recom-
mended that the critical load for a column which is eccentrically loaded on
the major axis of symmetry (point B) be taken as the smaller of the two
following:
(a) The critical load assuming the column to bend about the axis of least
radius of gyration (the y-axis in Fig. 87) with no eccentricity.
(b) The critical load assuming the column to bend about the axis of
greatest radius of gyration (the x-axis in Fig. 87) with the eccentricity ev
taken into account.
If the load is eccentric in both directions, the critical load may be as-
sumed to be that determined by equating the maximum stress, from Eq.
(145b) taking bending about both axes into account, to the critical unit
load in an appropriate column formula, Eq. (128) to (133).
In the analysis as outlined in this article, it is assumed that the ec-
centricity is known, so that the quantity ec/r2 may be evaluated. Inasmuch
as eccentricity may result not only from deliberately locating the load at a
point other than the centroid, but also from nonuniformity of the material
in the column, irregularities in the end fixtures, and many other causes, the
effective eccentricity is often unknown and must be assumed.
The analysis* of many tests on structural columns indicates that values
of ec/r2 range from 0.15 to 0.60. For the problems in this text, it is recom-
mended that, unless the eccentricity is stated, ec/r2 be taken as 0.25 in
conformity with the recommendations of the joint committee of the Ameri-
can Society of Civil Engineers and the American Railway Engineering
Association. The use of this factor is equivalent to dividing the formulas for
the critical load on axially loaded structural columns by 1.25.
75. The Secant Formula.It was noted in Art. 71 that most formulas
for columns having intermediate values of L/r are determined empirically
with two objectives: (1) to fit test data reasonably well and (2) to be simple
and easy to use. An analytical approach leads to an expression for the
critical load known as the secant formula, f
The column represented in Fig. 88 is assumed to be pivot-ended and to be
loaded in compression with an eccentricity e. Since the column is free to
rotate at the ends, its centerline will take the shape of a sine curve, from
Art. 69, with respect to an origin at point A, or a cosine curve with respect
to the origin O in Fig. 88. With the axes as shown
p
y = ym cos z. (152)
El
Atx = L/2,
* Moncrief, Trans. ASCE., (1901), 45:334.
t Proposed by A. Marston, "Theory of the Ideal Column," Trans. ASCE, (1898) 41.
228
Chap. 7
/PL2
y = e = ym cos
ym = Pesec L/-
from which
The maximum moment in the column occurs at the center
M = -Pym
= Pe sec
(152a)
(153)
(154)
Eq. (154) may be verified by substituting the value of y from Eq. (152)
into the differential equation for the elastic curve of the column.
Since the cross section at the center is subjected to a combination of axial
load and bending, the maximum stress is, from Eq. (145a),
Sm = A -T
"A -
ec I/PL2
r2Se(7 IE I
The critical load is, from Eq. (156),
P =
ASm
(155)
(156)
(157)
Art. 75 COLUMNS 229
Eq. (157) is known as the secant formula and provides a means of evaluating
the critical load for a given allowable stress Sm- However, because P ap-
pears on both sides of the equation and because the properties of the cross
section appear in two parts of the expression, it is not well adapted for de-
sign purposes. Normally, a cut-and-try solution is required.
It will be noted that Eq. (153) gives a relationship between ym and e.
For an axially loaded column e = 0 and ym is finite; hence, as e approaches
0, sec-v/PLYH?/ must approach infinity or in the limit
= | y, etc. (158)
If the first value is selected, Eq. (158) reduces to the Euler formula.
A structural steel rod which has a diam of 1 in. and an effective length of 24 in. is
incorporated into a machine in such a way that it carries a compressive load applied
with an eccentricity of 1/16 in. Determine the maximum safe load, assuming the
member to have pivot ends.
Solution: The first step is to evaluate L/r in order to select a suitable formula.
(a)
(b)
which classifies the column as being in the intermediate range. Since the quantity
ec/r2 appears in the formulas, it may be evaluated first for convenience
= J- (d)
(a) Straight-line Formula. From Eq. (129) and Eq. (149a)
_ 15,000 - 50 (96)
A - 1.5 (c)
= 6800 psi. (f)
(b) Parabolic Formula. From Eq. (131) and Eq. (150a)
P_ _ 15,000 - | (96)'
A" 1.5
= 7950 psi. (h)
(c) Gordon-Rankine Formula. From Eq. (133) and Eq. (151a)
P_ __ 18,000
A 962 \ W
L5
7940 psi. (j)
(d) Secant Formula.From Eq. (157), with Sm = 15,000 psi.,
P 15,000
Z = 1 I i sec l/ P (9216) fM
1 + t8ecr4A(iV)30(10) w
_ 15,000 _
1 + J sec 0.0351 l/ j
Eq. (1) must be solved by a cut-and-try process. If P/A is assumed to be 8100 on
the right-hand side of the equation,
P 15,000
(m)
A 1 + \ sec 3.159
= 9960 psi.
(n)
second trial, in which P/A is assumed to be 10,000 psi., gives
P 15,000
(o)
A 1 + \ sec 3.51
= 9760 psi.
(p)
Therefore, P/A must be between 8100 psi. and 10,000 psi. A value of 9800 psi. will
next be tried. This gives
P - 15,000 , .
A ~ 1 + i sec 3.48 W
= 9800 psi., (r)
which satisfies the equation.
The result to be used depends upon which formula has been authorized in the
specifications under which the design is being made. All give safe loads; the differ-
ence is in the factor of safety deemed adequate for the particular construction in-
volved. For general use, the parabolic formula is widely accepted. If it is used
S)
(8)
= 0.7854 (7950) (t)
= 6250 lb. (u)
76. Double-Modulus Formulas.The secant formula is derived on the
basis of the assumption that the stresses in the column do not exceed the
proportional limit. If the column has a low value of L/r, failure may occur
by localized crushing or inelastic action, rather than by over-all elastic
buckling. In this case, the stresses will exceed the proportional limit of the
material. In order to evaluate the load carrying capacity of a column
stressed above the proportional limit, the stress-strain characteristics of the
material in the plastic range must be taken into account. A general formula
has been developed,
Art. 77 COLUMNS 231
V r)
in which
E is an effective modulus of elasticity.
The effective modulus of elasticity E is less than the modulus of elasticity
of the material* but tests indicate that satisfactory results may be obtained
by using for E the slope of the tangent to the stress-strain diagram at the
point corresponding to the average stress in the column.
77. Design Considerations. From an inspection of the formulas for
critical loads on columns, it would appear that one of the major considera-
tions is keeping the slenderness ratio low. In all cases, an increase in the
slenderness ratio results in a decrease in the allowable unit load. If the
length is fixed, control of the slenderness ratio is possible through control
of the moment of inertia. As was found for beams, the material is most
effectively utilized when it is at a maximum distance from the centroid.
In a beam, however, the bending moments are often restricted to one plane
so the beam may be strengthened selectively with respect to the axis about
which bending is expected to occur. In a column, bending moments are
likely to occur in any plane and usually buckling . will_taltfi_clace_with
respect to the axis of least radius of gyration j hence, the ideal cross section
tends to be one which is equally strong in all directions. Built-up sections
are commonly devised to approximate this condition.
Excessive lengths are undesirable. Many specifications limit the value
of L/r in main columns to a maximum of 120, and in secondary columns to
200. Not only are the long columns comparatively weaker, they are also
more susceptible to damage by vibration and by accidental loadings. Inter-
mediate braces are sometimes used to reduce excessive free lengths.
End connections Have an important effect upon strength. As has been
noted an ideal fixed-ended column will support four times the maximum
load which an identical pivot-ended column will carry. Most structural
columns, being pinned, riveted, or welded at the ends, lie between the two
extreme conditions, and judgment is necessary to evaluate properly the
degree of end restraint which may actually be developed in a given design.
The formulas as given are applicable only to columns having a cross
section with at least one axis of symmetry. Columns with unsymmetrical
cross sections may fail by torsion instead of buckling or compression.
Finally, any or all of the idealized concepts of physical action in a column
may be violated in a given installation. Nonhomogeneity of material, kinks,
* Osgood, W. R., "The Double-Modulus Theory of Column Action," Civil Engineering,
(March 1935), 5:173, and "Column Formulas," Trans. ASCE (1946), 111:165.
232
Chap. 7
uneven bearings, lark of symmetry due to riveting or welding, stress con-
centration, and many other disturbing elements may be present. It is for
these uncertainties that a factor of safetv is essential.
PROBLEMS
419. Determine the slenderness ratio of a 2-in. by 2-in. by 1/4-in. angle which is
used as a pivot-ended column 10 ft long.
420. Determine the slenderness ratio of a 20-ft pivot-ended column which has a
T cross section, the width of the flange being 8 in., the total depth being 8 in.,
and both the flange and the web having a thickness of 2 in.
421. Determine the slenderness ratio of a column 6 ft long composed of four 4-in.
by 4-in. by 3/8-in. angles riveted together as indicated in Fig. P421.
422. Two 1-in. by 4-in. rectangular members are to be used as two opposite sides of a
box column. If they act as a unit, at what distance apart should they be placed
in order that the unit have equal resistance to bending about both axes of
symmetry?
423. Determine the slenderness ratio of a rod 2 in. in diam and 8 ft long.
424. Determine the slenderness ratio of a 10-ft length of a tube having an outside
diam of 1-1/2 in. and a wall thickness of 0.120 in.
425. A 16-ft compression member has the cross section indicated in Fig. P-425.
Determine the slenderness ratio.
/in.
4/n.
Probs. 419-440 COLUMNS 233
426. Explain why a slender column might, in a test, carry a load much greater than
that given by the Euler formula, but why it could not be depended upon to
carry more than the load given by the formula.
427. The column of Prob. 419 is classified as a long column. Determine the buckling
load it will carry if the material is (a) structural steel, (b) aluminum alloy,
(c) magnesium alloy. Compare the weights of these columns.
428. If the column of Prob. 419 is aluminum alloy 24S-T and if the Euler formula
applies, determine the length and weight of (a) a structural steel section and
(b) a magnesium alloy section which will have the same buckling load. The
cross section remains constant.
429. The column of Prob. 420 is constructed of white oak and is classified as an
Euler column. Determine the maximum allowable axial compressive load.
430. The rod of Prob. 423 is in the long-column range. Determine the buckling load
in compression if the rod is (a) structural steel, (b) Monel metal, (c) aluminum
alloy, (d) magnesium alloy. Compare the weights of the members.
431. If the rod of Prob. 423, which is a long column, is made of structural steel, it
will have a certain weight and buckling load. Determine the weights of circular
members of (a) Monel metal, (b) aluminum alloy, and (c) magnesium alloy if
they are to have the same length and the same buckling load.
432. Determine the buckling load for the tube of Prob. 424 if it is (a) steel, (b)
aluminum alloy, (c) magnesium alloy.
433. The Euler formula applies to a 16-ft length of a compression member having
the cross section shown in Fig. P-425. Determine the buckling load if the mem-
ber is built up by gluing or welding strips of (a) Douglas fir, (b) structural steel,
(c) aluminum alloy, (d) magnesium alloy. Compare the weights of the columns
of the four materials.
434. For what value of L/r will the Euler formula and Eqs. (3), (4), and (5) of
Table 5 give the same unit buckling load?
435. For what values of L/r will Eqs. (7), (8), and (9) of Table 5 give the same criti-
cal unit load as the Euler formula?
436. Determine the values of slenderness ratio for which Eqs. (11) and (12) of
Table 5 give the same critical unit load as the Euler formula.
437. If Eqs. (2) and (3) of Table 5 give the same allowable unit load as the Euler
formula at their respective limiting values of L/r, what factor of safety is used
in the Euler formula?
438. Determine the factors of safety which are involved in the Euler formulas
which give the same allowable unit load as Eqs. (4) and (13) in Table 5 at their
respective limiting values of the slenderness ratio.
439. Derive a straight-line formula for a steel compressive member which has a
maximum value of unit load of 18,000 psi. and which is tangent to an Euler
curve having a factor of safety of 1.8.
440. Solve the preceding problem if the material is an aluminum alloy.
441. Solve Prob. 439 for a magnesium alloy.
442. Develop a parabolic formula for a steel compressive member if the maximum
allowable unit load is to be 18,000 psi. and the parabola is to be tangent to an
Euler curve involving a factor of safety of 1.8.
443. Solve the preceding problem for an aluminum alloy.
444. Solve Prob. 442 if the material is a magnesium alloy.
445. Derive a straight-line column formula for hard copper. The formula is to in-
volve a factor of safety of 2 with respect to failure by slip (based on tensile
values) or buckling.
446. Derive a parabolic column formula for hard 140 brass, incorporating a factor of
safety of 2 with respect to failure by slip (based on tensile properties) or
buckling.
447. Derive a Gordon-Rankine formula for white oak, using Hitter's constant. Do
not include a factor of safety.
448. Develop a parabolic column formula for aluminum alloy 75S-T, involving a
factor of safety of 3 with respect to failure by fracture (based on tensile
properties) and a factor of safety of 2 with respect to failure by buckling.
449. Determine the maximum allowable axial load for four 4-in. by 4-in. by 1/2-in.
structural steel angles 8 ft long (a) if they are riveted together as shown in
Fig. P-421, (b) if they are not connected and act independently.
450. Solve the preceding problem if the angles are aluminum alloy 24S-T.
451. A steel column 24 ft long consists of two 6-in. channels at 13 Ib placed 3 in.
back to back with the flanges projecting outward. Determine the maximum
allowable load to which the column may be subjected.
452. The side rod on a certain locomotive consists of a 6-ft 4-in. length of a struc-
tural steel member having a rectangular cross section 4 in. deep and 2 in. wide.
Determine the maximum axial compressive load to which the member may be
subjected if it is assumed to be pivot-ended.
453. A structural steel rod having a rectangular cross section 1 in. by 2 in. and a
length of 16 ft buckles under a compressive load of 800 Ib. Would an .XT-4130
alloy steel rod of the same dimensions be satisfactory for this installation?
454. Determine the diam of (a) a structural steel rod and (b) a rod of alloy steel
.Xr-4130 required to support an axial load of 1000 Ib in a pivot-ended column
18 ft long.
455. Determine the maximum compressive load which a structural steel column,
consisting of a 10-ft length of 1-in. by 2-in. rectangular cross section, will carry.
Compare it with the strength of a 17S-T column having the same length and
total weight and the same proportions of cross section.
456. A latticed steel column is made of two 12-in. I-beams at 31.8 Ib as shown in
Fig. P-456.
(a) What should be the spacing center to center of the I-beams in order to
provide a column of equal resistance each way? Give a dimensioned sketch.
Probs. 441-469
235
COLUMNS
P-456
(b) If the column is 50 ft long, determine the maximum safe axial load it
should carry.
457. A column 15 ft long is made of two 12-in., 30-Ib structural steel channels lat-
ticed 4 in. back to back. Determine
(a) the maximum safe axial compressive load the column can carry,
(b) the maximum safe load that two such channels can carry if not latticed
together but if each is loaded axially.
458. A 6-in. by 6-in. by 1-in. steel angle is used as a pivot-ended column. De-
termine the maximum length for an axial working load of 77,000 Ib.
459. Solve the preceding problem if the angle is of aluminum alloy 24S-T.
460. Four 4-in. by 4-in. by 1/2-in. steel angles are to be incorporated into a column
24 ft long. Determine the maximum allowable axial load which the four will
carry if they are (a) loaded independently, (b) riveted as shown in Fig. P-421,
(c) welded to form a hollow section 8 in. square.
461. Solve the preceding problem if the angles are aluminum alloy 24S-T.
462. If the 4-in. by 4-in. by 1/2-in. angles indicated in Fig. P-421 are used in the
cross section of a fixed-ended column 8 ft long, determine the maximum axial
load which may be supported if the angles are (a) steel (b) aluminum alloy.
463. Solve Prob. 456 if the ends of the column are designed so that they are free to
rotate about axes perpendicular to the webs and fixed with respect to rotation
about an axis parallel to the webs.
464. Solve Prob. 456 if the column is fixed at the ends.
465. Solve Prob. 458 if the column is fixed at both ends.
466. Develop an equation for the buckling load for a column which is fixed at one
end and free at the other, e.g., a flagpole.
467. Determine the maximum allowable compressive load for a Douglas fir member
4 in. square and 8 ft long if it is (a) pivot-ended, (b) fixed-ended.
468. Derive an equation for the axial load which will produce buckling in a column
fixed at one end and pivoted at the other.
469. A structural steel machine part is 28 in. long and has a rectangular cross sec-
tion 1 in. by 2 in. The member is built up at the ends and loaded in compression
through pins which are parallel to the short sides, so that the member may be
considered pivot-ended with respect to bending about an axis parallel to the
236
Chap. 7
short sides, but fixed-ended with respect to bending about an axis parallel to
the long sides.
470. A concrete cylinder 3 in. in diam and 6 in. high is tested in compression and the
proportional limit evaluated as 2800 psi. How much in error is this value if the
line of action of the resultant load is 1/4 in. from the axis of the cylinder?
. 4ft
Water-
P-473
471. A concrete retaining wall is 10 ft high, 6 ft thick, and 40 ft long. The material
which it restrains stands to a height of 9 ft on one side of the wall and may be
assumed to develop a pressure against the wall which varies linearly from zero
at the 9-ft elevation to an intensity of 900 Ib per sq ft at the base. Make a
sketch showing the distribution of normal stress across the base of the wall,
giving pertinent values.
- /.5/n.
72.0OO /l>
A,C
P-474
Probs. 470-478
237
COLUMNS
472. How thick would the wall of the preceding problem need to be to prevent
tensile stresses on the base?
473. Determine the distribution of stress across the base of the concrete wall shown
in Fig. P-473. The water develops a pressure varying linearly from zero at the
surface to a maximum at the base.
474. Determine the normal stresses on a horizontal plane at points A, B, C, and D
of the member shown in Fig. P-474.
475. An 8000-Ib load is applied at point D in the member shown in Fig. P-475.
Determine the normal stresses at points A and B on a horizontal plane at the
in
It.
>. S in.
/
A
y
J
7/n.
NJ.
f.
J
1
B
>
y
8OOO te
P-475
476. Determine the normal stresses developed on a horizontal plane at points A, B,
and C in Fig. P-476 by the 10,000-Ib load.
477. The beam shown in Fig. P-477 has a deflection of 0.50 in. at the center. Deter-
mine the flexural stress at point A.
478. Determine the maximum flexural stress which the 75,000-Ib load develops on
the plane A A in the press of Fig. P-478. The moment at the top may be as-
sumed to be -283,000 in-Ib.
A .
/in. 3/n / J//?. ///?.
>-< <*- y>-y
/O.OOO //
/O0 / per ft
6000/i, W////////////////////////////////Y,
vi '+
r '
ir
6 ft
~^\
6OO0/i>
>
4 in.
DI
Cross Sect/on
P-477
P-478
Probs. 479-483
239
COLUMNS
479. The cantilever frame of Fig. P-479 is constructed of 10-in. I-beams at 25.4 lb
per ft. Determine the normal stresses developed at the corners of the column
on plane AA.
M
36/
/5,OOOfo
//////////////
P-479
480. Solve the preceding problem if an additional horizontal load of 4000 lb is act-
ing to the left through point B.
481. Determine the vertical stresses at points A and B at the base of the member
in Fig. P-475, if a horizontal load of 2000 lb acts along the -axis at the top in
addition to the 8000-lb load.
482. Determine the maximum compressive stress developed on plane A A by the
18,000-lb load acting on the bumper shown in Fig. P-482.
/8.000/6
6/n.
P-482
483. (a) The 20-ft latticed steel column having the cross section shown in Fig.
P-483 is made of two 9-in., 20-lb steel channels spaced so that Ixx = Ivy.
240
Chap. 7
Determine the maximum safe working load that can be applied if the resultant
acts through point B. (b) If the latticing is removed and the load applied so
that each channel acts independently as an axially loaded column, determine
the total maximum safe working load that can be carried.
484. Determine the maximum allowable load that the steel H-beam shown in Fig.
P-484 can carry as a 35-ft column if the load is applied at (a) the centroid,
(b) point A.
^
/'/a in.
X
X
A
L
y
P-184
II
485. Two 10-in., 15.3-Ib steel channels 35 ft in length are latticed together as shown
in Fig. P^83 to act as a pin-ended column. Determine the maximum safe
working load if it is applied at (a) the centroid, (b) a point on the axis 3 in.
from the centroid.
486. A pivot-ended steel column 25 ft long has the cross section shown in Fig.
P-486. Determine the maximum allowable load the column can carry if the
load is applied at (a) the centroid, (b) point A.
487. Solve the preceding problem if the material is aluminum alloy 24S-T.
488. An 8-in. I-beam weighing 23 Ib per ft is used as a pivot-ended column 30 ft
long. Determine the maximum allowable load that the column can carry if the
load is applied at a point on the centerline of the web 2 in. from the centroid.
489. The length and end conditions of a 15-in., 50.0-Ib steel I-beam are such that it
will carry a maximum allowable axial load of 200,000 Ib acting as a column in
the intermediate range. Determine the maximum permissible eccentricity
along the major axis of symmetry for an eccentric load of 100,000 Ib.
Probs. 484-495
241
COLUMNS
490. An 8-in. 18.4-Ib steel I-beam is used as a pivot-ended column 30 ft long. De-
termine the maximum distance from one axis of symmetry of the section that
the load may be moved along the other axis of symmetry without reducing the
permissible load on the column. (Two solutions)
A
y
/O /n.
491. A machine part 30 in. long is to transmit an axial load of 2000 Ib and is to have
a square cross section. Determine the minimum size of (a) structural steel,
(b) aluminum alloy 17S-T required if the ends are assumed to be pivoted.
492. Select an economical rolled section of structural steel to carry an axial load of
18,000 Ib as a pivot-ended column 24 ft long.
493. Determine the minimum diam of structural steel cylinder which will safely
carry an axial compressive load of 50,000 Ib when used as a pivot-ended column
15 ft long.
494. A 24S-T aluminum alloy member is to carry an axial compressive load of
2000 Ib with a minimum factor of safety of 3. The member is 15 ft long and is
to have a rectangular cross section with one dimension twice the other. De-
termine the dimensions of the cross section.
495. Select a suitable material and determine minimum dimensions for the cross
section of the landing gear strut shown in Fig. P-495. Assume that section A A
P-495
242
Chap. 7
controls and that the critical condition is equivalent to a vertical load of
7200 Ib.
496. A steel rod 70 in. long is to transmit a compressive load of 102,000 Ib. The rod
is to be rectangular in cross section, but one dimension is fixed as 2.00 in. De-
termine the other dimension if the rod is pivot-ended.
497. An aluminum alloy (24S-T) tube 3 ft long is to carry a compressive load of
800 Ib with a factor of safety of 2.00. Determine the wall thickness required if
the external diam is (a) 1 in., (b) 1-1/2 in.
498. Determine a suitable rolled or built-up steel section for member Ui Uz of the
truss of Fig. P-2(c). Assume the member to be pivot-ended.
499. Member C72 U3 in the truss of Fig. P-4(6) is to be made of 24S-T. Determine a
suitable cross section if a factor of safety of 3 is to be maintained.
500. Select a suitable I-beam for member L, Ui of the truss of Fig. P-500, (a) with
the collision strut MLI, (b) without the strut.
/OA
/0*
s e
/Ok
4
/ox
P-500
501. A pivot-ended column 30 ft long is to carry a load of 100,000 Ib. Design a
suitable member consisting of two latticed channels if the load is (a) axial,
(b) applied with an eccentricity of 1 in.
502. A compression member 18 ft long is to carry a load of 40,000 Ib. In order to
satisfy other requirements, the section is to be constructed of two 3/8-in. steel
angles placed as shown in Fig. P-502. Determine the distance o if suitable
working stresses are not to be exceeded.
3//e in.
Point of
app//cation
of /oad p
P-502
CHAPTER 8
COMBINED LOADINGS
78. Introduction.In Chap. 1 it was shown that any loading on a
structural member could be resolved at a given cross section into four
component loadings: axial load, torsion, shear, and flexure. It was further
indicated that in general the stresses developed by each of these component
types of load could be evaluated separately and the results superimposed,
the superposition being subject to certain limitations such as assuming that
no one of the component loadings will affect the stresses due to the other
types of loading, that the directions of the stresses be taken into account
in considering the combination, and in some cases that the stresses be below
the proportional limit of the material.
Direct addition of the stresses will not always give the maximum stresses,
however, for a combination of normal stress and shearing stress on a given
plane will invariably result in a higher maximum normal stress and a higher
maximum shearing stress on other planes. For example, in a simple beam
carrying a uniform or concentrated load, the stresses on a vertical plane
at a given point between the neutral axis and the bottom of a beam may be
evaluated by the conventional analyses as tension and shear. However, on
another plane through that point, a higher normal stress exists than the
one given by the flexure formula and, on another plane, a higher shearing
stress exists than that given by Eq. (80).
Since, in general, design is based upon the maximum stresses which are
developed in a member, consideration must be given to the evaluation of
the maximum normal stress and the maximum shearing stress which may
exist at a point. As will be demonstrated in the following articles, these
maximum stresses may be evaluated if the normal and shearing stresses on
any pair of perpendicular planes through the point are known.
79. Principal Stresses.It has been noted that at a given point in a
structural member or machine part, the normal stresses are different on
different planes through the point. Of the stresses on all possible planes
there will, in general, be a maximum and a minimum. The maximum and
minimum normal stresses are known as principal stresses and the planes on
which they act are known as the principal planes.
The principal stresses may be evaluated from the normal stress and shear-
ing stress acting on any pair of perpendicular planes through the point.
Since the formulas for stress in axially loaded members, shafts, beams, and
243
244
Chap. 8
other members are set up to give the normal and shearing stresses on planes
perpendicular and parallel to the longitudinal axis of the member, it is de-
sirable to establish a general relationship between the principal stresses
and the stresses at a point on a transverse cross section.
In Fig. 89 (a) is shown this combination of stresses which frequently oc-
curs in engineering problems. A normal stress (designated as SJ and a
shearing stress (designated as S,) are acting at a point on the cross section
of a member. The free-body diagram of a differential block at the point
<t-
S* T
(a)
(6)
Fig. 89
is shown in Fig. 89(6). The normal stresses produce forces Sxdy' and the
shearing stresses produce forces S,dx and S,dy', if the dimension of the
block perpendicular to the planes of the paper is assumed to be one unit.
The stress on any plane which makes an angle 6 with the x direction may
be found by the usual method of applying the equations of equilibrium to a
free-body diagram so selected that the unknown stresses are acting on one
of the cut planes. In this case, the plane is to make an angle 6 with the x
direction, and the free body is carved from the block of Fig. 89(6) as shown
in Fig. 89(c). The base of the block is taken as dx and the height, dy, is
selected so that dy = dx tan 6. The forces on the inclined plane are desig-
nated as N and Q in which N = Sndc, Q = S jdc and dc is the length of the
inclined plane. The normal force acting on the right-hand face is Sxdy and
the shearing force is Stdy. The shearing force on the bottom face is S,dx.
The unknown normal force on the inclined plane may be evaluated by
writing the force equation of equilibrium in the direction of N thereby
eliminating the force Q from the equation.
2Fn = 0, (160)
Sndc - S,dy cos 6 - S,dx sin 6 - S^y sin 0 = 0. (161)
Eq. (161) may be simplified by dividing by dc, the result being
dc
dc
-
dc
(162)
Art. 79 COMBINED LOADINGS 245
However, from the dimensions of the free-body diagram in Fig. 89 (c), it is
apparent that
-j- = sind, (163)
and
, ôv. (163a)
Therefore,
Sn = 2S, sin 0 cos 0 + Sx sin2 0 (164)
= S, sin 20 + Sx sin2 0. (164a)
Eqs. (164) and (164a) give values of the normal stresses on any plane which
makes an angle 0 with the x direction in terms of the stresses on planes
through the point parallel to the x- and y-axes. It is assumed in this de-
velopment that there are no stresses on the two vertical triangular faces
of the free-body diagram which are parallel to the plane of the paper.
The principal stress may be evaluated by differentiating the expression
for Sn with respect to 0 and equating to zero (simply following the standard
procedure for determining a maximum or minimum).
from which
= 2S, cos 20 + 2SX sin 0 cos 0 = 0, (165)
a
2S. cos 20 + Sx sin 20 = 0, (165a)
2 SI
tan 20 = ~ (165b)
Eq. (165b) gives the direction of the plane on which the principal stress
acts.
The magnitude of the principal stress may now be obtained by substitut-
ing the value of 0 from Eq. (165b) into Eq. (164a) which may also be writ-
ten
Sn = S, sin 20 + iSx(1 - cos 20). (164b)
The sine and cosine of the angle 20 may conveniently be evaluated from
the sketch of Fig. 90 since the tangent of 20 is known by Eq. (165b). The
two sides may be written as 2S, and Sx which makes the hypotenuse
equal to VSJ + 4S.2. Then from Eq. (164b),
246
Chap. 8
Fig. 90
*
s.. . = js,
,)2 + ss2,
(166)
(166a)
in which
Su and Sv denote the principal stresses, or pair of maximum normal
stresses which exist on any plane (perpendicular to the xy-pla,ne,
or plane of the paper) through the given point.
It will be noted from Eq. (166) that Sn or the principal stress is double
valued. One of the values (Su) is that of the maximum stress, the other
($) that of the minimum stress.
Eq. (166a) further indicates that, whenever a shearing stress is present
on the same plane as the normal stress Sx, the magnitude of the maximum
principal stress will be greater than that of the normal stress. Hence,
members such as beams which are subjected to both bending and shear
must be designed for principal stresses which at any point, except one where
the shearing stress on the cross section is zero, are greater than the stress
as given by the flexure formula. However, for most beams the maximum
flexural stress occurs at the top or bottom surface of the beam where the
shearing stress is zero. In that case the maximum stress given by the flexure
formula is equal to one of the principal stresses. The other principal stress is
zero unless the point is under the load or over a reaction.
80. Maximum Shearing Stress.The value of the shearing stress on a
plane which makes an angle 6 with the x direction (direction of a computed
normal stress) may be evaluated in terms of the shearing stress and normal
stress in the x direction. The free-body diagram of Fig. 89 (c) may be used
for this purpose. If the equation of equilibrium is written in the direction
of the shearing force Q, there results
Sqdc - SJx cos 8 - SJy cos 8 + S/ly sin 8 = 0, (167)
from which
Sq = S.^ cos 9 + Sx $ cos 8 - S, ^ sin 8. (167a)
ac ac ac
As before, the dimensions of the block may be replaced by the functions of
the angle 8 from Eq. (163); so,
Sg = (cos2 6 - sin2 0) + Sx sin 8 cos 6. (168)
The value of the maximum shearing stress may be obtained by differenti-
ating Sq with respect to 8 and equating the derivative to zero.
-^ = S. (-2 sin8 cos 8 - 2 sin 6 cos 6) + Sz (cos20 - sin2 8) = 0, (169)
or
-2<S. sin 28 + Sx cos 20 = 0, (169a)
from which
tan 28 = fy- (170)
It will be noted that the tangent of the angle 28 in Eq. (170) is the negative
reciprocal of the tangent of the angle denned in Eq. (165b). Therefore, the
plane on which the maximum shearing stress acts is at 45 with the planes
of the principal stresses.
The value of the maximum shearing stress may be obtained by substitut-
ing functions of the angle from Eq. (170) into Eq. (168). It is found that
Sq (max) = WSJ + 4S.2, (171)
S = V(iSz)2 + S,2, (171a)
in which
Sq denotes the maximum shearing stress.
It will be noted that Sq is the second part of the expression for Su, in
Eq. (166a). This suggests a convenient relationship among Su, Sv, and Sq.
From Eq. (166a)
Su = %SX + Sq, (172)
<S = $SX - Sq. (172a)
Hence,
Su - Sv = 2SQ, (173)
or
248
Chap. 8
SQ = i(Su - S,).
(173a)
That is, the maximum shearing stress at a point is equal to one-half of the
difference of the principal stresses.
By substituting values of the functions of 26 from Eq. (165b) and
Fig. 90 into Eq. (168), it may be shown that the shearing stress is zero on
the principal planes.
Determine the principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress developed at
the top of the shaft at section AA in the mechanism shown in Fig. 91(a).
/OOO/t>
(0
Fig. 91
Solution: The first step is to construct a free-body diagram of a portion of the
mechanism in order to evaluate the forces and stresses which must be developed on
the transverse section A A. The free-body diagram of Fig. 91(6) shows the outer
end of the mechanism carrying the 1000-Ib load. In order to preserve equilibrium a
vertical shear of 1000 Ib, a flexural moment of 3000 in-Ib, and a torque of 5000 in-lb
must be developed at the cut section.
The stresses which these develop on a differential block at the top of the cross
section will next be determined. The shearing force V will produce no stress at the
top. The stress & developed by the flexural moment is tension at the top of the shaft
and may be found from the flexure formula
Me , .
&. = -j- (a)
_ 3000 (0.75)
* (0.75)4 w
4
= 9040 psi. (c)
The shearing stress S, developed at the top of the shaft is
-S. = y (d)
'_ 5000(0.75) , .
"T (0.75)4 (e)
2
= 7530 psi. (f)
The stresses Sx and S, are shown in Fig. 91 (c) which represents the top view of a
differential block at the top of the shaft at section A A.
The principal stresses may now be evaluated from Eq. (166a).
u, =
= 4520 8780, (h)
Su = 13,300 psi. tension, (i)
S, = 4260 psi. compression. (j)
Since stress is a vector quantity, the directions must be established. From
Eq. (165b)
tan 29- 2 (7530) (k}
1,-m_fl- 9040 (k)
= -1.665, (1)
6 = -29.5, 60.5. (m)
The correct association of the two stresses with the two directions may be made
conveniently with the aid of the triangular free-body diagram as indicated in
Fig. 91(c). The line OA is drawn making one of the specified angles (29.5 in this
case) with the x direction. This is the direction of one of the sides of the supple-
mentary free body, the other two sides being in the x and y directions. The directions
of the forces on the vertical and horizontal sides are known, and the direction of the
force N on the inclined face is to be determined. From the fact that the summation
of forces in the y direction is equal to zero, it is evident that TV must have a down-
ward component to balance the shearing force on the left-hand side. Hence, N is
compression, and the stress on the plane which makes an angle of 29.5 with the
xz-plane is S,. The principal stresses are shown on the supplementary rectangular
block in Fig. 91 (c).
The maximum shearing stress is determined as the second term in Eq. (g) and is
250
Chap. 8
therefore 8780 psi. It occurs on planes making angles of 45 with the planes of the
principal stresses. Hence, the angles which the traces of the planes of maximum
shearing stress make with the z-axis are 15.5 and 74.5.
If the two principal stresses have the same sign, that is, if both are ten-
sion or both are compression, the shearing stress calculated by Eq. (173)
is the maximum shearing stress on any plane perpendicular to the zy-plane
(the plane of the paper in Fig. 89). However, a higher shearing stress may
exist on a plane which is inclined at 45 with the zy-plane. If the axis per-
pendicular to the rcy-plane is designated as the z-axis, and a differential
block similar to the one in Fig. 89 but with sides in the u and z directions is
(a) (i>) M
Fig. 92. Three maximum shearing stresses.
analyzed, the maximum shearing stress on any plane perpendicular to the
wz-plane will be found to be
S' Q -
Si).
(173a)
Similarly a third maximum shearing stress may be found on a plane which
makes an angle of 45 with the z and v directions, its magnitude being
S"Q = 4(5, - 5.). (173b)
These are illustrated in Fig. 92. One of these three shearing stresses will be
the highest shearing stress on any pair of planes through the point.
81. The Mohr Circle.A convenient graphical determination of the
principal stresses from the known normal stress and shearing stresses has
been developed. The evaluation, illustrated in Fig. 93, involves the con-
struction of a circle, known as the Mohr circle. As outlined here, one normal
stress Sx and the corresponding pair of shearing stresses S, are known, but
the method is readily extended to the situation in which two normal
stresses, Sx and Sv, and the corresponding pair of shearing stresses are given.
The stresses Sx and S, are assumed positive as indicated in Fig. 93(a).
The construction, in Fig. 93(6), consists in laying off Sx to scale as OX from
an origin O, dropping a perpendicular XM equal to S, to scale, and drawing
a circle with C, the midpoint of OX, as a center and CM as a radius.
Art. 82
251
COMBINED LOADINGS
-^
= | + 1/(|
XM*
Fig. 93. The Mohr Circle.
The line OX is extended to form a diam VU and the principal stresses
measured to scale as OF and O U. The radius CM is the maximum shearing
stress to scale, and the direction in which the stress Su (0 U) acts is the
direction of the line VM.
The proof follows from the geometry of the figure and Eq. (166).
OX = OC + CM (174)
(174a)
(174b)
= 5.. (174c)
Similarly, OF, which equals OX CM, is equal to Sv. It is also evident
that the radius of the circle CM is equal to SQ by Eq. (171a). That the
angle XCM is equal to 26 follows from the construction and Eq. (165b).
The angle XVM is equal to one-half the angle XCM because the two sub-
tend the same arc UM of the circle, so XVM 6.
82. Diagonal Tension.In a conventional beam, both normal and shear-
ing stresses are developed on virtually all cross sections. At any point ex-
cept on the top and bottom surfaces of the beam, the principal stresses are
developed on planes inclined with respect to the longitudinal axis of the
beam. For example, at point A in the beam of Fig. 94 the stresses on verti-
cal and horizontal planes will be as shown in the differential block. These
will result in principal stresses acting in the directions indicated in Fig.
94(6). The phenomenon of tensile stresses being developed on planes which
252
Chap. 8
are inclined with the vertical is known as diagonal tension and is of par-
ticular concern in the design of reinforced concrete beams.
Since the concrete is weak in tension, steel reinforcing bars are placed
in the beam to give it the necessary tensile resistance. It is evident that
these bars will be most effective when placed in the direction of the prin-
cipal tensile stresses. If the principal stresses are evaluated at a number of
points in the beam of Fig. 94 and their directions indicated in a sketch of
the beam, it will be found that there may be drawn a series of lines having
the characteristic that the principal stress is everywhere tangent to the
lines. These lines are known as stress trajectories. The solid lines in the left-
.<_ A
-O-*
XI
tot)
Fig. 94
hand half of Fig. 94(c) are typical stress trajectories for the principal tensile
stresses in the beam. The lines show direction only. Their spacing is arbi-
trary, and they in no way indicate magnitude of stress. A similar set of
lines may be drawn to indicate the directions of compressive stress. These
are indicated as the series of dotted lines in Fig. 94 (c). The two sets of lines
comprising the stress trajectories are of necessity orthogonal.
It is apparent that the most effective placement of reinforcement in a
concrete beam is along the stress trajectories near the bottom of the beam.
However, this is seldom practicable because of the difficulties involved in
bending the bars properly and obtaining the correct placement in the beam.
The bars are normally placed horizontally near the tension face of the beam,
but in some instances are bent up near the ends as indicated in the right-
hand half of Fig. 94(c). The bent-up bars have the effect of strengthening
the beam against failure by diagonal tension near the ends where the hori-
zontal reinforcement is much less effective because of the comparatively
large inclination of the tensile stresses. The device is also useful in con-
tinuous beams where the moment is negative over intermediate supports
Art. 83
263
COMBINED LOADINGS
and the reinforcement should be in the top half of the beam. Concrete
beams are sometimes reinforced against diagonal tension by including
vertical bars (stirrups) in the beams.
The principal compressive stresses, as well as the principal tensile
stresses, may cause difficulties in the design of beams. This is particularly
true in built-up beams having thin webs, as the compressive stresses may be
sufficiently high to cause buckling. The diagonal strip in the left-hand half
of Fig. 94(d) is typical of strips which are subjected to compressive forces
..L
c'
iV
f*
1 t
0
etu A
A'
(e)
Fig. 95
at the ends and which may act essentially as columns. If the web is thin,
buckling or crippling of the web may result.
One technique often used to prevent buckling of the web consists in at-
taching "stiffeners" (usually angles) to the web as indicated in the right-
hand nail 6f Fig. 94 (d). The stiff eners may be inclined or vertical and are
spaced so that the length of an inclined strip of web is less than the critical
length which would result in buckling. It is evident that a built-up beam
having regularly arranged stiffeners approximates a truss.
83. Principal Strains.Principal stresses are accompanied by strains
which may be shown to be maximum and minimum in the directions of the
principal stresses. However, because of the Poisson effect, the principal
strain in a given principal direction cannot, in general, be evaluated di-
rectly as the ratio of the principal stress in that direction to the modulus
of elasticity of the material. The relationship between the principal strain
and the principal stresses may be derived from the properties of the ma-
terial and the geometry of a differential element at the point, as indicated in
Fig. 95. If the differential element OABC is subjected to an axial tensile
stress Su, as indicated in Fig. 95(a), it will elongate in the u direction and
shorten in the v direction, as shown in Fig. 95(6). The corresponding prin-
cipal strains may be calculated as a = Su/E and , = p Sa/E provided
that the stress does not exceed the proportional limit of the material.
Similarly, the strains developed by an axial stress in the v direction may be
evaluated as a = / S,/E and ev = S,/E.
If stress is applied in both the u and the v directions, as shown in Fig.
95 (c), the resultant principal strains may be determined by superposition
provided that the proportional limit of the material is not exceeded.
Hence,
<Su Sr /1TC\
= - - M -> (175)
*' = -E ~ M E
The geometry of the strain is shown in Fig. 95 (d). The original element
OABC is considered to be subjected first to the stress <S which deforms the
element to OA'B'C', corresponding to Fig. 95(6). The addition of ST causes
the block to shorten horizontally and lengthen vertically, resulting in the
rectangle OA"B"C". The resultant total strain in the u direction is AA".
AA" = AA' - A'A" (176)
, .
(176a)
and the unit strain is
A. A. O Or f^ wrttv
--&---*' (176b)
which agrees with Eq. (175). The expression for c, may be developed
similarly. In Eqs. (175) and (175a) both stresses are assumed to be tensile.
If one or both of the stresses is compressive, the magnitude of the stress
must be given a negative sign.
If a triaxial stress situation exists, that is, if there is axthird principal
stress in the z direction (perpendicular to the wv-plane), the effect of the
third stress may be included by superposition, resulting in an additional
term in Eqs. (175) and (175a).
Eqs. (175) and (175a) may be solved for the stresses in terms of the
strains, giving
s = E (e,. + /*e,)
and
8. = *(*_+.*"). (ma)
Equations of the type of (177) and (177a) are very useful in evaluating
principal stresses from experimentally measured strains.
84. Theories of Elastic Failure.As was noted in Chap. 1, allowable
working stresses for axially loaded members may be established by dividing
the elastic strength or the ultimate strength of the material by an appropri-
ate factor of safety. The procedure is not satisfactory for establishing
a working stress in structural members or machine parts in which a bi-
axial stress condition exists at the critical, or most highly stressed, point
because the proportional limit will not occur at the same stress as it would if
the material were axially stressed. In general, the addition of a stress in the
y direction will increase the resistance to stress in the x direction if the two
stresses are of like sign (both compression or both tension) and will decrease
the strength of the material if the stresses are of unlike sign (one compres-
sion and one tension).
Several theories have been proposed in an attempt to evaluate thapjxh.
portionaMirniLfor a material subjected to biaxial loading in terms of the
proportional limit as determined from axial loading tests. A brief descrip-
tion of some of the important theories of elastic failure follows:
(1) Maximum Normal Stress Theory.In this theory it is assumed that
the proportional limit will occur at the same stress in a biaxially loaded
material as it does in an axially loaded material. While this theory has been
used successfully for the design of many structures and machine parts, it
has often given workable results only because of a generous factor of safety.
Fqr_situations in which one of the principal stresses is tension_and the^)ther
compression and the material is ductile; it is, definitely-on the unsafe side.
(2) Maximum Normal Strain Theory.The maximum normal strain
theory of failure is based on the assumption that the material will fail
whenever the maximum value of unit strain reaches the value of unit strain
at which the material would fail in an axial test. That is, failure will occur
when = ,, eu being the maximum unit strain and em being the critical
unit strain (unit strain at the proportional limit) under a condition of axial
loading. If the criterion of failure is inelastic action and if the proportional
limit is used as the maximum allowable stress, the maximum unit strain
theory may be expressed in terms of stresses. From the definition of failure
= .> (178)
"u O OJTI /i TO i
~MI=T (178a)
If the material is homogeneous and isotropic,
Su - M 8, = S. . (178b)
Eq. (178b) indicates that the maximum principal Su will be increased
above Sm whenever Sv is the same sign as Su- If Su and Sv are of opposite
signs, the maximum allowable value of Su will be less than Sm, thus indicat-
ing the weakening effect of biaxial stresses of unlike sign. In general, this
theory gives results which are slightly on the unsafe side when the stresses
are of like sign, and is unduly conservative when the stresses are of unlike
sign.
(8) Maximum Shearing Stress Theory.The maximum shearing stress
theory of failure is based on the assumption that failure will occur in a
member subjected to biaxial stress whenever the maximum shearing stress
becomes equal to the value of the maximum shearing stpess which the ma-
terial will develop under the condition of axial loading/ or in (pure shear.
"Hurt is,
SQ = SQ'. (179)
Since the maximum shearing stress may be evaluated in terms of the normal
stresses, it follows that
*(&, - S.) = %Sm, (179a)

or
S - S, = Sm, (179b)
if Su and Sr are of unlike sign. However, if Su and Sr are of like sign, the
maximum shearing stress is equal to the difference between <S and the
third principal stress (0) which is at right angles to the xy-plane. Then the
criterion of failure becomes
JOS. - 0) = JS., (180)
or
Su = Sm. (180a)
Thus for stresses of like sign, the maximum shearing stress theory of failure
gives results which are identical with the maximum normal stress theory of
failure. For biaxial stress situations in which the stresses are of unlike sign,
Art. 84
257
COMBINED LOADINGS
the maximum shearing stress theory of failure gives results which are even
more conservative than those of the maximum unit strain theory of failure.
(4) Hencky-von Mises Theory of Failure.This theory of failure is based
on an equation which has been found to agree with a large number of re-
sults from tests on ductile materials.
v - Sx)2
- SO2 = 2Sm
(181)
Although it gives results which are in good agreement with tests on ductile
materials, the Hencky-von Mises theory is not so widely used as the others
because of the greater complexity of the equation.
The maximum unit shearing stress theory has been incorporated into a
number of design codes.
A sphere 20 ft in diam is to be used to store gas under a pressure of 240 psi. De-
termine the minimum required wall thickness if a factor of safety of 2.50 with
respect to failure by slip is to be maintained. The material is structural steel.
to)
Fig. 96
Solution: The stress on any plane at any point in the wall may be determined
from a free-body diagram of one-half of the cylinder bounded by a diametral plane
through the given point, as shown in Fig. 96. The resultant compressive force de-
veloped by the gas is
F = 240 (lOOir) (144)
= 10,900,000 Ib.
(a)
(b)
This is resisted by the tensile stress developed over the cross section of the wall
[the shaded area in Fig. 96(a)]. Hence,
10,900,000 = Sr (240),
_ 14,400
A - t
(c)
(d)
It is evident that the same stress exists on every diametral plane passing through
a given point, so the stress situation is biaxial as indicated in Fig. 96(6). At the in-
side of the wall the stress situation is actually triaxial because of the compression
due to the internal pressure. However, this stress is small, 240 psi., in comparison
with the other stresses and its effect will be neglected.
Since a biaxial stress situation exists, the thickness will be determined using each
of the four theories of failure listed. First, Sm or the maximum allowable stress in
axial tension may be evaluated from the proportional limit and the factor of safety
40,000 (.
i>m--2W
= 16,000 psi. (f)
(1) Maximum Normal Stress Theory. In this theory the effect of the biaxial
loading is ignored and Sm is equated to the maximum normal stress
16,000 = ^p2, (g)
= 0.90 in. (h)
(2) Maximum Normal Strain Theory. Eq. (178b) may be applied directly
UfO - 0-3 - = 16,000, (i)
i = 0.63 in., (j)
which is appreciably less than the value obtained by the maximum normal stress
theory.
(3) Maximum Shearing Stress Theory. The stresses are of like sign, hence
the maximum shearing stress theory reduces to the maximum normal stress theory,
and the design by this method calls for a thickness of 0.90 in.
(4) Hencky-von Mises Theory. From Eq. (181), with Su = S, and S. = 0,
Su2 = Sm2. (k)
Therefore, this theory also gives the same results as the maximum normal stress
theory. If the principal stresses were different in magnitude, these two theories
would not, in general, give the same result.
PROBLEMS
503. Are the equations for the principal stresses valid above the proportional limit?
Explain.
504. At a certain point in a structural member there is developed a tensile stress of
8000 psi. on one plane and a shearing stress of 3000 psi. on the same plane.
Determine the principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress. On a sketch
show the planes on which they act.
505. Determine the principal stresses and the maximum shearing stress developed
at a point at which the stresses indicated in Fig. P-505 are acting.
506. The normal stress and the shearing stress at a point in a structural member
are indicated hi Fig. P-506. If one of the principal stresses is 8000 psi. com-
Probs. 503-512
259
COMBINED LOADINGS
P-505
pression acting on plane A A, determine the magnitude of the normal stress S,
and the shearing stress S,.
P-506
507. At a point on the inside of a 6-in. gun, a circumferential stress of 20,000 psi. is
developed when the internal pressure is 32,000 psi. Determine the maximum
shearing stress developed at the inside.
508. A concrete cylinder 6 in. in diam and 12 in. high is subjected to an axial com-
pressive load of 140,000 Ib and an external radial pressure of 15,000 psi. De-
termine the maximum shearing stress developed in the concrete.
509. A tube having an inside diam of 1 in. and an outside diam of 1-1/4 in. is shrunk
over a rod having an outside diam of 1 in. The radial pressure developed on the
tube by the rod is 2800 psi. Determine the maximum shearing stress developed
in the tube.
510. The 2-in. diam solid propeller shaft of a certain airplane transmits 1800 hp at
1400 rpm and resists a thrust of 2800 Ib. Determine the principal stresses de-
veloped at any point on the outside of the shaft.
511. Determine the principal stresses and the maximum shearing unit stress at
point A on the surface of the shaft indicated in Fig. P-511. Show the results
on a sketch.
^ 4 in dfam\
SOOO !n.-/
, 20,000 n-
3ft
4O,OOO /t>
P-511
512. A 3-in. diam shaft is subjected to a torque of 1200 ft-Ib and an axial tensile
load of 20,000 Ib. Determine the principal stresses and maximum shearing
stress developed at a point on the outside of the shaft.
260
Chap. 8
513. A steel tube having an inside diam of 4 in. and an outside diam of 6 in. is sub-
jected to a torque of 12,000 ft-Ib and an axial compressive load of 60,000 Ib.
Compare the magnitudes and directions of the principal stresses developed on
the outside and the inside surfaces of the tube.
514. A 4-in. diam shaft is subjected to a torque of 20,000 in-Ib and an axial load.
Determine the magnitude of the axial load if the principal stress on the outside
of the shaft is not to exceed 18,000 psi.
515. A torsional member having a diam of 2-1/2 in. is subjected to an axial load of
8000 Ib. Determine the maximum torque to which the member may be sub-
jected if the principal stress is not to exceed 15,000 psi.
516. Determine the minimum diam required for a propeller shaft which is to trans-
mit 2400 hp at 1800 rpm and a thrust of 2000 Ib if the principal stress is not to
exceed 20,000 psi.
517. If the rotor of the turbine indicated in Fig. P-517 weighs 12,000 Ib and the
unit develops 20,000 hp at 240 rpm, determine the diam of structural steel
shaft required. The maximum principal stress is not to exceed 18,000 psi.
/?otor of
P-517
518. A tube having an inside diam equal to one-half the outside diam is to transmit
a torque of 4000 ft-Ib while subjected to an axial compression load of 20,000 Ib.
Determine the minimum dimensions required for the tube if the principal stress
is not to exceed 20,000 psi.
519. A beam having a rectangular cross section 6 in. wide and 12 in. deep is used as a
cantilever 8 ft long to support a concentrated load at the free end. If the
maximum normal stress developed in the beam is 1200 psi., determine the
magnitude and directions of the principal stresses at a point 4 ft from the
free end and 2 in. below the neutral axis.
520. A T-beam having the cross section indicated in Fig. P-520 is simply supported
at the ends of a 10-ft span and carries a concentrated load of 6000 Ib 4 ft from
the left end. Determine the magnitude and directions of the principal stresses
at point A on a section 2 ft from the left end.
Probs. 513-525
261
COMBINED LOADINGS
/0/n. I
Zin.
P-520
521. A timber beam 4 in. wide and 6 in. deep is used as a cantilever 5 ft long. If the
load at the free end develops the limiting flexural stress, determine the direc-
tion of critical shearing stress at a section 3 ft from the support and 1 in. below
the neutral axis. If the grain of the wood is in that direction, will the member
be safe in shear?
522. The hollow box beam indicated in Fig. P-522 is simply supported on a 12-ft
span and carries a vertical concentrated load of 20 kips 4 ft from the left end.
Determine the principal stresses at point A which is located 3 ft from the left
end.
"\,
X
*
'Vl
3
/in.
Z in.
/in.
P-522
523. A 10-in. 24S-T aluminum alloy cantilever I-beam at 12.45 Ib per ft carries a
concentrated load of 10,000 Ib 4 ft from the fixed end. Determine the prin-
cipal stresses at a point 1 ft from the fixed end and 3 in. below the neutral axis.
524. What general statement may be made regarding the principal stresses in the
center one-half of a simply supported beam which carries equal loads at the
quarter points?
525. The short post shown in Fig. P-525 is subjected to a 10,000-Ib load lying in a
plane parallel to the face BCDE. Determine the principal stresses developed at
point A.
202
Chap. 8
'/O.OO0/6
8 C
/O/n.
A
D
P-525
526. Determine the principal stresses at point B on the plane A A of the beam
shown in Fig. P-526 and compare with the maximum normal stress on the
plane.
/\
1
u
1
A
4
P-526
P-527
Probs. 526-529
265
COMBINED LOADINGS
527. A hollow post carries a load P as shown in Fig. P-527. The alloi
sive stress on any plane near the base is 10,000 psi. and the allc
stress is 3000 psi. Determine the maximum allowable value of tht
528. Determine the magnitude of the load which will develop a principa.
600 psi. compression at point A in the member shown in Fig. P-528.
flection of the member may be neglected.
4 in.
P-528
529. Determine the maximum value of the principal stress developed within the
length A B of the member shown in Fig. P-529. Neglect stress concentration
at the points of support and loading.
SOOOfc
4ft
4ft
P-529
/?/>?. 4/rt. 2//J.
P-530
202
Chap. 8
530. Determine the maximum principal stress developed at any point on section
BE of the support shown in Fig. P-530. Indicate clearly where and on what
plane it occurs.
Sect ion A-A
r
1
'fa in. of/am
P-531
531. Determine the maximum load to which the member of Fig. P-531 may be
subjected if the maximum principal stress (neglecting stress concentration)
is not to exceed the allowable values for aluminum alloy 17S-T.
532. Determine the dimensions required for the square post of the frame in Fig.
P-532 if it is to be constructed of white oak and to have a factor of safety of 4
with respect to failure by slip.
6ft
6O /ons
P-532
Probs. 530-544
265
COMBINED LOADINGS
533. Two 1/2-in. thick steel plates are spliced using a 1/2-in. thick strap to form a
butt joint. If a double row of 1-in. rivets with a pitch of 3 in. is used on each
side of the joint and if the gross section of the 1/2-in. plates develops a tensile
stress of 12,000 psi., determine the maximum stress in the strap at (a) the net
section, (b) the center.
534. Determine the maximum principal stress developed on the surface of the line
shaft shown in Fig. P-534 at section AA.
c:::
P-534
535. Under what circumstances does the Mohr circle degenerate to a point? Indi-
cate a practical situation in which this may occur.
536. At a point on the surface of a structural steel member, principal stresses of
8000 psi. tension and 4000 psi. compression are developed. Determine the
principal strains.
537. A shock absorber consists of a steel tube with an outside diam of 4 in. and a
wall thickness of 1/4 in. Determine the principal strains developed at a point
on the surface when the internal pressure is 400 psi.
538. A spherical gas holder built of 1-in. thick steel plate has an internal diam of
18 ft and a working pressure of 280 psi. Determine the principal strains de-
veloped at a point on the outside surface.
539. A steel shaft 4 in. i'n diam transmits 1200 hp at 230 rpm. Determine the prin-
cipal strains developed at a point on the surface.
540. Is it possible for tensile principal strain to be developed at a point where the
principal stresses are both compressive? Explain.
541. Is it possible for compressive principal stresses to be developed at a point
where both principal strains are tensile? Explain.
542. Principal strains of 0.00180 tension and 0.00150 tension are measured at a
point on the surface of an aluminum alloy 75S-T member. Determine the
principal stresses.
543. At a point on the surface of a magnesium alloy machine part, principal strains
were evaluated as 0.00240 tension and 0.00060 compression. Determine the
principal stresses.
544. A member is subjected to axial compression. For what relative value of lateral
stress will one of the principal strains be zero?
Chap. 8
545. A cast aluminum alloy member 2 in. wide and 4 in. deep is used as a simply
supported beam on a span of 8 ft. Determine the magnitude of concentrated
load at the center which will develop a principal strain of 0.00240 tension at a
point 3 ft from one support and 1/2 in. above the bottom of the beam.
546. A magnesium alloy beam is built up of four 2-in. by 2-in. by 1/4-in. angles and
an 8-in. by 1-1/2-in. plate as shown in Fig. P-546. It is simply supported on an
1
1 *
J 1
S
*
J
\Z/'n
/torn
Zm.
P-546
8-ft span and carries a uniformly distributed load over its entire length. At a
cross section 18 in. from the left end, strains are measured at several points;
and, at one of the points on one of the vertical surfaces, one of the principal
strains is found to be 0.00020 tension along a line making an angle of 45 with
the horizontal. Determine the magnitude of the uniform load on the beam.
547. Indicate one loading condition in which the four theories of failure will give
identical factors of safety.
548. For what combinations of principal stresses will the factor of safety evaluated
from the maximum unit strain theory of failure be identical with the factor
evaluated from the Hencky-von Mises theory, if the material is (a) steel,
(b) 17S-T?
549. Determine the combinations of principal stresses for which the factors of
safety as evaluated from the unit strain and the maximum shearing stress
theories of failure are identical for (a) steel, (b) nonferrous metals.
550. The Hencky-von Mises theory of failure and the maximum unit shearing stress
theory of failure indicate identical factors of safety for what combinations of
principal stresses?
551. The theories of failure as discussed in the text were referred to the proportional
limit as an index of failure. Would any of the theories be expected to extend to
the ultimate strength as a criterion? Explain.
552. At the critical point in a structural steel member, the principal stresses are
evaluated as 18,000 psi. tension and 16,400 psi. compression. Determine the
factor of safety with respect to failure by slip using the following theories of
failure: (a) maximum normal stress, (b) maximum normal strain, (c) maximum
shearing stress.
Probs. 545-559
267
COMBINED LOADINGS
553. Solve the preceding problem using the (a) maximum normal stress, (b) maxi-
mum shearing stress, and (c) Hencky-von Mises theory of failure.
554. A cylindrical structural steel tank 6 ft in diam has walls 1/4 in. thick. If the
efficiency of the joints is assumed to be 100 per cent, determine the factor of
safety with respect to failure by slip when the internal pressure is 140 psi. Use
(a) maximum normal stress, (b) maximum unit strain, and (c) Hencky-von
Mises theory of failure.
555. Solve the Illustrative Problem in the text if the gas holder is cylindrical in-
stead of spherical.
556. A solid cold-rolled steel shaft, for which the proportional limit in axial tension
is 60,000 psi., is loaded as shown in Fig. P-556. Determine the minimum per-
eooo /6
P-556
missible diam for the shaft if a factor of safety of 2.00 with respect to failure by
slip is to be maintained. Use the maximum normal stress and the maximum
unit strain theories of failure.
557. Solve the preceding problem using the maximum shearing stress and the
Hencky-von Mises theories of failure.
558. Solve Prob. 556 if the shaft is subjected to an axial compressive force of 6000 Ib
and a couple of 30,000 in-Ib is applied at the free end.
559. Determine the minimum diam required for the structural steel member of
Fig. P-559 if a factor of safety of 2.00 with respect to failure by slip is to be
4000 a>
c
8OOO /t>
P-559
maintained according to (a) the maximum normal stress theory of failure,
(b) the Hencky-von Mises theory of failure.
560. Solve the preceding problem using (a) the maximum unit strain theory of
failure and (b) the maximum shearing stress theory.
561. An aluminum alloy 75S-T tube with an outside diam of 2 in. is closed at the _- ends, subjected to an internal pressure of 5000 psi. and a torque of 6000 in-lb.
Determine, by any three theories of failure, the minimum thickness which the
tube must have to insure a factor of safety of 2.00 with respect to failure by
slip.
CHAPTER 9
DYNAMIC AND REPEATED LOADS
85. Importance of Nonstatic Loads.All of the preceding analyses have
been based on the assumption that the member is subjected to static load-
ing and that equilibrium prevails when the stresses are evaluated. From
this, the impression might be obtained that loads on engineering structures
and machines are static. However, this is far from the truth; in reality,
comparatively few loads are static. In most cases, the loads are applied as
moving loads with some degree of impact, and in many situations the load
is applied not once but thousands of times.
It was noted in Chap. 1 that dynamic loads could be expressed in terms of
equivalent static loads, that is, static loads which would produce the same
effect in the member as the dynamic load. A portion of this chapter will be
devoted to methods for evaluating equivalent static loads and for obtaining
load factors. In general, design is based on the formulas which have been
developed in the preceding chapters with due allowance being made, either
in the form of load factors or increased factors of safety, for the fact that
the loads are not static.
In Chap. 1, it was also pointed out that the effects of a load which is re-
peated an indefinitely large number of times may be much more severe
than the same load applied but once. Some of the effects of repeated loads
are discussed in Arts. 92 to 97.
Dynamic Loads
86. Definition.For the purposes of stress analysis, a load is considered
to be dynamic when it produces strains and stresses greater than those de-
veloped by the same load applied slowly. For example, a weight dropped on
the end of a beam, Fig. 97, will cause the beam to vibrate. If the propor-
tional limit of the material is not exceeded, the beam will eventually come
to equilibrium with a deflection y, identical to that assumed when the load
is slowly applied. It is apparent that the maximum deflection yD is greater
than the equilibrium deflection, that the maximum strain is greater than
the equilibrium strain at the same point because deflection is a result of
cumulative strain, and that the corresponding maximum stress is greater
than the equilibrium stress.
As a result, any loading condition which results in vibration or in de-
flections greater than those produced by the same load applied slowly con-
269
270
Chap. 9
stitutes a dynamic load. Such a loading may result from either a change in
magnitude or in direction of load. For example, the wings and control sur-
faces of an airplane are subjected to dynamic loading as a result of up-gusts
or down-gusts encountered in level flight, or as a result of maneuvering.
i
(a)
Fig. 97
87. Basis of Evaluation of Equivalent Static Loads.By definition, an
equivalent static load is that load, applied slowly, which will produce in a
member the same effect as a dynamic, or impact, load. The effect of any
load on a member is to develop stress and to produce strain and distortion
or deflection. Since stresses and strains are directly related (and the re-
lationship known through the stress-strain diagram for the material) and
since strains and distortion or deflection are related through the geometry
of the member, the equivalent static load may be considered to be that
static load which will produce the same deflection or distortion as the dy-
namic load. If the deflection or distortion is the same, the stresses, strains,
and other effects may be expected to be essentially the same, for stresses
below the elastic strength.
Therefore, in order to evaluate the equivalent static load, the deflection
or distortion developed by the dynamic load must be determined, and this
deflection or distortion must be the maximum produced by the dynamic
load, since that configuration is accompanied by the maximum stresses.
Thus, the equivalent static load for the weight in Fig. 97 is the static load
which would produce the maximum deflection yo-
In general, the most effective method for the evaluation of deflection or
distortion is to equate the maximum energy lost by the dynamic load to the
potential energy gained by the distorted member.
The energy lost by the dynamic load may be evaluated as (a) the change
in kinetic energy of the mass involved in the dynamic load or (b) the change
in potential energy of the mass involved in the dynamic load. The first
method of evaluation is usually most convenient for situations such as
shock loading on railway car couplings and unbalanced rotating machinery,
while the second method is useful where falling weights are involved, as in
pile drivers.
Art. 88 DYNAMIC AND REPEATED LOADS 271
The evaluation of the increase in potential energy in the stressed member
is based on the definition of work as average force times the distance
through which the force acts. If this definition is applied to a differential
cube (dx by dy by dz) subjected to a stress which increases from zero to Sx
in the x direction, there results
dU = %Sxdydz(*dx). (182)
If the stress is below the proportional limit of the material Sx = Eex, and
dU = j^dxdy dz. (182a)
Hence,
dUr = ||, (183)
in which
d Ur is the potential energy (strain energy) stored in a unit volume
of the material by the change in stress.
If Sx is the proportional limit of the material, the quantity d U is called the
modulus of resilience of the material.
The total energy stored in a member as a result of a change in stress
(Sx) and strain is expressed, from Eq. (182a), as
(184)
If the differential element is subjected to a shearing stress S,, the cor-
responding strain energy may be shown to be
U= l^dV. (184a)
Details of the evaluation of the equivalent static loads for specific types of
members are outlined in the following articles.
88. Axial Dynamic Loads.The member of constant cross section indi-
cated in Fig. 98 is subjected to an axial impact load by the weight W falling
through a distance h onto the end of the member. It is assumed that the
member does not buckle, so that a state of uniform compression is de-
veloped. As indicated previously, the load factor may be evaluated by
equating the total work done by the impact load to the work which would
be done by a static load that would produce the same maximum deforma-
tion.
272
Chap. 9
7777777777777~
(a J
Maximum
Q/splacemcn/
7777777777777
Fig. 98
7777777777777
(c)
The work done by the impact load is equal to its change in potential
energy, which is equal to the weight times the total distance through which
the weight moves vertically.
in which
Uk = W(h + e), (185)
Uk is the energy loss of the weight W,
h is the distance of free fall, and
e is the maximum shortening of the member.
The potential energy which has been lost from the weight by its decrease
in elevation has been gained by the member as energy of configuration or
potential energy. From Eq. (184) the strain energy is
tf-g dV
since Sx and E are constant throughout the volume. Then
S 2
U = 2taL'
in which
a is the cross sectional area of the member.
If the member absorbs all of the energy lost by the weight
U= U
and
SfaL
(186)
(186a)
IE
= W(h + e).
(187)
(187a)
However, the maximum shortening e of the member under the dynamic
load, Fig. 98(6), must equal the shortening produced by the equivalent
static load P, Fig. 98 (c), so
e = eL (188)
= L (188a)
PT
This value of e and Sx = P/a may be substituted in Eq. (187a), giving
from which the equivalent static load may be determined as
P = ^ + ^ + . (189a)
The maximum stress may be determined directly by dividing the value of P
in Eq. (189a) by the cross-sectional area of the member.
If the deformation of the member is sufficiently small in comparison
with the distance h that it may be neglected, Eq. (189a) reduces to
P = ,/^p (189b)
In general, it is preferable to solve a problem of this type by evaluating
the energies in forms of the pertinent variables, equating them, and solving
rather than merely substituting in Eq. (189a).
It should be noted that the foregoing solution is based on the assumption
that the member absorbs all of the impact energy. In general, part of the
impact is absorbed by the support, thus reducing the equivalent static load.
89. Torsional Impact Loads.The conversion of a dynamic torsional
load on a shaft into an equivalent static torque may be accomplished by the
same general procedure as was indicated for axially applied impact loads.
The change in potential energy of the shaft (usually the increase in strain
energy stored in the shaft) is equated to the change in the energy of the
dynamic torque.
A dynamic torque having magnitude of 100 in-Ib is applied to a 3-ft length of
solid circular shaft having a diam of 2 in. Determine the equivalent static torque
and the maximum torsional stress developed in the shaft.
Solution: The total strain energy absorbed in a shaft due to a torque T may be
evaluated from Eq. (184a) and (21a) or may be determined directly as the average
torque multiplied by the angle through which the torque will twist the shaft. That
is,
17 =m. (a)
However, B may be evaluated in terms of the torque starting with the geometrical
relationship given in Eq. (15a).
8c = y,L (b)
a S'L (^
6 = GT (c)
Since from Eq. (22)
B =
and
u-^-- m
U ~ 2GJ
Therefore, since the strain energy stored in the shaft is equal to the dynamic torque,
L **'
_ 2 (12) 106 (100)
2(36)
= 1.047 (10)8, (i)
T = 10,220 in-Ib. (j)
The equivalent static torque is large as compared to the dynamic torque.
The maximum stress produced by the dynamic torque may be evaluated from the
torsion formula and is found to be 6510 psi.
90. Flexural Impact Loads.The evaluation of the equivalent static
load on the beam follows the same general procedure that was used in
evaluating the equivalent static load for axially loaded members and tor-
sional members. That is, the total change in strain energy in the beam may
be equated to the amount of work done by the dynamic load as evidenced
by a change in its potential energy or in its kinetic energy. The maximum
strain energy stored in the beam may be determined by evaluating the
integral of Eq. (184a) after Sx is replaced by its equivalent from the flexure
formula, or it may be evaluated as the one-half equivalent static load times
the maximum deflection.
U = %Pym. (190)
A girl weighing 108 Ib drops through a distance of 1 ft onto the end of an oak div-
ing board 12 in. wide, 2 in. deep, and 8 ft long. The board has a modulus of elasticity
of 1,600,000 psi. Determine the equivalent static load.
Analytical Solution: The equivalent static load will deflect the board a distance
ym equal to the deflection under the impact load, and the change in potential energy
is equal to the strain energy stored in the board, which is assumed to be equal to the
change in potential energy of the girl. Hence,
= w (h + y^> (a)
P (96)3 (12) _pr. P (96)3 (12)
3 (1
From which
_10prig.
3 (1,600,000) (12) (8) L r 3 (1,600,000) (12) (8)
P = 108 352, (c)
or, since the negative root has no significance,
P = 460 Ib. (d)
The dynamic load is equivalent to a static load of 460 Ib, and the load factor is
LF = m = 4-25- (e)
This evaluation of the equivalent static load is based on the assumption that all
of the kinetic energy is absorbed by the board as strain energy in flexure. Some
energy will be absorbed in shear in the beam, some will be absorbed by the sup-
ports, and an appreciable amount will be absorbed by the diver. Hence, the as-
sumption used in the solution is on the conservative side.
The maximum stress may be determined from the flexure formula as
iS = 460 (96) (1) (f)
8
= 5520 psi., (g)
which is near the proportional limit of oak in flexure.
91. Design Considerations for Dynamic Loads. The resistance of a
tensile or a short compressive member to axial static loading is increased
directly with an increase in area, and the strength of a torsional or flexural
member subjected to static loading increases directly with an increase in
the moment of inertia of the cross section. The increase in moment of in-
ertia increases the stiffness or resistance to deflection, which in general is
desirable.
If impact or dynamic loads are to be resisted by the member, a large
area or moment of inertia is advantageous, but stiffness is usually unde-
sirable. That is, a flexible member is more effective in resisting impact load
than a rigid member, other things being equal. This may be shown for an
278
Chap. 9
axially loaded member by dividing Eq. (189b) by the area to determine the
maximum stress.
S =
2WhE
aL
(189c)
It will be noted that a high value of E, denoting stiffness of the material,
results in a comparatively high value of S, other factors being equal. The
same conclusions may be shown for torsional members and flexural mem-
bers.
That an increase in length and flexibility increases the capacity of a mem-
ber for absorbing impact may also be shown from a consideration of Eq.
(184). If the stress is uniformly distributed throughout the member
(184b)
from which it is evident that an increase in the volume increases the energy-
absorption characteristics of the material.
A'
Strain
(a)
(c)
The shock-absorbing capacity of bolts may be increased not only by in-
creasing their length, but also, in some instances, by increasing their stress.
For example, the cylinder-head bolts in an engine are subjected to rapidly
applied loads, due to the compression and expansion of the gas in the
cylinder, which may be considered as impact loads. With a given number
and size of bolts a certain maximum stress, represented by the ordinate to
point A in Fig. 99(a), will be developed under constant running conditions.
From Eq. (182) the amount of energy stored in a unit volume of the bolt
per cycle of loading is represented by the area under the stress-strain dia-
gram between the origin and point A. If the bolts are tightened so that each
develops the stress B, in Fig. 99(6), when the engine is not running, each
will develop an increment of stress BC when the engine is running. The
increment of stress depends upon the cylinder pressure and the size, num-
ber, and spacing of the bolts. However, the energy per unit volume stored
in the bolts per cycle of loading is now the area B'BCC', which is much
larger than the area OAA'. Therefore, the energy-absorbing characteristics
of the bolts are generally improved and may be improved still more by in-
creasing the initial stress B'B.
In at least one make of automobile the cylinder-head bolts are initially
stressed beyond the yield point of the steel in the bolts. This reduces the
tendency of the bolts to become loose as well as increasing their capacity
for storing energy.
The use of a material having a lower modulus of elasticity will also in-
crease the amount of energy which may be stored in a unit volume of a
bolt subjected to a certain increase in stress. As will be noted in Fig. 99(c),
which represents the stress-strain diagram for a material having a lower
modulus of elasticity than the one shown in Fig. 99(a), the area ODD' is
greater than the area OAA' even though the maximum stress is the same in
each case.
Another important consideration is that of stress concentration in mem-
bers subjected to dynamic loading. There is evidence to indicate that under
dynamic loads, the failures in materials which are considered ductile under
static loading conditions resemble failures in brittle materials. Test data
on stress concentration factors in dynamically loaded members are lacking,
but until such data are obtained it would appear that the helpful localized
yielding in highly stressed areas of ductile materials may be entirely lacking
in those same materials when subjected to impact, and that stress concen-
tration factors should always be used if dynamic loads are involved.
REPEATED LOADS
92. Definition.From the standpoint of stress analysis, a repeated load
is any load which is applied a sufficient number of tunes that its effect on
the member is different from the effect which would be produced if the load
were applied only once or twice. The number of times which the load must
be applied to be classified as a repeated load varies with the load, the type
of member, and the material; but, in general, for engineering purposes
several million repetitions are involved. Hundreds of millions of cycles of
loading are imposed on high-speed rotating parts, such as turbine blades,
during their useful life.
For purposes of analysis, repeated loads are classified as (1) completely
reversed repeated loads, in which the load varies in such a way that the stress
varies from a maximum value in tension to the same maximum value in
compression, and (2) fluctuating loads, in which the stress varies, but not
between equal values.
278
Chap. 9
A railway car axle, in which the stress at a point on a transverse cross sec-
tion varies between equal limits in tension and compression for each revolu-
tion of the wheel, is an example of the first type; while the connecting rod
in an automobile engine, in which the stress on the transverse cross section
varies from approximately zero to a maximum hi compression during each
cycle, is an example of the second type.
93. Effect of Repeated Loading.As a result of many carefully con-
trolled tests it has been established that the common engineering mat'erials
will fracture if subjected to many repetitions of load which develops stresses
within a range below the proportional limit of the material. For example, a
structural steel tensile specimen may safely be loaded to a stress of 35,000
psi. several times, but if the load is applied as many as perhaps five hundred
thousand tunes the specimen will fracture abruptly, without the pre-
liminary yielding which is typical of the material in the conventional test
-
Motor
[
T
1
1
[|0|2|4|l_3|_
^XT"
. 1
c
3
^/////////////f
r
3
7//////////////////A
/A
,
9
o;
I
\ Weights
Fig. 100. Diagram of test setup for repeated loading.
to failure. A stress of 20,000 psi., however, may be applied millions of times
without failure.
It is therefore apparent that, in the design of parts of rotating and re-
ciprocating machinery and other structural elements which are subjected
to repeated loading, the allowable working stress will not be based on the
elastic strength or the ultimate strength of the material, but rather upon a
strength which will serve as a reliable criterion of the resistance of the ma-
terial to repeated stress.
94. Criterion of Resistance.In order to evolve a suitable criterion,
many tests have been made and analyzed. The most frequently used test
consists in placing a cylindrical specimen, turned down throughout the
central part of its length, in a machine designed to support the specimen
near each end and to rotate it about its longitudinal axis. As shown in
Fig. 100, the specimen is loaded with a pair of weights which will develop
a constant bending moment in the turned-down portion.
As the specimen is rotated, a differential element near the circumference
of the cross section is subjected to a stress which varies from a maximum in
Art. 94
279
tension to a maximum in compression. The machine applies a completely
reversed cycle of stress for every revolution of the specimen. The maximum
stress is controlled by the weights and is held constant during the run. In
operation, a specimen is loaded to produce a predetermined stress, and the
machine is run until the specimen fails. The number of cycles of stress is
indicated by the revolution counter which stops when the specimen fails.
The test is repeated with other specimens subjected to other stresses.
Each stress is plotted against the corresponding number of cycles of
loading required to produce failure. The resulting diagram, known as an
S-N diagram, is illustrated in Fig. 101. Some materials, such as steel, show
/V'umber of Cyc/es of Stress
Fig. 101. Examples of S-N diagrams.
a definite break in the curve. For stresses below that value, an indefinitely
large number of cycles of stress may be applied without failure. For other
materials, a smooth curve apparently asymptotic to the z-axis is obtained.
For the materials having a break in the curve, the stress at the break
represents the highest stress which may safely be applied millions of times,
and is known as the endurance limit. That is, the endurance limit is the
highest completely reversed stress which may be applied a very large num-
ber of times without failure. For those materials which do not have an
abrupt break in the curve the endurance limit is taken as the completely
reversed stress which may be applied a specified (usually 500,000,000)
number of times without causing failure. This value may also be obtained
from an S-N diagram. Values for the endurance limit of a few engineering
materials are given in Table 6.
2SO
Chap. 9
TABLE 6
AVERAGE VALUES OF ENDURANCE LIMIT
(Values indicated are for reversed bending, or for alternate tension and compression)
Material
Endurance
Limit
(psi.)
Material
Endurance
Limit
(psi.)
Wrought iron
25,000
Aluminum alloy 17S- O
11 000
Structural steel
28,000
17S-T
18000
Alloy steel, SAE 2345 quenched
and drawn at 1200F
67,000
24S-T
18 000
Cast iron, No. 20
8,000
61S-T
13 500
Cast iron, alloy
25,000
75S-T
22 500
Stainless steel, type 302 an-
nealed
35,000
Magnesium alloy 265- C
18500
Monel metal "K"
35,000
C74-S
17 000
95. Mechanism of Failure.The most logical explanation of what hap-
pens in a failure by repeated stress, or fatigue failure as it is often called,
is that based on stress concentration. No engineering material is perfectly
homogeneous. Many irregularities exist at highly stressed points in the ma-
terial, these irregularities probably resulting in stress concentration. If the
material is stressed once, the stress at some of these points will exceed the
elastic limit of the material and localized redistribution of stress will result;
but such action is on a small scale and is not detected in the over-all be-
havior of the specimen.
Reapplication of the stress intensifies the effect, for localized strain
hardening has occurred at the overstressed points; the material is slightly
more brittle and more sensitive to stress concentration. Continued repeti-
tion serves to enlarge the area affected by the original stress raiser, and
eventually a small crack is formed. The high stress concentration at the
base of the crack results in its rapid propagation across the specimen, re-
sulting in fracture. Such cracks have been observed before complete fracture
occurred. The appearance of the fractured surface of a spring and of a tool
subjected to repeated loading is shown in Fig. 102.
An early explanation of the failure was that of "crystallization" of the
metal. Such a concept is entirely erroneous as there is no change in the
crystalline structure of the metal subjected to repeated loading. The initial
crack simply progresses across the member, separating the material along
the planes of weakness within, or on the faces of, the original crystals.
Fig. 102. Failure caused by repeated loading, (a) Compression spring. (6) Tip of jack-
hammer.
96. Fluctuating Stresses. In many machine parts the stress on a given
plane at a point varies from a minimum magnitude to a maximum magni-
tude without reversing sign, or varies from some value in compression to a
different value in tension. Such conditions of loading do not constitute
steady loading, nor are they directly comparable to a completely reversed
repeated load. However, for purposes of analysis, a load of this type may be
considered to be the sum of a static stress and a completely reversed re-
peated stress. That is, if the stress varies from a minimum of Si to a maxi-
mum of /S2, it may be resolved into an average stress
Sa = KSi + Si), (191)
and a completely reversed repeated stress
Sr = iGS - -SO- (192)
The combination of stresses which will result in failure may be de-
termined with the type of diagram indicated in Fig. 103. Completely re-
versed repeated stresses are plotted as ordinates and average stresses as
abscissae. The point A on the vertical axis corresponds to the endurance
limit of the material, point B on the horizontal axis to the elastic strength,
and point C to the ultimate strength. A certain range of fluctuating stress
is represented by point D with Sr determined from Eq. (192) and Sa from
Eq. (191).
Several criteria have been proposed to check the safeness of the stress
range represented by point D, when it is not possible to conduct tests. Of
282
Chap. 9
these, two have the advantage of being simple to apply and at the same
time being in reasonable agreement with results of tests on metals.
(1) Soderberg Criterion.The Soderberg criterion* or straight-line cri-
terion is shown by the line AB in Fig. 103. If the point representing the
stress condition falls between the line A B and the axes, failure will not be
expected to occur; but, if the line falls outside of the triangle OAB, failure
will be expected. For a number of metals investigated, this criterion gave
results on the safe side with slip regarded as the criterion of failure for com-
paratively large values of Sa, and fracture being the criterion of failure for
comparatively small values of Sa.
(2) Goodman Criterion.The Goodman criterion is a straight line from
A to C in Fig. 103. It obviously allows higher values of Sr for a given Sa
Average Sfress
Fig. 103
than does the Soderberg criterion, but is based on the assumption that the
criterion of failure is fracture rather than slip for comparatively high values
of Sa as well as for low values.
97. Stress Concentration.Members subjected to repeated or to fluctu-
ating loads are affected by stress raisers such as notches, grooves, threads,
keyways, and holes in much the same way that they are affected when the
loads are slowly applied. One important difference is observed, however,
and that is that the magnitude of the effect for geometrically identical dis-
continuities is different in different materials. Hence, the term "stress con-
centration factor" and the values of the factor applicable to static loading
do not apply directly to repeated loading conditions. The term endurance
limit reduction factor, defined as the ratio of the endurance limit of a polished
specimen to the endurance limit of a specimen containing the specified
stress raiser, is preferred. The magnitude of the endurance limit factor is, in
general, lower than the value of the stress concentration factor for the same
* Soderberg, C. R., "Working Stress," Trans. ASMS (1933), 55:1.
discontinuity. This probably occurs because the endurance limit itself in-
volves the effects of some stress concentration. The notch or other stress
raiser simply serves to focus the concentration over one or more selected
areas.
The term notch sensitivity is used in the literature in a qualitative way to
indicate the relative sensitivity of different materials to stress raisers when
subjected to repeated loading. Cast iron, for example, has a lower notch
sensitivity than structural steel; that is, the endurance limit reduction
factor is less than that of steel for the same discontinuity. In fact, the en-
durance limit reduction factor for gray cast iron is not much greater than
unity for most of the common stress raisers. This may be explained on the
basis that the endurance limit of a polished cast iron specimen is com-
paratively low because of the many inherent planes of weakness and points
of high stress in the material, and the addition of one or two holes or
notches has little influence on the over-all picture of stress concentration.
The effect of stress concentration is, in general, greatly increased by
corrosion. Even the application of distilled water to fatigue specimens de-
creases their endurance limit.
A certain machine part consists of a cantilever beam to which a cyclic load that
varies from 1000 Ib to 5000 Ib is applied 16 in. from the support. The beam is to be
made of structural steel and is to have a constant rectangular cross section. De-
termine suitable dimensions if a factor of safety of 2 with respect to failure by slip or
fracture is to be maintained.
Solution: The fluctuating load may be resolved into a steady load and a com-
pletely reversed repeated load.
D 5000 + 1000
* g W
= 3000 Ib.
., 5000 - 1000
Pr = g W
= 2000 Ib.
The limiting values of stress may be obtained from a diagram similar to Fig. 103.
Since failure by slip is to be prevented, the Soderberg criterion is used. Values of the
endurance limit and the elastic strength, both divided by 2 to provide the stipu-
lated factor of safety, are plotted as points A and B in Fig. 104. The value of the en-
durance limit is obtained as 28,000 psi. from Fig. 101, and the elastic strength is
40,000 psi. from Table 2. The line AB is drawn in Fig. 104 to indicate the Soderberg
criterion.
Since the stress in the beam is proportional to load, the ratio of S, to S, at any
point in the beam is 2/3, from Eqs. (a) and (b). Hence, the stress situation at every
point in the beam may be represented in Fig. 104 as a point somewhere on the line
OC, which has a slope of 2/3. In order for the beam to meet the stated requirements,
284
Chap. 9
/4.000
0
Fig. 104
the stress situation at every point must be such that the representation of it will fall
within the triangle OAB. Therefore, at the most highly stressed point in the beam,
the stress situation may be as represented at point D, with a steady stress equal to
OE and a completely reversed stress ED. The magnitude of the maximum allow-
able steady stress (OE) may be found from the similar triangles OAB and EDB.
EB
OB
20,000 - S,
20,000
ED
OA'
14,000'
(c)
(d)
from which
= 10,240 psi.
This value of S, corresponds to the maximum allowable stress which may be de-
veloped by the steady component of the load. Hence, the beam may be designed
for the steady load of 3000 Ib with a maximum allowable stress of 10,240 psi. In
other words, the construction in Fig. 104 is simply a device for obtaining a working
stress for the steady component of load.
The maximum stress is developed at the wall and, from the ordinary flexure
formula,
10,240 =
The required section modulus is
7 _ 4800
c 1024
= 4.69 in.3
(e)
(f)
One suitable rectangular section is one in which the width is one-half of the depth.
Then
4.69,
(g)
or
6 = 1.92 in.
So, a section 2 in. wide and 4 in. deep could be used.
Probs. 562-574 DYNAMIC AND REPEATED LOADS 285
PROBLEMS
562. Determine the moduli of resilience of (a) structural steel, (b) high-strength
alloy steel, (c) soft brass, and (d) aluminum alloy 24S-T.
563. Evaluate the relative elastic energy-storing capacity of (1) wrought iron,
(2) hard copper, (3) aluminum alloy 24S-T, and (4) magnesium alloy C74-S
as a percentage of (a) an equal volume and (b) an equal weight of structural
steel.
564. A structural steel bar 2 in. in diam and 3 ft long is turned down to a 1-in. diam
for 2 ft of its length. Determine the maximum stress developed if the bar ab-
sorbs an axial impact load of 300 in-Ib.
565. If the impact load in the preceding problem is developed by a 100-Ib weight,
determine the load factor and the distance through which the weight drops.
Assume that the bar absorbs 40 per cent of the total energy lost by the weight.
566. In a certain testing machine, part of the recoil is absorbed by four 1/2-in. diam
steel bolts, each with an effective length of 14 in. The energy released when a
structural steel specimen fractures is approximately 60 in-Ib per cu in. De-
termine the unit tensile stress developed in the bolts when a 2-in. diam struc-
tural steel specimen with an effective length of 18 in. fractures if the bolts ab-
sorb 30 per cent of the recoil.
567. A weight of 400 Ib drops through a distance of 2 in. onto the end of a Douglas
fir block 3 in. square and 6 in. high. Determine the equivalent static load if the
block absorbs 85 per cent of the impact.
568. Through what distance must a 100-Ib weight be dropped to have a load factor
of 4 for a 1/2-in. by 3/4-in. steel rod 8 in. long? Assume that the load is applied
axially and that the rod absorbs all of the energy of the falling weight.
569. Will the distance determined in the preceding problem be the same for an
aluminum alloy rod? Explain.
570. Determine the maximum weight which may be dropped through a distance of
3 in. onto the end of a 2-in. by 3/4-in. block of magnesium alloy 265-C without
causing inelastic action.
571. Evaluate the load factor for the falling weight in the preceding problem.
572. A steel drill rod which has a length of 1260 ft and may be assumed to have an
outside diam of 6 in. and a wall thickness of 1/2 in. slips from the hoist and
drops 4 ft to solid rock. If conditions are such that 40 per cent of the impact
may be assumed to be absorbed uniformly by the lower 300 ft of the rod, de-
termine (a) the maximum compressive stress developed in the rod, (b) the
equivalent static load, and (c) the load factor.
573. A 3-ton weight which is being lifted by a chain hoist slips in the cable sling an
amount equivalent to a 1/2-in. free fall. The chain hoist is suspended by a 1-in.
diam steel bolt with an effective length of 10 in. Determine the equivalent
static load and the maximum stress developed in the bolt if the latter must ab-
sorb 70 per cent of the impact.
574. Determine the size and weight of a cube of (a) structural steel, (b) aluminum
alloy 24S-T required to absorb 80 per cent of the impact of a 500-Ib weight
dropping through 2 in.
575. A 16-Ib sledge hammer is swung downward and strikes the top of a steel fence
post with a velocity of 20 ft per sec. The post is 7 ft long and is a 1-in. by 1-in.
by 3/8-in. angle. If the bottom of the post is resting on an obstruction which
causes the post to absorb 60 per cent of the impact of the sledge, determine the
equivalent static load.
576. An axially loaded machine part consisting of a 17S-T member 1-1/2 in. square
and 16 in. long fails by slip under a tensile impact load resulting from a 3000-Ib
load dropping 0.90 in. onto the end of the member. Since the load must be ap-
plied frequently in the normal operation of the machine, it is suggested that
the cross section of the member be increased to 1-1/2 in. by 2-1/4 in. through-
out all or part of its length. Investigate this possibility and redesign the mem-
ber to provide a margin of safety of 10 per cent.
577. A steel tensile member is 3/4 in. thick and has an effective length of 5 ft. For a
distance of 2 ft from one end the width of the member is 1 in. and for the re-
mainder of the length the width is 1-1/2 in. Determine the maximum weight
which may be dropped on one end of the member (stressing it in tension) from
a height of 12 in. if the maximum stress is not to exceed 20,000 psi. Determine
the maximum weight if the member has a uniform width of only 1-1/2 in.
578. A certain machine part consists of a 3-ft length of aluminum alloy rod 1-1/4 in.
in diam threaded into a 4-ft length of brass tube with an inside diam of 1 in.
and an outside diam of 1-1/2 in. Determine the maximum safe distance
through which a 20-Ib weight may be dropped onto the assembly producing
axial tension if the tensile stress in the aluminum alloy is not to exceed 20,000
psi. and the tensile stress in the brass is not to exceed 12,000 psi. Neglect
localized effects at the junction.
579. A 24S-T cylinder with, an outside diam of 2 in. and a wall thickness of 1/4 in.
is attached to a rigid surface with its axis vertical. The cylinder is partly filled
with oil, and a close-fitting piston rests on top of the oil. From what height
may a 50-Ib weight be dropped onto the piston without developing a tensile
stress of more than 20,000 psi. in the cylinder walls? Assume that a 14-in.
length of the cylinder absorbs 75 per cent of the energy of the weight.
580. Determine the equivalent static load for the cylinder in the preceding problem
using the same assumptions.
581. What safe load may be dropped from a height of 1/2 in. onto the piston of
Prob. 579 if the same limitations and assumptions prevail?
582. A standard steel pipe has an outside diam of 10.75 in. and a wall thickness of
0.365 in. Determine the magnitude of impact load per ft of length which the
walls can absorb due to uniform internal pressure if the maximum tensile
stress is not to exceed 24,000 psi.
583. An explosion releasing 1,000,000 in-Ib of energy takes place in the center of a
steel sphere having a diam of 20 ft. Determine the minimum wall thickness if
the maximum stress is not to exceed 20,000 psi. Determine the equivalent
static pressure.
584. Would there be any advantage in using an aluminum alloy for the sphere of the
preceding problem if the allowable stress is the same? Explain.
585. A shaft 4 ft long is to absorb a torsional impact load of 3000 ft-Ib and the
maximum torsional stress is not to exceed 16,000 psi. Determine the weight of
steel shaft required if it is (a) solid (b) hollow, with an inside diam of 3 in.
586. Solve the preceding problem if the shaft is to be made of aluminum alloy with
the same allowable stress.
587. A dynamic torque of 400 in-Ib is applied to a 6-ft length of a solid circular shaft
having a diam of 2-1/2 in. Determine the equivalent static torque if the shaft is
(a) steel, (b) aluminum alloy, (c) magnesium alloy.
588. Solve the preceding problem if the shaft is hollow, with a wall thickness of
1/2 in.
589. A dynamic torque of 600 in-Ib is absorbed by a 4-ft length of a solid steel shaft
having a diam of 3 in. Determine the energy absorbed in a component tubular
portion of the shaft with a length of 1/2 in. and a cross-sectional area of
1/4 sq in., if the tubular element has (a) an external radius of 1-1/2 in., (b) a
mean radius of 1 in., (c) a mean radius of 1/2 in., and (d) an inside radius of
zero.
590. An energy load is to be absorbed by 30 cu in. of steel fabricated into a member
8 in. long. Which arrangement provides the greatest capacity for energy stor-
age, (a) a uniform cross section with the load applied in axial compression,
(b) a uniform circular section with the load applied in torsion, (c) a uniform
tubular section with the load applied in torsion?
591. A 40-Ib weight is dropped 3 in. onto the top of a helical spring having a
modulus of 80 Ib per in. Determine the load factor and the maximum deflection
of the spring if it absorbs all of the energy.
592. A 60-Ib weight is held with the lower surface just touching the top of an un-
stressed spring having a modulus of 40 Ib per in. The weight is suddenly re-
leased. Determine the maximum deflection of the spring and the equivalent
static load. Assume that all of the energy is absorbed by the spring.
593. A weight of 34 Ib is dropped through a distance of 5 in. onto a helical spring
having a modulus of 60 Ib per in. Determine the maximum deflection and the
load factor.
594. A vehicle weighs 3420 Ib and has a wheeIbase of 112 in. The center of gravity is
27 in. back of the front wheels, each of which is connected to the frame by a
coil spring having a modulus of 150 Ib per in. The vehicle is standing with the
rear wheels on a level floor and the front wheels 6 in. off the floor when the
jack supporting the front end is knocked out. If the two coil springs absorb
40 per cent of the impact, determine the load factor and the maximum deflec-
tion of the front wheels.
595. What modulus should a helical spring have if a 20-Ib weight dropped 8 in. onto
the top of the spring is to produce a maximum deflection of 1-1/2 in.? De-
termine the equivalent static load.
596. Through what distance may a 60-Ib weight be dropped on a helical spring
having a modulus of 200 Ib per in. if the spring absorbs 75 per cent of the im-
pact and the maximum deflection is not to exceed 1-1/2 in.?
597. A 60-Ib weight dropped 4 in. onto the end of a helical spring produces a maxi-
mum deflection of 2 in. What maximum deflection will be produced by a 120-Ib
weight dropped 3 in.? Assume that the spring absorbs 80 per cent of the impact
in each case.
598. How do the load factors for the two weights in the preceding problem compare?
599. A 1/16-in. diam steel rod is formed into a spring having eighty turns and an
outside diam of 1 in. With what load factor may a 4-Ib weight be applied if the
maximum torsional stress is not to exceed 30,000 psi.? Determine the maxi-
mum deflection and the height from which the weight may be dropped onto the
spring.
600. A helical car spring with an outside diam of 6 in. consists of eleven turns of
1-in. diam steel rod. If a 1000-Ib weight is dropped 1/2 in. onto the spring, what
maximum deflection will be expected and what is the maximum torsional
stress? Assume that the spring absorbs 80 per cent of the impact.
601. A helical spring with an outside diam of 8 in. consists of twelve turns of 24S-T
tubing having an outside diam of 3/4 in. and a wall thickness of 1/8 in. What
maximum load may be dropped 2 in. onto the top of the spring if the torsional
stress is not to exceed 20,000 psi.? To what load factor does this correspond?
602. A steel helical spring has an inside diam of 3-1/2 in., an outside diam of
4-1/2 in., and a modulus of 800 Ib per in. A 2000-Ib weight is dropped 2-1/2 in.
onto the top of the spring. Determine (a) the equivalent static load, (b) the
maximum deflection of the spring, (c) the maximum torsional stress in the
spring.
603. What modulus must a helical spring have if a 1000-Ib weight dropped 6 in.
onto the spring is to have a load factor of 8?
604. Design a helical spring for which a 2000-Ib weight dropping 1-1/2 in. onto the
end of the spring will have a load factor of 4.
605. For a given cross-sectional area, length, and loading, is a square or a round
cantilever beam more effective in resisting impact?
606. A steel cantilever beam has a rectangular cross section 2 in. by 4 in. and a
length of 6 ft. From what height may a 40-Ib weight be dropped onto the end
of the beam if the maximum flexural stress is not to exceed 20,000 psi., and the
2-in. dimension is (a) horizontal, (b) vertical?
607. A Douglas fir beam 1-5/8 in. by 3-5/8 in. in cross section is used as a simply
supported beam 12 ft long. Compare the magnitudes of impact load (applied
at the center) which the beam will safely resist if the long dimension of the
cross section is (a) horizontal, (b) vertical.
608. Compare the impact-absorbing capacities of steel and aluminum alloy beams
having the same dimensions if the load is applied at the center of a simply
supported beam.
609. A magnesium alloy beam has a width of 2 in., a depth of 8 in., and is simply
supported on a 12-ft span. From what maximum height may a 50-Ib weight be
dropped onto the beam if the maximum flexural stress is not to exceed 16,000
Probs. 597-615
289
psi.? What is the magnitude of the equivalent static load? Assume that the
beam absorbs 80 per cent of the impact.
610. If the maximum flexural stress in the beam of the preceding problem is 8000
psi., through what distance may the load be dropped?
611. A beam 2 in. wide and 8 in. deep is subjected to an impact load at the center
of an 8-ft span. What percentage of the total energy absorbed is taken by the
portion between the 3-ft and 4-ft cross section?
612. The portion of the beam of the preceding problem between the 2-ft and 3-ft
sections may be assumed to be divided into elements of volume 1 ft long, 2 in.
wide, and 0.01 in. high. What percentage of the total energy absorbed by the
beam is taken by one of these elements of volume if it is (a) at the top of the
beam, (b) 1 in. from the top, (c) 2 in. from the top, (d) 4 in. from the top?
613. A cantilever beam 6 ft long is subjected to an impact load at the free end.
What must be the relative dimensions of its rectangular cross section if 90
per cent of the energy absorbed by the beam is in flexure and 10 per cent is in
shear?
614. The cross sections of two automobile bumpers are shown in Fig. P-614. Which
(a)
P-614
is the more effective in absorbing shock caused by an impact load applied mid-
way between supports 3 ft apart? If the bumper absorbs 40 per cent of the
kinetic energy of the automobile when it strikes an obstruction midway be-
tween supports, with what maximum velocity may the automobile be moving
for the flexural stress in the bumper not to exceed 40,000 psi.? The automobile
weighs 2860 Ib.
615. A motorist driving a car which weighs 3220 Ib and which has a bumper of the
type indicated in Fig. P-614(6) volunteers to tow a stalled car of identical
model. A steel cable having a diam of 1/2 in. and an effective length of 16 ft is
attached to the center of the rear bumper of one car and the center of the front
bumper of the other. The cable has a modulus of elasticity of 12 X 106 psi.
and the bumpers are supported at points 40 in. apart. If the bumpers and cable
absorb 40 per cent of the energy and if the stress in either is not to exceed
36,000 psi., with what maximum velocity may the first car be moving when
the slack in the cable is taken up?
616. Solve the preceding problem if a 20-ft length of hard-drawn copper wire 1/8 in.
in diam is used to connect the two cars.
617. A load of 40 lb is dropped from a height of 4 in. on the middle of a simply
supported steel beam. The beam is 3 in. wide, 2 in. deep, and has a span of 10 ft.
Assume that 75 per cent of the energy is effective in producing deflection. De-
termine the maximum deflection.
618. A timber cantilever beam 4 in. wide, 2 in. deep, and 6 ft long is subjected to an
impact load by dropping a weight of 15 lb on the end of the beam from a
height of 3 in. The modulus of elasticity of the timber is 1,200,000 psi. De-
termine the maximum tensile fiber stress developed in the beam. Assume that
two-thirds of the energy is effective in producing the stress.
619. A 125-lb weight is dropped striking a spring with a modulus of 12,000 lb per in.
placed on the midspan of a simply supported 2 in. wide by 4 in. deep steel
beam. Assuming that 0.8 of the energy of the weight is absorbed by the spring
and beam, from what height should the weight be dropped to produce a maxi-
mum fiber stress of 18,000 psi. in the beam?
620. Fig. P-620 shows a simply supported steel beam 3 in. wide and 1 in. deep with
W
S777 /777
L 40in- J
P-620
a coil spring at midspan. The spring modulus is 1000 lb per in. Determine the
maximum height from which a 50-lb weight, W, may be dropped without ex-
ceeding a fiber stress of 15,000 psi. in the beam. Assume that 3/4 of the energy
of the falling weight is effective in producing deflection in the spring and the
beam.
621. A steel bar 1-1/2 in. wide and 3/4 in. thick is supported on two springs, each
having a modulus of 240 lb per in., spaced 5 ft apart. A weight of 5 lb is dropped
through a distance of 2 in. onto the center of the beam. Determine the equiv-
alent static load, the deflection of the springs, and the maximum flexural stress
in the beam. Assume that the beam and spring system absorbs all of the im-
pact.
622. Solve the preceding problem if the beam is pinned at one end and mounted on
one spring at the other. Neglect the loss of energy in the pinned connection.
623. A white oak beam 6 in. wide and 12 in. deep is used as a cantilever 8 ft. long.
A weight of 120 lb is dropped 2 in. onto the end of the beam. Determine the
maximum shearing stress and the normal stress on a vertical plane 2 ft from
the fixed end at a point 2 in. above the bottom of the beam. Evaluate the
maximum energy stored in a cubic inch of material at the point in flexure and
shear. Determine the principal stresses at the point and from them evaluate
Probs. 616-630
291
the energy stored per cubic inch. Assume that the beam absorbs all of the
energy of the weight.
624. A weight W is dropped from a height h onto the end of a cantilever beam hav-
ing a rectangular cross section. If the beam absorbs 50 per cent of the impact,
what is the effect on the maximum flexural stress of (a) doubling the magni-
tude of the weight, (b) doubling the height of drop, (c) doubling the width of
the beam, (d) doubling the depth of the beam?
625. What are the advantages of the ordinary leaf spring as compared with a beam
of constant cross section in resisting impact?
626. The bell-crank lever shown in Fig. P-626 is used in a tripping mechanism. At
point A it is subjected to impact loading which is the equivalent of a falling
weight and it is restrained from moving at point C by a rigid link CD. Both of
8/17.
P-626
the arms AB and BC have a rectangular cross section 1-1/4 in. by 5/8 in. and
are constructed of steel. Determine the magnitude of impact load which may
be applied at A if the flexural stress in the lever is not to exceed 20,000 psi.
Assume that the lever absorbs 90 per cent of the impact and neglect stress
concentration.
627. Solve the preceding problem if the element CD is a copper wire 0.180 in. in
diam in which the maximum stress is not to exceed 24,000 psi. The wire is 9 ft
long and is rigidly attached at point D.
628. Solve Prob. 626 if the element CD is a spring having a modulus of 400 lb per in.
629. The stress in a structural steel member varies from 40,000 psi. tension to
40,000 psi. compression 2000 times per min. Determine the probable life of
the member.
630. A certain machine part made of aluminum alloy 17S-T is designed to fail
after one month's operation at 800 cycles of alternate tension and compression
per min. Determine the magnitude of the completely reversed repeated stress
to which it should be subjected.
631. Under what circumstances may a member be subjected to a stress greater
than the endurance limit many times without failure?
632. A stainless steel member 2 in. square is subjected to a steady tensile stress of
24,000 psi. What magnitude of reversed repeated stress may be imposed on
the steady stress without causing failure?
633. A 2-in. square member of aluminum alloy 75S-T carries an axial tensile load
of 65,000 Ib. Determine the maximum magnitude of reversed repeated stress
which may be added to the steady stress without causing failure.
634. A certain machine part of magnesium alloy 265-C is subjected to a reversed
repeated stress of 16,000 psi. May any static stress be added without causing
failure? If so, how much?
635. Solve the preceding problem if the material is aluminum alloy 24S-T.
636. A wrought iron member is subjected to a fluctuating stress, the upper value
of which is 20,000 psi. Are there any limits on what the lower value must be
to prevent failure? If so, what are they?
637. A machine part made of heat-treated SAE 2345 alloy steel is subjected to a
fluctuating stress, the lower value of which is 13,000 psi. compression. Deter-
mine any limitations which might exist for the upper value.
638. A structural steel member was designed for a completely reversed repeated
stress of 18,000 psi. but is to be utilized for a stress which varies from zero
to 18,000 psi. tension. Determine the factors of safety under the two stress
conditions.
639. The stress in a certain machine part must vary from 8000 psi. compression
to 12,000 psi. tension. Which, if any, of the nonferrous metals listed in Table
6 may be used if stress controls the selection?
640. Determine the factor of safety of a magnesium alloy C74-S member if the
stress varies from 12,000 psi. tension to (a) 4000 psi. compression, (b) 4000
psi. tension.
641. A member of aluminum alloy 17S-T is subjected to a fluctuating stress which
varies from 4000 psi. tension to (a) 12,000 psi. tension, (b) 12,000 psi. compres-
sion. Determine the factor of safety under the two conditions.
642. A machine part is subjected to a stress which fluctuates between 14,000 psi.
tension and 4000 psi. tension. Determine the factor of safety if the part is
made of (a) aluminum alloy 24S-T, (b) magnesium alloy 265-C.
643. A push-pull rod in a certain mechanism is 1/2 in. by 1-1/4 in. in cross section
and 18 in. long. It transmits a load which varies periodically from 1000 Ib
compression to 5000 Ib tension, and it is made of aluminum alloy 17S-T.
Determine the factor of safety.
644. One member in a mechanism is 6 in. long and is to transmit an axial load
which varies from 1000 Ib tension to 8000 Ib compression. Determine a suit-
able cross section if the member is to be made of aluminum alloy 17S-T and
is to have a factor of safety of 4.
645. Solve the preceding problem if the member has an effective length of 60 in.
646. An alloy steel tube with an outside diam of 2 in. and an effective length of
27 in. is to be subjected to an axial load which varies periodically from 6000
Ib tension to 14,000 Ib tension. Determine the minimum wall thickness if a
factor of safety of 2 is to be maintained.
647. Solve the preceding problem if the load fluctuates from 6000 Ib tension to
14,000 Ib compression.
648. A 3-in. diam shaft, which is turned down to a 2-in. diam over part of its length,
transmits a steady torque of 200 ft-Ib. The stress concentration factor for the
change in diam is 2.00, the proportional limit of the material in shear is 24,000
psi., and the endurance limit is 16,000 psi. Determine the magnitude of the
maximum completely reversed repeated torque (caused by torsional vibration)
which may be superimposed on the steady torque if a factor of safety of 2.50
is to be maintained.
649. Determine suitable dimensions for a structural steel beam which is to be
simply supported on a 12-ft span and is to carry a reversed repeated load of
12,000 Ib at the midspan.
650. A beam with a span of 36 in. is simply supported and carries a load which
varies from 2400 Ib tension to 2400 Ib compression at a point 1 ft from one
support. Determine a suitable cross section if aluminum alloy 24S-T is to be
used.
651. A 6-in. channel at 13 Ib per ft is used as a simply supported beam on an 8-ft
span. Determine the maximum reversed repeated load which it may carry at
the center if the line of action of the load is along the axis of symmetry of the
cross section.
652. A magnesium alloy 265-C beam is 1 in. wide, 2 in. deep, and simply supported
on a 16-in. span. It carries a vertical load 4 in. from one end, which varies
from 2600 Ib downward to 1400 Ib upward. Determine the factor of safety.
653. A structural steel machine part functions as a simply supported beam 24 in.
long. It was designed to carry a completely reversed repeated load at the
center with a factor of safety of 2.40. Determine the magnitude of the steady
load which may be superimposed on the repeated load if the factor of safety
may be reduced to 1.60.
654. Solve the preceding problem if the steady load is added at a distance of 8 in.
from one end.
655. An aluminum alloy beam of constant rectangular cross section is to carry a
steady load of 200 Ib 8 in. from the fixed end, and a completely reversed load
of 160 Ib 12 in. from the fixed end. Determine the dimensions of the minimum
cross section which will carry the loads with a factor of safety of 2.00 if alloy
17S-T is used and the width of the section is to be one-half of the depth.
656. A square member of magnesium alloy C74-S is used as a machine part 20 in.
long. It is fixed at one end, and at the other end is periodically deflected
laterally (by means of a smooth pin) through a distance of 0.065 in. on each
side of the equilibrium position. Determine the size of the cross section if a
factor of safety of 2.40 is to be maintained.
657. A structural steel member having a rectangular cross section is simply sup-
ported at the ends of a 3-ft span. The beam is subjected to a vibratory load
at the center causing that point to oscillate upward 1/8 in. and downward
1/8 in. from the equilibrium position. Determine the depth requirement for
the member if the width is (a) 1 in., (b) 2 in. A factor of safety of 2.50 is to be
maintained.
658. Solve the preceding problem if the upward deflection of the center is 1/8 in.
and the downward deflection is 3/8 in.
659. A 24S-T aluminum alloy tube is used as a cantilever beam 40 in. long. The
free end is caused to oscillate in an elliptical path with a major axis of 0.10 in.
and a minor axis of 0.06 in. by a ball-and-socket connection at the end. The
equilibrium position of the beam is on the major axis 0.20 in. from the center
of the ellipse. What thickness of tube should be used for a factor of safety of
1.60 if the outside diam is 2.00 in.?
APPENDIXAc
PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS a
iM
TABLE I
Properties of I-Beams
Depth
OF
Beam
Weight per
Foot
Steel
Alu-
minum
Alloy
Area
OF
Width
OF
Flange
Thick-
ness
OF
Web
Axis 2-2
lit
Axib 1-1
/ c
In.
Lb
Lb
In
In.
In.
In.'
In.'
In.
In.'
20.
18.
12.
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
120.0
105.9
100.0
90.0
79.9
95.0
85.0
75.0
66.4
70.0
54.7
50.0
42.il
50.0
40.8
35.0
31.8
35.0
25.4
23.0
18.4
20.0
15.3
17.21
12.5
14.75
lo.o
9.5
7.7
7..~,
5.7
250.9
234.3
197.6
185.8
173.9
1600
150.2
126.3
116.9
101.9
88.4
04.2
58.9
50.3
44.8
37.8
36.0
29.2
27.0
24.4
22.8
19.1
10.0
14.2
12.0
11.3
10.4
8.7
8.0
7.3
0.0
5.6
4.8
3.6
3.3
3.2
3.0
1.9
1.8
1.7
84.9
78.9
48.4
45.5
42.9
50.5
47.0
30.1
27.9
24.5
21.2
16.0
14.0
16.0
13.8
10.0
8.5
7.5
6.9
6.3
5.1
4.4
3.8
3.1
2.9
2.7
2.8
2.0
1.8
1.7
1.4
1.2
21.1
20.0
13.4
12.8
12.2
14 0
13.3
9.4
8.9
7.8
7.1
5.7
5.3
5.8
5.3
3.9
3.4
3.1
3.0
2.7
2.4
2.1
1.9
1.6
1.5
1.5
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
Sec-
tion
In.'
In.'
17.78
14.49
12.44
11.31
12.45
10.67
9.01
10.68
7.72
8.19
0.53
7.12
6.23
5.42
6.13
5.25
4.43
5.25
4.36
3.53
3.74
3.38
3.03
2.72
2.07
2.31
2.02
35.13
30.98
29.25
26.30
23.33
27.74
24.80
21.90
19.08
20.46
15.94
14.59
12.49
14.57
11.84
10.20
9.20
10.22
8.82
7.38
8.82
6.38
0.71
5.34
5.83
5.15
4.43
5.02
4.34
3.01
4.29
3.00
2.87
3.09
2.70
2.50
2.21
2.17
1.91
1.64
8.048
7.875
7.247
7.124
7.000
7.200
7.053
6.391
6.250
6.251
6.000
5.640
5.500
5.477
5.250
5.078
5.000
4.944
4.797
4.660
4.601
4.330
4.171
4.000
3.860
3.755
3.660
3.565
3.443
3.330
3.284
3.137
3.000
2.870
2.796
2.723
2.660
2.509
2.411
2.330
0.798
0.625
0.747
0.624
0.500
0.800
0.653
0.641
0.500
0.711
0.460
0.550
0.410
0.687
0.460
0.280
0.350
0.594
0.447
0.310
0.561
0.290
0.441
0.270
0.450
0.345
0.250
0.465
0.343
0.230
0.494
0.347
0.210
0.400
0.326
0.253
0.190
0.349
0.251
0.170
3010.8
2811.5
2371.8
2230.1
2087.2
1599.7
1501.7
1263.5
1169.5
917.5
795.5
481.1
441.8
301.6
268.9
227.0
215.8
145.8
134.8
122.1
102.4
85.9
04.2
56.9
41.9
39.4
30.2
26.0
24.1
21.8
15.0
13.7
12.t
7.2
0.7
0.4
6.0
2.9
2.7
2.5
9.26
9.53
9.05
9.21
9.40
7.59
7.78
7.60
7.83
6.70
7.07
5.74
5.95
4.55
4.77
4.72
4.83
3.78
3.91
4.07
3.11
3.67
3.0S
3.26
2.68
2.77
2.80
2.28
2.30
2.40
1.87
1.95
2.05
1.52
1.50
1.60
1.64
1.15
1.19
1.23
0.99
0.91
0.82
0.77
0.59
0.51
0.46
1.56
1.60
1.29
1.32
1.36
1.35
1.38
1.17
1.21
1.09
1.15
1.05
1.08
1.05
1.08
0.99
1.01
0.91
0.92
0.97
0.85
0.89
0.81
0.84
0.74
0.75
0.78
0.68
0.69
0.72
0.03
0.63
0.65
0.57
0.58
0.57
0.59
0.52
0.52
0.53
0.90
0.82
0.09
0.65
0.61
0.58
0.47
0.42
0.40
295
TABLE II
Properties of Channels
h^J]
2
I'
Depth
of
Channel
Weioht per
Foot
Stci' l
Width
of
Flange
Thick-
ness
Web
Axis 1-1
Axis 2-2
I It
lit
In.
12
10.
I.b
In.
In.
50.0
40.0
33.9
30.0
25.0
20.7
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.3
20.0
15.0
13.4
18.75
13.75
14.75
12.25
13.0
10.5
9.0
6.7
7.25
5.4
6.0
5.0
4.1
In.
In.'
In.' In.
In.' ' In.
53.6
46.2
41.7
26.9
23.9
21.4
20.6
18.1
15.7
13.4
15.8
13.5
11.3
10.5
10.9
9.0
8.5
8.1
7.7
6.9
6.0
5.8
5.0
4.5
4.3
4.2
3.5
3.1
3.0
2.3
11.2
9.3
8.2
5.2
4.5
3.9
4.0
3.4
2.8
2.3
2.9
2.4
1.9
1.8
2.0
3.8
3.4
3.2
2.1
Alu-
minum
Alloy
Area
Sec-
tion
1.1)
In.'
10.67
8.89
7.33
10.67
8.89
7.11
5.43
8.90
7.11
5.34
4.74
6.87
4.8!)
4.38
5.24
4.30
3.47
4.63
3.73
3.09
2.91
4.09
3.20
2.59
2.38
2.58
2.22
1.90
2.13
2.00
1.78
1.52
1.4G
14.64
11.70
9.90
8.79
7.32
0.03
8.80
7.33
5.80
4.47
7.35
5.86
4.39
3.89
5.49
4.02
3.62
3.30
4.32
3.58
2.85
3.81
3.07
2.55
2.39
3.38
2.03
2.14
1.95
2.12
1.84
1.66
1.75
1.66
1.40
1.26
1.19
3.716
3.520
3.400
3.170
3.047
2.940
3.033
2.886
2.739
2.600
2.812
2.648
2.485
2.430
2.527
2.343
2.290
2.260
2.299
2.194
2.090
2.157
2.034
1.945
1.920
2.032
1.885
1.785
1.750
1.720
1.647
1.580
1.596
1.560
1.498
1.427
1.410
0.716
0.520
0.400
0.510
0.387
0.280
0.673
0.526
0.379
0.240
0.612
0.448
0.285
0.230
0.487
0.303
0.250
0.220
0.419
0.314
0.210
0.437
0.314
0.225
0.200
0.472
0.325
0.225
0.190
0.320
0.247
0.180
0.356
0.320
0.258
0.187
0.170
In.i
401.4
346.3
312.6
161.2
143.5
128.1
103.0
90.7
78.5
06.9
70.9
60.6
50.7
47.3
43.7
35.8
33.9
32.3
27.1
24.1
21.1
17.3
15.1
13.0
13.0
10.4
8.8
7.9
7.4
4.5
4.2
3.8
2.1
2.0
1.8
1.7
1.6
5.24
5.44
5.02
4.28
4.43
4.01
3.42
3.52
3.00
3.87
3.11
3.22
3.40
3.49
2.82
2.99
3.06
3.10
2.51
2.59
2.72
2.13
2.22
2.31
2.34
1.70
1.83
1.91
1.95
1.47
1.51
1.50
1.08
1.10
1.12
1.16
1.17
2.1
1.9
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.4
1.2
0.98
1.1
0.87
0.73
0.70
0.81
0.64
0.52
0.48
0.44
0.37
0.32
0.31
0.28
0.25
0.21
0.20
0.87
0.89
0.91
0.77
0.79
0.81
0.67
0.68
0.70
0.72
0.63
0.65
0.67
0.67
0.60
0.62
0.62
0.63
0.57
0.58
0.59
0.53
0.53
0.54
0.54
0.49
0.49
0.49
0.50
0.46
0.45
0.45
0.42
0.41
0.41
0.41
0.41
1.9
1.7
1.7
1.5
1.3
1.2
1.3
1.2
1.0
0.97
1.0
0.86
0.81
0.79
0.79
0.71
0.63
0.65
0.57
0.51
0.50
0.53
0.45
0.40
0.38
0.35
0.31
0.29
0.27
0.25
0.24
0.21
0.21
0.80
0.78
0.79
0.68
0.68
0.70
0.65
0.62
0.61
0.64
0.01
0.59
0.59
0.61
0.57
0.56
0.56
0.58
0.53
0.53
0.55
0.52
0.50
0.51
0.52
0.51
0.48
0.48
0.49
0.46
0.45
0.46
0.46
0.45
0.44
0.44
0.44
TABLE I I I <* /
Pr o p er ties o p Eq u al An g les
/
/
- %.
3 .
v
Size
Th ick -
n ess
Weig h t p er
Fo o t
Alu -
Ar ea
o f
Sec-
tio n
Ax is 1 - 1 an d Ax is 2 - 2
Ax is
| 3 - 3
Steel
mi-
J
r
I/o
X
r
n u m-
Allo y
In .
In .
Lb
Lb
In .'
In .'
In .
In ."
In .
In .
8 X8
1 - 1 /8
3 /4
1 /2
5 6 .9
3 8 .9
2 6 .4
1 6 .7 3
1 1 .4 4
7 .7 5
9 8 .0
6 9 .7
4 8 .6
2 .4 2
2 .4 7
2 .5 0
1 7 .5
1 2 .2
8 .4
2 .4 1
2 .2 8
2 .1 9
1 .5 6
1 .5 7
1 .5 9
6 X6
1
3 7 .4
1 9 .6
1 4 .9
1 1 .0 0
5 .7 5
4 .3 6
3 5 .5
1 9 .9
1 5 .4
1 .8 0
1 .8 6
1 .8 8
8 .6
4 .6
3 .5
1 .8 6
1 .6 8
1 .6 4
1 .1 7
1 .1 8
1 .1 9
1 /2
3 /8
6 .9 5
5 .2 7
5 X5
3 /4
2 3 .6
1 6 .2
1 2 .2
8 .3 9
5 .7 4
4 .3 6
6 .9 4
4 .7 5
3 .6 1
1 5 .7
1 1 .3
8 .7
1 .5 1
1 .5 4
1 .5 6
4 .5
3 .2
1 .5 2
1 .4 3
1 .3 9
0 .9 7
0 .9 8
0 .9 9
1 /2
3 /8
2 .4
4 X4
3 /4
1 8 .5
6 .5 8
4 .5 4
2 .3 5
5 .4 4
3 .7 5
7 .7
5 .6
3 .0
1 .1 9
1 .2 2
1 .2 5
2 .8
2 .0
1 .1
1 .2 7
1 .1 8
1 .0 9
0 .7 8
0 .7 8
0 .8 0
1 /2
1 /4
1 2 .8
6 .6
1 .9 4
3 - 1 ,2 X 3 - 1 /2
1 /2
3 /8
1 1 .1
8 .5
5 .8
3 .9 4
3 .0 1
2 .0 5
3 .2 5
2 .4 8
1 .6 9
3 .6
2 .9
2 .0
1 .0 6
1 .0 7
1 .0 9
1 .5
1 .2
0 .7 9
1 .0 6
1 .0 1
0 .9 7
0 .6 8
0 .6 9
0 .6 9
1 /4
3 X3
1 /2
3 /8
9 .4
7 .2
4 .9
3 .3 2
2 .5 5
1 .7 3
2 .7 5
2 .1 1
1 .4 4
2 .2
1 .8
1 .2
0 .9 0
0 .9 1
0 .9 3
1 .1
0 .9 3
0 .8 9
0 .8 4
0 .5 8
0 .5 8
0 .5 9
1 .8 3
1 /4
0 .5 8
2 - 1 /2 X 2 - 1 /2
1 /2
3 /8
3 /1 6
7 .7
5 .9
3 .0 7
2 .7 3
2 .1 1
1 .1 0
2 .2 5
1 .7 3
0 .9 0
1 .2
0 .7 4
0 .7 2
0 .5 7
0 .3 0
0 .8 1
0 .4 9
0 .4 9
0 .4 9
0 .9 8
0 .7 5
0 .7 8
0 .7 6
0 .6 9
0 .5 5
2 X2
3 /8
1 /4
1 /8
4 .7
3 .1 9
1 .6 5
1 .1 4
0 .5 9
1 .3 6
0 .4 8
0 .3 5
0 .1 9
0 .5 9
0 .6 1
0 .6 3
0 .3 5
0 .2 5
0 .1 3
0 .6 4
0 .5 9
0 .5 5
0 .3 9
0 .3 9
0 .4 0
1 .6 5
0 .9 4
0 .4 8
1 - 3 /4 X 1 - 3 /4
3 /8
1 /4
1 /8
2 .7 7
1 .4 4
1 .4 2
0 .9 8
0 .5 1
1 .1 7
0 .8 1
0 .4 2
0 .3 1
0 .2 3
0 .1 3
0 .5 1
0 .5 3
0 .5 5
0 .2 6
0 .1 9
0 .1 0
0 .5 7
0 .5 3
0 .4 8
0 .3 4
0 .3 4
0 .3 5
1 - 1 /2 X 1 - 1 /2
3 /8
1 /4
1 /8
2 .3 4
1 .2 3
1 .1 9
0 .8 3
0 .4 4
0 .9 9
0 .6 9
0 .3 6
0 .1 8
0 .1 4
0 .0 8
0 .4 3
0 .4 5
0 .4 7
0 .1 9
0 .1 3
0 .0 7
0 .5 1
0 .4 7
0 .4 2
0 .2 9
0 .2 9
0 .3 0
1 - 1 /4 X 1 - 1 ,4
1 /4
1 .9 2
1 .4 8
1 .0 1
0 .6 8
0 .5 3
0 .3 6
0 .5 6
0 .4 3
0 .3 0
0 .0 8
0 .0 6
0 .0 4
0 .3 7
0 .3 8
0 .3 8
0 .0 9
0 .0 7
0 .0 5
0 .4 0
0 .3 8
0 .3 6
0 .2 4
0 .2 4
0 .2 5
3 /1 6
1 /8
1 XI
1 /4
3 /1 6
1 .4 9
1 .1 6
0 .8 0
0 .5 3
0 .4 1
0 .2 8
0 .4 4
0 .3 4
0 .2 3
0 .0 4
0 .0 3
0 .0 2
0 .2 9
0 .3 0
0 .3 0
0 .0 6
0 .0 4
0 .0 3
0 .3 4
0 .3 2
0 .3 0
0 .2 0
0 .1 9
0 .2 0
1 /8
3 /4 X3 /4
3 /1 6
0 .3 0
0 .2 0
0 .1 1
0 .2 5
0 .1 7
0 .0 9
0 .0 1
0 .0 1
0 .0 0 4 3
0 .2 1
0 .0 2
0 .0 2
0 .0 0 7 9
0 .2 5
0 .2 3
0 .2 0
0 .1 4
0 .1 4
0 .1 4
1 /8
1 /1 6
0 .2 2
0 .2 2
2- 4 . TABLE IV.-2UZ-- > k I XI \ J Weight per Foot Properties of Unequal Angles Thick- ness AreaAxis 1-1 Axis 2-2 Axis 3-3 SizeOF Steel Alu- mi- numAlloy Sec- tion / r I/cXI r | I/cVr | Tan 9 In. In. Lb Lb In." In.i In. In." In. In.i In. In." In. In. 9X4 1 40.8 21.3 12.00 6.25 97.0 53.2 2.84 2.92 17.6 9.3 3.50 3.31 12.0 6.9 1.00 1.05 4.0 1.00 0.81 0.83 0.85 0.203 0.220 1/2 2.2 8X6 1 44.2 23.0 13.00 6.75 80.8 44.3 2.49 2.56 15.1 8.0 2.65 2.47 38.8 21.7 1.73 1.79 8.0 4.8 1.65 1.47 1.38 1.30 0.543 0.558 1/2 8 X4 1 37.4 19.6 11.00 5.75 69.6 38.5 2.52 2.59 14.1 7.5 3.05 2.86 11.6 6.7 1.03 1.08 3.0 2.2 1.05 0.86 0.85 0.86 0.247 0.267 1/2 7 X4 7/8 3/8 30.2 13.6 8.86 3.98 42.9 20.6 2.20 2.27 9.7 4.4 2.55 2.37 10.2 5.19 1.07 1.13 3.5 1.6 1.05 0.87 0.86 0.88 0.318 0.339 6X4 3/4 1/2 3/8 23.6 16.2 12.3 8.39 5.74 4.36 6.94 4.75 3.61 24.5 17.4 13.5 1.88 1.91 1.93 6.3 4.3 3.3 2.08 1.99 1.94 8.7 6.3 4.9 1.12 1.15 1.17 3.0 1.08
0.99 0.94 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.428 0.440 0.446 2.1 1.6 6 X3-1/2 1/2 5/16 15.3 9.8 5.46 3.49 4.50 2.87 16.6 10.9 1.92 1.95 4.2 2.7 2.08 2.01 4.3 2.9 0.97 1.00 1.6 1.0 0.83 0.76 0.77 0.344 0.352 0.76 5 X3-1/2 5/8 5/16 16.8 8.7 5.95 3.09 4.92 2.56 12.0 6.6 1.56 1.61 3.7 1.9 1.70 1.59 4.8 2.7 0.99 1.03 1.9 1.0 0.95 0.84 0.75 0.76 0.472 0.489 5X3 1/2 3/8 1/4 12.8 9.8 6.6 3.75 2.86 1.94 9.5 7.4 1.59 1.61 1.62 2.9 2.2 1.5 1.75 1.70 1.66 2.6 2.0 0.83 0.84 0.86 1.1 0.75 0.70 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.66 0.357 0.364 0.371 3.45 0.89 5.1 1.4 0.61 4 X3-1/2 1/2 5/16 11.9 7.7 4.22 2.70 3.50 2.25 5.3 3.6 1.23 1.26 1.9 1.3 1.25 1.18 3.8 1.04 1.07 1.5 1.0 1.00 0.93 0.72 0.73 0.750 0.757 2.6 4X3 5/8 3/8 1/4 13.6 8.5 5.8 4.83 3.01 2.05 3.98 6.0 4.0 2.8 1.23 1.26 1.28 2.3 1.37 2.9 0.85 0.88 0.90 1.4 0.87 0.78 0.74 0.64 0.64 0.65 0.534 0.551 0.558 2.48 1.69 1.5 1.0 1.28 1.24 1.9 1.4 0.87 0.60 3-1/2 X3 1/2 1/4 10.2 5.4 3.63
1.89 3.00 1.56 3.5 1.9 1.07 1.11 1.5 0.78 1.13 1.04 2.3 1.3 0.88 0.91 1.1 0.59 0.88 0.79 0.62 0.63 0.714 0.727 3-1/2 X2-1/2 1/2 3/8 1/4 9.4 3.32 2.56 1.73 2.75 2.11 1.44 3.2 2.6 1.8 1.09 1.10 1.12 1.4 1.1 0.75 1.20 1.16 1.11 1.4 0.70 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.59 0.41 0.70 0.66 0.61 0.53 0.54 0.54 0.486 0.496 0.506 7.2 4.9 1.1 0.78 3 X2-1/2 1/2 3/8 1/4 8.5 6.6 4.5 3.02 2.32 1.58 2.50 1.92 1.31 2.1 1.7 1.2 0.91 0.93 0.95 1.0 1.00 0.96 0.91 1.3 0.72 0.74 0.75 0.74 0.58 0.40 0.75 0.71 0.66 0.52 0.667 0.676 0.684 0.81 1.0 0.74 0.52 0.53 0.56 3 X2 1/2 3/8 3/16 7.7 5.9 3.07 2.73 2.11 1.10 2.25 1.73 0.90 1.9 1.5 0.84 0.92 0.94 0.97 1.0 1.08 1.04 0.97 0.67 0.54 0.31 0.55 0.56 0.58 0.47 0.37 0.20 0.58 0.54 0.47 0.43 0.43 0.44 0.414 0.428 0.446 0.78 0.41 2-1/2 X2 3/8 3/16 5.3 1.88 0.99 1.55 0.81 0.91 0.51 0.77 0.79 0.55 0.29 0.83 0.76 0.51 0.29 0.58 0.60 0.36 0.20 0.58 0.51 0.42 0.43 0.614 0.631 2.75
2-1/2 X1-1/2 3/8 3/16 4.7 2.44 1.65 0.87 1.36 0.72 0.82 0.46 0.78 0.80 0.52 0.28 0.92 0.85 0.22 0.13 0.40 0.42 0.20 0.11 0.12 U.3o 0.32 0.33 0.340 0.364 2 X1-1/2 1/4 1/8 2.77 1.44 0.98' 0.51 0.81 0.42 0.32 0.17 0.62 0.64 0.24 0.13 0.66 0.62 0.15 0.09 0.43 0.45 0.14 0.08 0.41 0.37 0.32 0.33 0.543 0.558 1-3/4 X1-1/4 1/4 1/8 2.34 1.23 0.83 0.44 0.60 0.36 0.20 0.11 0.54 0.56 0.18 0.09 0.60 0.56 0.09 0.05 0.35 0.37 0.10 0.05 0.35 0.31 0.27 0.27 0.486 0.506 1-1/2 XI 1/4 0.68 0.56 0.12 0.46 0.12 0.53 0.04 0.27 0.06 0.29 0.21 0.412 1 XS/8 1/8 ... 0.23 0.19 0.02 0.31 0.03 0.35 0.01 0.17 j 0.01 0.17 0.13 0.351
APPENDIXB
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
Chapter 1
2. (a) A A, shear and flexure, 60-lb
force, 240 in-lb couple
4. (a) 1000 lb compression, 1567 lb
shear, 3911 ft-lb couple
6. 9550 psi.
8. 10,500 psi.
10. BB, 1 by 1 by 1/8-in. angle
12. i in.
14. c = 3.11 in., d = 1.39 in.
16. 4610 lb
18. 2300 lb
20. 4780 psi.
22. 823 lb
24. S. = 1100 psi., S = 640 psi.
26. 9190 psi. tension
28. 1500 psi.
30. 5.08 in.
32. 65 lb
34. 0.052 in.
36. 0.0011 in.
38. 10,200,000 psi.
40. 0.00003 in.
42. 0.123 in.
44. 2.08 in.
46. Al = 7 in., Ad = 0.19 in.
48. 0.013 in.
50. 566 lb
52. 0.1125 sq in.
54. 0.0389 sq in.
56. 5.6
58. 20,700 lb, 0.466 in. from Al
60. 138,700 lb, 6670 psi.
62. 0.013 in., 0.32 in. from W. I.
64. 11,550 psi. tension axial stress
66. 15,320 1b
68. 6910 psi.
70. 1875 psi., 16,250 psi.
72. 170 psi.
74. 7
76. 7/8 in.
78. 43
80.
82.
84.
86.
88.
92.
94.
98.
100.
102.
106.
108.
110.
116.
118.
120.
122.
124.
126.
128.
130.
136.
138.
140.
142.
144.
146.
148.
150.
152.
154.
156.
Yes
3/4 in.
0.052 in.
Chapter 2
(a) 3600 lb per in., (b) 4800 lb per
in.
2.10 + 0.25 = 2.35 in.
98,000 psi. (if below ultimate)
330 psi.
3.57 + 0.25 = 3.82 in. on back,
1.43 + 0.25 = 1.68 in. end of leg
3.75 + 0.25 = 4.00 in.
Yes
B, 1; C, 2
B, 2; C, 2
1090 lb
195 psi.
(a) 12,300 psi., (b) 19,400 psi.,
(c) 12,500 psi., outer row.
Approx. 2
4 in., 3 in each
5540 lb per in.
(a) 5800 psi., (b) 13,700 psi., (c)
7400 psi.
120 psi.
94 psi.
74.8%
83.5%
78.2%
70.0%
Chapter 8
(a) 10,470 ft-lb, (b) 840,000 ft-lb
(a) 12,000 psi., (b) 34,100 ft-lb
(a) 3J in.
4-1/8 in.
0.030 in.
(a) 5420 psi., (b) 0.0109 rad
16,600 in-lb
299
300
158. (a) 6350 psi., 1.34 deg
160. 3J in.
162. 65 in. if steel
164. (a) 1.90 in., (b) 5.4 in.
166. (a) If in., (b) 2-9/16 in., (c) 8,
4.1 deg
170. 4070 psi.
172. Reasonable
174. 11,500 psi.
176. 0.44 in. minimum
178. 2.72 X 106 ft-lb
180. 7840 in-lb
184. 25%
186. 13,700 psi.
188. (a) C, (b) 8180 psi.
190. 9420 lb
192. (a) 12 by 12, (c) 15,500 ft-lb if it
does not buckle
194. 54,000 in-lb neglecting stress con-
centration
196. 11,400 psi.
198. 480 lb
200. (a) 15,000 psi., (b) 938 psi.
202. 5.9 in., 3240 lb'
204. Many possible designs.
206. (a) 1/8 in., (b) 5/16 in.
208. 23,500 psi.
210. (a) 15,900 in-lb, (b) 15,000 in-lb
Chapter 4
212. (a) 2330 psi., (b) 4330 psi.
214. 0.92 in-lb
216. (a) True, (b) not necessarily
218. (a) 581 psi., (b) 6480 in-lb
220. (a) 26,700 lb, (b) 28,100 lb, (c)
240. Uniform load, M =
25wLx
32
+ C
wx2
2
242-252. See figures
254. 9000 lb tension
256. (a) 12,000 lb, (b) 24,400 lb
258. 5-in. I at 10 lb per ft
260. 7 in.
262. 5-in. I at 4.36 lb per ft
264. 6 in., S = 8650 psi.
266. 13.9 psi.
268. 35.3 psi., 11.8 psi.
270. 3340 lb
272. (a) 0, (b) 2750 lb, (c) no effect
274. 2570 lb
276. 680 lb
278. 102 psi. on neutral axis to left of
right support
280. 169 psi.
282. (a) 817 psi., (b) 8.5 psi.
284. 4167 lb
286. 1560 lb per ft
288. 311 lb per ft
290. 2590 lb
292. 0.20 in.
294. 65.5%
296. 7850 ft-lb
298. 1875 lb
300. 9300 ft-lb
302. Shear over outer 5%
304. 2.83, 4.00, 4.90, 5.66 in.
306. 1.41 by 2.82 in., 13,250 psi.,
4010 psi.
Chapter 5
16,100 ft-lb
222. (a) 2.18 in., (b) 1.72 in.
224. (a) 78,000 in-lb, (b) 756,000 in-lb
226. 11,750 in-lb
228. 78,000 ft-lb
230. 146,000 ft-lb
232. 3 on each side
234. (a) (9.1 - x)w, (b) w(-^ +
9.1a:-2)
236. Uniform load
7KxW
238. V, = -qx - P - - =,
15VL
uniform load, concentrated load,
and w = ex312
308. 0.002
310. 23.4 in.
312. Beyond proportional limit
314. Circular arc, 0.33 in.
316. Fourier series
318. 2EIy = Mx2 (Origin at fixed end)
320. One solution, origin at left end
6EILy = -Pa(x3 - 3L2x
+ 21/),
6EILy = P{Lx3 - 3LV -
3aLx2 + 6aUx + ZUx - ZaL3
-U)
322. 6EIy = -P(x* - ZUx + 2L3)
p
.
<VJ
*/3
p
P
p
-p
P/3
^\
350 tb 500 lb per ft
per ft
4 ft
/6O0/b
/OOO/b
Z600 lb
4ft
3.2ft
560ft-lb
/OOO lb
1400 lb
6 ft
Zft
WOO/t>
-'tOO/b
400 ft-/b
302
324.
326.
328.
330.
332.
334.
S6OEILy = kx (10L2x2 - 3x*
- 7L<)
QEILy = Ma (x2 - 6aL + 2LS
+ 3ax)
6EILy = M. (x3 - 3x2L + 2xU
+ 3xa2 - 3a2L)
6EIy P (x3 - 3a2x + 3aLx
- 3a2L + 2a3)
2EIy = -Pa (x2 - 2ax + a2
- Lx aL)
Zero slope and deflection at origin.
Concentrated load.
Cantilever with origin at free end.
Concentrated load B at end
Zero deflection at origin and
x = 2L. Zero slope at x = 2L,
uniform load.
336. Change in deflection
338. ML2/2EI
340. One solution, PL3/3E1, Pa?L/3EI
342. WL/8EI
344. 7wL*/1296EI
350. MaL/EI
352. L/d = \/Ej4G
354. WL/2Gbd
356. 0.10 in.
358. 0.044 in., 0.176 in.
360. 0.392 in., 0.187 in.
362. 1360 psi., 0.676 in.
364. 1020 lb, 0.23 in. upward
366. (a) 7-in. I at 20, (b) 6 by 12 in.
368. 2 in. wide, 4 in. deep, 13.2 in.
370. li in., 0.51 in.
372. 0.22 in. 24S-T, 0.35 in.
400. V0+ = 697, 74- = -1303,
V4+ = 1403, Vio- = -1597,
Vt+ = 1403, Vio- = -1597,
= 2448, Vu- = -1552
7-A nrnnnr+.innal limit AQ
7io+ = 2448, 7u_ = -1552
402. Above proportional limit, 63,800
psi. if not above proportional
limit.
404. 0.257 in.
406. 2380 psi., 2120 psi.
408. 870 lh
408. 870 lb
T-in., 4000 psi.; 5-in., 4750 psi.
62 1b
Chapter 6
374.
M! = M (L - o) (3L - a)/L\
R = -6Ma (L - a)/L3
376. M = Pa(L - a)/L, R = P
378. k L/10
380. Ri = llwL/16, Rw = -3wL/16,
M = w>L2/16
382. P(L - a)2 (2L - a)/2U
384. AL2/4
386. 33&L/16
388. (a) 25,400 lb, (b) 7950 lb
390. - 2340 lb
392. 3605 lb upward
394. 3530 lb upward
396. 570 lb upward
398. 3675 lb upward
410. 3-in., n
412. 462 lb
414. 3120 psi., 50 psi.
416. 4170 psi.
418. (b) is J (a)
Chapter 7
420. 135
422. Hin.
424. 245
426. End restraint
428. (a) 202 in., 53.6 lb, (b) 94 in.,
5.71b
430. (a) 34,400 lb, (b) 29,800 lb, (c)
12,200 lb, (d) 7450 lb
(a) 85.5 lb, (b) 93.5 lb, (c) 30.3 lb,
(d) 19.6 lb
432. (a) 2560 lb, (b) 905 lb, (c) 555 lb
434. (3) 141,162
436. (11) 80
438. (4) 2.44, (13) 0.97
440. 18,000 - 122 (L/r)
442. 18,000 - 0.492 (L/r)2
444. 18,000 - 2.27 (L/rY
446. 30,000 - 12.2 (L/r)2
448. 29,300 - 4.2 {L/rY
450. (a) 196,000 lb, (b) 12,700 lb vrith
factor of safety = 2
452. 74,200 lb
454. (a) 1.34 in., (b) 1.34 in.
456. (a) 9.86 in. center to center, (b)
183,000 lb'
458. 178 in.
460. (a) 18,100 lb, (b) JS5,500 lb, (c)
181,000 lb
462. (a) 836,000 lb, (b) 784,000 lb
464. (a) 9.86 in. center to center, (b)
732,000 lb
466. P/A = T2//(2L/r)2
468. PI A = 2ÊII{L/rY
470. 67%
APPENDIX
303
472. 6.97 ft
474. A, 2000 psi. tension; B, 1000 psi.
compression; C, 1000 psi. compres-
sion; D, 4000 psi. compression
476. 950 psi. compression, 1384 psi.
compression, 116 psi. tension
478. 13,500 psi.
480. 16,700 psi. tension, 20,700 psi.
compression
482. 4250 psi.
484. (a) 236,000 lb, (b) 236,000 lb
486. (a) 293,000 lb, (b) 160,000 lb
488. 5600 lb
490. 29.6 in.
492. 12-in. I at 31.8
494. 1.825 in. by 3.65 in.
496. 2 in.
498. Two 3/4 by 3/4 by 3/16 angles
500. (a) 20-in. I at 75, (b) 24-in. I at
105.9
502. 12.5 in.
Chapter 8
504. 9000 psi. tension, 1000 psi. com-
pression at 1835', 5000 psi.
506. S, = 3500 psi., S. = 6000 psi.
508. 5025 psi.
510. 52,000 psi. tension, 51,000 psi.
compression, 4445'
512. 4470 psi. tension, 1640 psi. com-
pression, 3115', 3060 psi.
514. 225,000 lb
516. 4.08 in.
518. 2.50 in.
520. 948 psi. tension, 10 psi. compres-
sion, 5.5
522. 760 psi. tension, 760 psi. compres-
sion, 45
524. Horizontal and equal to flexural
stress except for stress concentra-
tion
526. 454 psi. compression, 753 psi. com-
pression
528. 22,600 lb
530. 9820 psi. compression, inside edge,
vertical
532. 36 in.; should be redesigned in
metal
534. 44,500 psi. tension or compression
bottom or top at 551' with axis
536. 0.000320, - 0.000213
tension, 24,000 psi.
538. 0.000353
540. Yes
542. 26,200 psi.
tension
544. nSc or Sc/n
546. 28,400 lb
548. (a) S, = 0 or 0.440 Su, (b) Sr = 0
or 0.375 Su for biaxial stress
550. (a) &. = 0, (b) S, = 0, (c) Su = S.
for biaxial stress
552. (a) 2.22, (b) 1.74, (c) 1.16
554. (a) 1.98, (b) 2.33, (c) 2.29
556. 2.04 in., 2.22 in.
558. 1.75 in., 1.90 in.
560. (a) 3.00 in., (b) 3.66 in.
Chapter 9
562. (a) 27, (b) 910, (c) 7.5, (d) 91
in-lb per cu in.
564. 20,600 psi.
566. 74,700 psi.
568. 0.0017 in.
570. 4.65 L
572. (a) 157,000 psi. (if below prop
limit), (b) 1,360,000 lb, (c) 36.8
574. (a) 3.12 in., 8.5 lb, (b) 2.06 in.,
8.81b
576. 2\ by \\ in. full length
578. 20.9 in.
580. 3930 lb
582. 1370 in-lb per ft
584. Yes
586. (a) 220 lb, (b) 191 lb
588. (a) 20,200 in-lb, (b) 12,000 in-lb,
(c) 9400 in-lb
590. (a) for structural steel, (c) for
equal stresses
592. 120 lb, 3 in.
594. 10.8 in., 1.24
596. 3.50 in.
598. 4.80, 3.34
600. 2.00 in., 25,400 psi.
602. (a) 5460 lb, (b) 6.83 in., (c) 55,600
psi.
604. K = 5330 lb per in., many designs
606. (a) 10.1 in., (b) 9.5 in.
608. Aluminum alloy about 3 times
steel for same maximum stress
610. 31 in.
612. (a) 4.75, (b) 2.67, (c) 1.19, (d) 0
304 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
614. (b) is 1.59 more effective, 0.25 mph
640. (a) 1.62, (b) 1.88
616. 0.59 mph
642. (a) 2.06, (b) 0.92
618. 1750 psi.
644. 1 by 1-3/8 in.
620. 7.93 in.
646. 0.055 in.
622. 76.6 lb, 0.16 in., 8180 psi.
648. 287 ft-lb
626. 216in-lb
650. 4-in. 1 at 2.72 provides factor of
628. 583 in-lb
safety of 2.8
630. 19,500 psi.
652. 1.37
632. 14,000 psi.
654. 1.87 Pr
634. 1480 psi.
656. 4j in. square or less
636. 25,460 psi. compression
658. (a) Not greater than 0.72 in.,
638. 1.56, 1.83
(b) not greater than 0.72 in.
INDEX
_EMPTY_
INDEX
Allowable stress (see Stress)
Aluminum, 19
Aluminum alloys, 6
Angle of twist, 83
Angles
properties of, 297-298
welding of, 52
Area moments, 163, 192
theorems for, 170, 173
Assumptions
in column theory, 231
in design of riveted joints, 56, 70
in flexure formula, 121
in torsion formula, 82
Axial loading, 4
dynamic, 271
Axis
centroidal, 118
neutral, 117
B
Beams
continuous, 187, 199
deflections of, 163
design of, 141
diagonal tension in, 251
reinforced concrete, 252
shearing stress in, 131
statically indeterminate, 187
types of, 113
Bearing, 59
Bending (see Beams; Flexure)
Bending moment, 116, 121, 127
Bergman, E. 0., 3
Boiler code, 58
Bolts, 72
Brass, 19
Buckling, 209
of columns, 209
of tubing, 95
Butt-joints, stresses in, 64
Cast iron, 6, 19
Channels, properties of, 296
Columns, 209
design considerations of, 231
fixed, 222
intermediate, 214
long, 209
Combined stress, 222, 243
Compression, 4
under eccentric loads, 222
of long members, 209
Concrete, 6, 19
Connections, 49
threaded, 72
Contraflexure, 129
Copper, 19
Couplings, 89
Creep, 25
limit, 25
Cross section, transformed, 139
Crystallization, 280
Cylinders, stresses in thin-walled, 28
Deflections
in beams, 163
design for, 179
shearing, 178
Design
of beams, 141
of columns, 231
problems, 1
of torsional members, 100
Diagonal tension, 251
Diagrams
moment, 127
shear, 123
Double integration, 163, 187
Double-modulus formulas, 230
Ductility, 25
Dynamic loads, 269
E
Eccentricity, 222
of columns, 225
Efficiency, of riveted joint, 67
Elastic action, 22
Elastic curve, 165
Elastic limit, 23
Elastic strength, 23
Elasticity, modulus of, 18, 19
Elongation, 19
percentage, 25
Elvinar, 17
Ends, effect of, on columns, 219
Endurance limit, 31, 279
reduction factor, 282
Euler column theory, 210
Euler, L., 210
Expansion, thermal, 19
Factor of safety, 26
in columns, 212
307
308
INDEX
Failure
theories of, 255
types of, in rivets, 57
Fatigue, 277
Fir, 6, 19
Fittings, 71
torsional, 89
Flexural indeterminacy, 187
Flexural members
deflection of, 163
design of, 141
Flexure, 4, 113
of columns, 210
dynamic, 274
formula, 19
of two materials, 139
shear accompanying, 131
stress in, 115
stress concentration in, 137
Flexure formula, limitations of, 125
Fracture, 25
G
Geometry
of flexural member, 117, 163
of torsional member, 81
Gilkey, H. J., 3
Goodman criterion, 282
Gordon-Rankine formula, 217
Greene, C. E., 170
H
Helical spring, 96
Hencky-von Mises theory of failure, 257
Horsepower in shaft, 85
Load
equivalent static, 270
factor, 31
fluctuating, 277
Loading
combined, 243
dynamic, 30, 269
repeated, 31, 277
types of, 4
M
Magnesium, 19
Margin of safety, 26
Marston, A., 227
Members
classification of, 3
statically indeterminate, 26
Modulus of elasticity, 18, 19
effective, 231
Modulus of resilience, 271
Modulus of rigidity, 19, 20
Modulus of rupture, 96, 136
Mohr circle, 250
Mohr, O., 170
Moment
areas (see Area moments)
bending, 114
diagrams, 127
Moncrief, 227
Monel metal, 19
N
Net section, stresses in, 59
Neutral axis, 117
Notch sensitivity, 283
I-beams, properties of, 295
Impact, 269
Indeterminacy
O
in axially loaded members, 26
Oak fi 19
of beams, 187
in torsion, 99
Osgood, W. R., 18, 231
Inelastic action, 22
Inflexion point, 129
P
Invar, 17
Parabolic formula, 215
J
Percentage elongation, 19, 25
Pitch distance, 56
Johnson, J. B., 215
Planes, principal, 243
Johnson, T. H., 215
Poisson's ratio, 15, 19
Joints, 49
Power, transmission by shafts, 85
design considerations,
70
Pressure vessels, 28
efficiency of, 67
Principal axes, 122
glued, 55
Principal .. rains, 253
riveted, 55
stresses, 243
stress in lap, 56
Properties
of materials, 19
K
of rolled sections, 295
Proportional limit, 24
Kern, 225
stresses beyond, 95, 136
Ksi, 5
Psi, 5
INDEX
309
Rankine, W. J., 217
Repeated loads, 277
Resilience, modulus of, 271
Resistance to repeated loading, 278
Resisting moment, 116
Rigidity, modulus of, 19, 20
Riveted joints, 55
Rivets, bearing in, 64
Rolled sections, properties of, 295
Rupture, modulus of, 96, 136
S-N diagrams, 279
Safety
factor of, 26
margin of, 26
Schwartz, 217
Secant formula, 227
Shafts, stresses in, 83
Shear, 4
definition of, 114
maximum, 12
in riveted joints, 59
in rivets, 60, 64
Shear diagrams, 123
Shear flow, 92
Shearing deflection, 178
Shearing stress, 131
maximum, 246
Slenderness ratio, 212
Slip, 25
Soderberg, C. R., 282
Soderberg criterion, 282
Springs, helical, 96
Statically indeterminate compression mem-
bers, 27
beams, 187
Steel, 19
Straight-line formula, 215
Strain
definition of, 14
principal, 253
shearing, 16
temperature, 17
torsional, 82
Strength
compressive, 19
elastic, 23, 19
endurance, 280
shearing, 19
tensile, 19
ultimate, 19
Stress
allowable in welds, 51
allowable working, 26
bearing, 59, 64
circumferential, 28
combined, 243
definition of, 5
distribution of, in joint, 58
in helical springs, 96
on inclined planes, 86
StressCont.
inelastic in beams, 136
inelastic in torsion, 95
longitudinal, 28
longitudinal shearing, 87, 131
beyond proportional limit in flexure, 136
shearing, 131
torsional, 81, 83
uniform, 6
working, 6
Stress analysis
methods of, 2
objectives of, 1
Stress concentration, 9, 282
in beams, 137
in torsion, 88
Stress concentration factors, 89
axial loading, 10
in flexure, 138
Stresses
in butt-joints, 64
fluctuating, 281
on inclined planes, 11
principal, 243
secondary, 52
working for riveted joints, 58
Stress-strain relationships, 17
Stress trajectories, 252
Structural steel, 6
Struts, 209
Superposition, 176, 196
Temperature strain, 17
Tension, 4
diagonal, 251
Theorem
of area moments, 170, 173
of three moments, 199
Thermal expansion, 19
coefficient of, 17
Three-moment theorem, 199
Torque, 81
Torsion, 4, 81
dynamic, 273
failure by buckling, 88
of noncircular sections, 88
of thin-walled members, 92
Tubing, failure by buckling, 88
Twist, 4
angle of, 83
Ultimate strength
in flexure, 136
in torsion, 19, 95
W
Weight, 19
Welded joints, eccentricity in, 52
310 INDEX
Welds Yield strength, 24
allowable stresses in, 51 Young's modulus, 18
types of, 49
Wrought iron, 6, 19
Y Z
Yield point, 24 Zinc, 19
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1/
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