Vocabulary learning strategies and beliefs about language
and language learning
Robert Michael Easterbrook
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education
Faculty of Arts & Design University of Canberra Canberra Australia
November 2013 ~ i ~
Abstract The process of learning a foreign language is an important and challenging component in foreign language students lives due to the students limited language exposure and opportunities to practice the language. While research in China has focused on vocabulary learning strategies and the Chinese culture of learning beliefs about language and language learning, these have been explored as individual factors. Research has not explored these factors as part of a process of learning that is driven by both strategies and beliefs in the one research project. In attempting to fill this gap, the present research thus explored the possible influence of vocabulary learning strategy use and beliefs about language and language learning on the process of vocabulary learning in the Chinese university context. The research was novel in that it compared vocabulary strategy use, students language learning beliefs and examined potential impact on vocabulary development across 4 grades at a university level. Using mixed methods, quantitative and qualitative, the research explored vocabulary learning strategy use (VLS), beliefs about language and language learning (BALLL), general and specific, and English vocabulary size, in this order, to gain insights into the process of English vocabulary learning. Data was collected using three questionnaires (one vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire, and two beliefs questionnaires), a range of vocabulary size tests (e.g. vocabulary size tests 1000, 2000, 3000 and Academic) and interviews with Chinese English Majors in a university context. Non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis and Spearmans rho correlation tests were run, the first to observe statistically significant differences in mean-scores, at the individual level within a grade, and then between grades, and second, to observe the relationship among strategies, beliefs and vocabulary size test scores. The Kruskal-Wallis test was used to observe relationships among the main factors (e.g. strategies, beliefs and vocabulary size test scores), as well as between the main factors and age and years of English education. The interviews underwent thematic analysis to highlight common themes which allowed students to elaborate on some questionnaire responses. The results show that there is consistency in strategy use and beliefs about language and language learning in Chinese English Majors process of vocabulary learning. The process: students often discover new vocabulary in written materials, sometimes TV/movies and songs, and then use a small range of strategies to learn it using other strategies to complement the small range of strategies. The most frequently used strategies included guessing meaning, looking up dictionary, ~ ii ~
learning its spelling, writing it down, learning its pronunciation, saying it aloud, and connecting it with the Chinese meaning. This process was observed in and/or interpreted from their VLS use and their BALLL, general and specific. The results of exploring these factors highlighted 1) particular VLSs repeatedly used across four grades which included discovering new vocabulary in textbooks, when reading English materials; memorizing the new words pronunciation and spelling; connecting new words to the Chinese meaning; looking at the new word several times; remember the new word by its meaning (when read again)), and 2) general and specific beliefs about language and language learning, for example, its important to repeat English words and practice often and I learn English to find a good job in the future. Other strategies were used on occasion to complement the fixed set of strategies, depending on the learning task such as remembering a new word by its meaning (when heard again); the way the new word is used; trying to guess the words meaning from context (e.g. the sentence the word is used in). There were strong correlations found among vocabulary learning strategies and beliefs, both general and specific. There was no significant correlation found between strategy use/ beliefs and vocabulary size tests. Vocabulary size grew incrementally but not dramatically throughout the four-year degree. There was little difference in scores for all students in the 4 grades on the vocabulary size tests 1000 to 3000 and Academic, with scores decreasing from vocabulary size tests 1000 to 3000. However, scores increased in each grade on the Academic size test e.g. English vocabulary size ranged from 2400 to 5200 for grade 1; from 3900 to 6300 for grade 2; from 1900 to 5900 for grade 3; from 3500 to 6100 for grade 4. The result can be attributed to students following a fairly fixed regime of vocabulary learning strategy use, driven by a range of beliefs that reflect how students conceptualise language and how to learn it, as well as a lack of opportunity to use it and limited exposure. The fixed regime of vocabulary learning strategy use might also be explained by classroom pedagogy which tends not to focus on oral communication therefore limiting or constraining English vocabulary size and language development. The discussion provides recommendations for teaching vocabulary and strategy training in the Chinese university context.
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Acknowledgements
This thesis would never have been completed if it hadnt been for the help and support of so many people. I want to express my thanks to them here.
Dr. Stracke, Dr. Houston, Dr. Jones, Dr. Hill, Dr. Petraki and Dr. Zhang who willingly accepted to supervise me at some stage during the research project but soon found it tough supervising, their warm encouragement and dedication to perfection, and their excellent assistance and abundant ideas and suggestions contributed to the completion of the thesis. Dr. Petraki, especially, for her commitment and hard work in the final stage when much revision and work was achieved.
The Chinese English Majors who willingly participated in the research. If these willing few hadnt have agreed to participate, the project would never have seen full fruition. They made my life very interesting when I taught many of them, and by giving their time and effort to informing me about themselves and their lives without hidden agenda.
The university research site teachers and administrators. If the administrators hadnt have given permission for the research to go ahead at the site, it would have had to have searched for and used another site. And there was no telling how enthusiastic or how indifferent the administrators at another site would have been to the research given the context of the research. I thank the many teachers at the research site for the support and friendship.
Dean Wang Lei, a dedicated Chinese English language teacher, excellent research assistant and very good friend. Firstly, I thank him for his enduring friendship despite the hassles associated with being involved in the research project, secondly, for his willing assistance without which the data collection process would have been more trouble than it was, and thirdly, for carry the burden of association beyond the use by date.
Yu Hong, excellent Chinese English teacher, research assistant, and partner during the many years spent in northern China. Firstly, I thank her for her willingness to commit her time and energy to assisting with the administrative duties attached to the data collection process and management of ~ v ~
the questionnaires, and secondly, for her love and companionship without which my life in northern China would have been more lonely and barren than it was.
I offer the University of Canberra a special thank you for offering me candidature. I thank the university for giving me the chance to fulfil a childhood dream that was finally realized, but not until I was in the autumn of my youth. And without the support of the university in several important areas, completing the thesis might have been more challenging than it was.
Some of my fellow PhD candidates during the PhD program, Josh Rosner, Andrew Blythe, Kilala Chi (now Dr. Chi), Sri Wahyuni (now Dr. Wahyuni), Yoshi Yamamoto (now Dr. Yamamoto), Ross Hamilton, Walter Steensby, Dr. Man Chul and many others who, while I was completing my thesis, supported me in many interesting and kindly ways; especially with humour and great conversation. Firstly, I thank them for their camaraderie, and secondly, for the special encouragement some of them gave me when the journey got very challenging and tough, and thirdly, the small kindnesses some of them showed me that made the journey far more bearable and sustained me through the toughest times.
To Dr. Judith Ascione, a special thank you, for the wonderful assistance on the statistics. Miss Jee Lee, for additional brainstorming on the approach to statistical analysis. And a special thank you to Belinda Henwood for the excellent editorial work.
To the many people who, though I was unknown to them, were role models and inspirational in the most important ways. I give a special thank you to these people because if it hadnt have been for their lives and the milestones they each achieved, I might not have been inspired to undertake one of the most interesting journeys ever during my short years on this planet.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract i Form B: Certificate of Authorship of Thesis iii Acknowledgements iv Table of contents vi List of abbreviations x List of tables, graphs, charts and illustrations xii
Section Page 1.0 Chapter 1: Introduction & Overview 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Steps taken to explore the process of vocabulary learning Background Research questions Definitions of Key Terms Contribution to knowledge and significance of the research The structure of the thesis 1 2 4 5 7 8 2.0 Chapter 2: Vocabulary, Vocabulary Learning, and Vocabulary Learning Strategies 11 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.3.2 2.4 2.4.1 2.5 Vocabulary and vocabulary knowledge Vocabulary learning Definitions of vocabulary learning strategies Classifications of vocabulary learning strategies Vocabulary learning strategy research a brief outline Vocabulary learning strategy research conducted globally outside China Vocabulary learning strategy research in a Chinese context 11 16 22 23 28 28 33 3.0 Chapter 3: Beliefs About Language and Language learning 40 3.1
3.2
3.3
Beliefs about language and language learning research in a global context Beliefs in relation to language and language learning/strategies Chinese culture of learning English language education/learning in a Chinese context Chinese culture of learning beliefs about language and language learning and English language education/learning in a Chinese context
40
41
53 4.0 Chapter 4: Methodology & Procedures 61 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.6.1 4.7 4.8 Methods and selection of methods Mixed methods design Reliability and validity Case and participants Role of the researcher Data collection method & Procedures Data collection instruments, their nature and function Procedures administration, data management and data analysis Intended outcomes of the research 61 63 66 69 72 73 73 84 102
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5.0 Chapter 5: Results Vocabulary learning strategies and beliefs about language and language learning descriptive statistics 104 5.1
5.2 5.3 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3
5.3.4 5.3.5 5.3.6 5.3.7 5.4
5.5
5.6
5.6.1 5.6.2 5.7 5.7.1 5.8
Part 1: Research question No. 1: Which vocabulary learning strategies do Chinese English Majors tend to use? Frequency-of-use strategy groupings Questionnaire & Interview data compared Question #1: Where do you meet new vocabulary? Question #2: What do you usually do when you meet a new word? Question #3: Do you practise the new vocabulary? What strategies do you use? Question #4: How do you memorise new words? Question #5: Should vocabulary learning strategies be taught? Strategies rarely or never used The percentage of students often using a strategy Research question No. 2: What is the difference in VLS use among the four grades of CEMs? Additional questions: Where do you often learn vocabulary during the semester? and Of four possible sources to obtain VLS, which do CEMs source the most? Part 2: Research question No. 3: What are Chinese English Majors Western and Chinese culture of learning beliefs? Beliefs about language and language learning Three general groupings Chinese culture of learning Some general groupings in the data BALLLQ & CCLQ beliefs compared with interview data Research question 104
118 135 135 137
138 141 143 145 148
149
153
158 158 162 170 176
185 6.0 Chapter 6: Results Statistical Analysis of Vocabulary Learning Strategy use, Beliefs About Language and Language Learning, and Vocabulary Size Test 192 6.1
6.2
6.3 6.4
6.5 Correlational analysis of three factors No. 4: Do Chinese English Majors beliefs, general and specific, correlate with vocabulary learning strategy use? Spearmans rho Correlational analysis of VLS use against VST/Academic score-means in each grade Correlational analysis of 7 factors in each grade Kruskal-Wallis test of beliefs & strategies against 3 means of scores on Academic size test Boxplots analysis of beliefs against Academic size test means of scores
192
193 198
203 205 7.0 Chapter 7: Discussion 208 7.0
7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Section 1: Research question No. 1 & Research question No. 2: Vocabulary learning strategies CEMs memorization strategies compared to Schmitt (1997) VLS use compared with Gu and Johnson (1996) Patterning of VLS use compared to compared to Gu and Johnson (1996) Use of discovery and consolidation strategies compared to Griffiths (2013)
7.12.1 7.12.2 7.12.3 The present research compared to Ma (2009) Clustering of VLSs in four grades Variable use of VLSs Research question No. 2: What is the difference in VLs frequency of use among the four grades of CEMs? Gus Tetrahedral Model Section 2: Research question No. 3 & Research question No. 4: Beliefs about language and language learning Horwitz BALLI The difficulty of language Foreign language aptitude The nature of language learning Learning and communication strategies Motivations and expectations Additional research into the relationship between beliefs and VLs generally Shis CCL BALLL Attitude to learning English Learners aims for learning English Criteria for being a good teacher of English Teacher-student relationship Perceptions of teachers attitudes towards students questions in the classroom Favoured teaching method Attitudes to the content of textbooks Memorising vocabulary Practising reading skill Practising speaking skill Practising listening skill Practising writing skill Barriers to learning English What makes a good learner? Research question No. 6: Do BALLL and VLSs have an impact on EVS of CEMs? Section 3: The process of vocabulary learning uses strategy clusters The PVL involves strategies and beliefs The importance of the findings 216 219 221
8.4 Summary of project aims Major findings - summary Theoretical implications & contribution Practical implications Limitations and Recommendations 270 271
276 282 List of References 284
1 Appendices GDLB 298 298 ~ ix ~
2 3 4 5 6 7
8
9
10
11 12 13 14 15 16 VLSQ BALLI CCLQ VSTs English vocabulary size research question No. 4 Statistical formula for the Kruskal-Wallis test and Spearmans rho correlations VLSQ tables of means, percentages, groupings graphs, and interview tables BALLI tables of means, percentages, groupings graphs, interview tables, and comparisons CCLQ tables of means, percentages, groupings graphs, interview tables, and comparisons Interview tables Participant information sheets for the questionnaire Participant information sheets for the interview Informed consent form for the questionnaire Informed consent form for the interview Permission to conduct research 299 302 304 307 313
327
331
370
395 435 446 449 450 451 452
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS BA Bachelor of Arts degree BALLI Beliefs about language and language learning inventory BALLL Beliefs about language and language learning BALLLQ Beliefs about language and language learning questionnaire CCL Chinese culture of learning CCLQ Chinese culture of learning questionnaire CEMs Chinese English Majors CET College Entrance Test DV Dependent variable EFL English as a foreign language EGP English for general purposes ELT English language teaching ESL English as a second language EVS English vocabulary size FLC Foreign language community FLL Foreign language learning FLLs Foreign language learners GDLB General demographics and language background ICQ Abbreviation of I seek you IV Independent variable LLSs Language learning strategies LTM Long term memory MoE Ministry of Education NET Native English teacher [online] PVL Process of vocabulary learning SD Standard deviation SILL Strategy inventory of language learning SLA Second language acquisition SPSS Statistical package for the social sciences ~ xi ~
TEM Test for English Majors USA United States of America UU University of Utah VLS Vocabulary learning strategy VLSQ Vocabulary learning strategy questionnaire VLSs Vocabulary learning strategies VST Vocabulary size test
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LIST OF TABLES, GRAPHS, CHARTS & ILLUSTRATIONS Table 2.1 Schmitts 26 memory strategies 21 Table 2.2 Schmitts 2001 VLS taxonomy 25 Table 2.3 Vocabulary learning strategy categories 25 Table 2.4 Vocabulary strategy categories & strategy function 26 Table 4.1 Researcher, method and factor researched 65 Table 4.2 Multi-questionnaire data collection instruments and method 73 Table 4.3 General demographics and language background 74 Illustration No. 1 VLSQ Question No. 1 76 Table 4.4 Three Means-score range analysis 77 Illustration No. 2 BALLI Belief statement No. 5: English is structured in the same way as Chinese 79 Illustration No. 3 CLQ Belief statement No. 3: A good teacher of English should be knowledgeable in his/her area 80 Table 4.5 VLT 1000 Question 1 82 Table 4.6 One students general characteristics and language background 87 Table 4.7 GDLB for whole of grade 1 87 Table 4.8 One students raw data of VLS use 88 Table 4.9 Percentage of student VLS and frequency of use at the grade 1 level 89 Table 4.10 VLS use raw data of grade 1 re: Question 1 89 Table 4.11 Raw data converted to percentages for all grades for each question 90 Table 4.12 Percentage of students using a VLS and VLS frequency of use at grade 1 level 90 Table 4.13 Percentage of CEMs who use a VLS and VLS frequency of use of all grades 91 Table 4:14 Overall ranking of VLSs 92 Table 4.15 All students all grades responses to BALLI Belief Statement #1 93 Table 4.16 All students in all grades responses to BALLI Belief Statement #1 as percentages 94 ~ xiii ~
Table 4.17 All students in all grades responses to CCL Belief statement #1 95 Table 4.18 All students in all grades responses to CCL Beliefs statement #1 as percentages 96 Table 4.19 Known words at the 1,000 words size 97 Table 4.20 Discovery strategies 100 Table 5.1 Categories & Strategies and means suggesting use 106 Tables 5.2 Categories & Strategies for whole group 106 Table 5.3 Question 1: Where do you meet new words? 109 Table 5.4 Question 3: What do you do when you meet new vocabulary? 110 Table 5.5 Question 4: when learning new vocabulary, what aspects do you study? 111 Table 5.6 Question 5: How do you put in order the info about then new vocabulary? 112 Table 5.7 Question 6: How do you memorize new vocabulary? [First group] 113 Table 5.8 Question 6: How do you memorize new vocabulary? [Second group] 114 Table 5.9 Question 7: How do you review vocabulary? 115 Table 5.10 Question 8: How do you remember words you have memorized? 116 Tables 5.11 Question 9: How do you make use of new vocabulary? 117 Graph 1 Increase 119 Graph 2 Increase then decrease 120 Graph 3 Increase, decrease then increase 122 Graph 4 Increase, decrease then unchanged 123 Graph 5 Increase, then unchanged 124 Graph 6 Increase, unchanged then increase 125 Graph 7 Increase, unchanged then decrease 126 Graph 8 Decrease 127 Graph 9 Decrease then increase 128 Graph 10 Decrease, increase then decrease 129 Graph 11 Decrease, increase then unchanged 130 Graph 12 Decrease then unchanged 131 Graph 13 Unchanged, increase then decrease 132 ~ xiv ~
Graph 14 Unchanged, decrease then increase 133 Graph 15 Unchanged then decrease 134 Table 5.12 Should vocabulary learning strategies be taught? 143 Table 5.13 Vocabulary learning strategies rarely or never used 145 Table 5.14 Ranked vocabulary learning strategies over all by percentage 148 Table 5.15 VLSs regularly used per grade 150 Table 5.16 Strategies that complemented the Eight 151 Table 5.17 Percentage of students per grade who chose a place and frequency of use per Question 2 154 Table 5.18 Percentage of students per grade who chose a source of VLSs and frequency of choice 156 Table 5.19 BALLI beliefs by percentage, frequency and mean 159 Table 5.20 BALLI beliefs by percentage, frequency and mean [continued] 160 Table 5.21 BALLI beliefs by percentage, frequency and mean [continued] 161 Graph 1 Agree 164 Graph 2 Disagree 165 Graph 3 Neither disagree or agree/agree 166 Graph 4 Disagree/neither disagree or agree/agree 167 Graph 5 Level of difficulty 168 Graph 6 Time till fluency 169 Table 5.22 CCL beliefs by grade percentage, frequency and mean 170 Table 5.23 CCL beliefs by grade percentage, frequency and mean [continued] 172 Table 5.24 CCL beliefs by grade percentage, frequency and mean [continued] 172 Table 5.25 CCL beliefs by grade percentage, frequency and mean [continued] 174 Table 5.26 CCL beliefs by grade percentage, frequency and mean [continued] 175 Graph 1 Agree 178 Graph 2 Disagree 179 Graph 3 Disagree, neither disagree or agree/agree 180 Graph 4 Agree/neither disagree or agree 182 Graph 5 Neither disagree or agree 183 Graph 6 Disagree/neither disagree or agree 184 ~ xv ~
Table 5.28 Should vocabulary learning strategies be taught? 189 Table 6.1 Three factors correlated 193 Table 6.2 Category & strategies against VST & Academic scores for grade 1 194 Table 6.3 Category & strategies against VST & Academic scores for grade 2 195 Table 6.4 Category & strategies against VST & Academic scores for grade 3 196 Table 6.5 Category & strategies against VST & Academic scores for grade 4 197 Table 6.6 Analysis of all factors for grade 1 198 Table 6.7 Analysis of all factors for grade 2 199 Table 6.8 Analysis of all factors for grade 3 200 Table 6.9 Analysis of all factors for grade 4 201 Table 6.10 Differences in means-scores to show difference or no difference 204 Boxplot 1 Mann-Whitney for BALLI beliefs against Academic scores 205 Boxplot 2 Mann-Whitney for CCL beliefs against Academic scores 206 Table 7.1 Guessing from context, Dictionary & Rehearsal strategies 213 Table 7.2 Discovery & Consolidation strategies compared to Oxfords SILL 214 Table 7.3 Categories & Strategies for whole group CEMs & Ma 2009 217 Table 7.4 Categories & Strategies and means suggesting use CEMs & Ma 2009 219 Table 7.5 Individual difference in VLS use Question 2 225 Table 7.6 Individual difference in VLS use Question 3 226 Table 7.7 Individual difference in VLS use Question 4 226 Table 7.8 Discovery-place strategies Question 2 228 Table 7.9 Determination-initial response strategies Question 3 228 Table 7.10 Determination-study strategies Question 4 228 Table 7.11 English vocabulary size in grade 2 Xiao A & Xiao B 229 Graph 1 I enjoy English CEMs & Shi 240 Graph 2 I learn English to improve myself/self-development CEMs & Shi 241 Graph 3 I learn English to find a good job in the future CEMs & Shi 241 Graph 4 I learn English for daily communication CEMs & Shi 242 Graph 5 I learn English for the honour of my family CEMs & Shi 242 Graph 6 I learn English to pass exams CEMs & Shi 243
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Graph 7 A good teacher of English should improve my English skills CEMs & Shi 243 Graph 8 Good teachers should be knowledgeable CEMs & Shi 244 Graph 9 A good teacher should provide comprehensible notes CEMs & Shi 244 Graph 10 A good teacher should improve students language skills CEMs & Shi 245 Graph 11 A good teacher should help students pass exams CEMs & Shi 245 Graph 12 The teacher-student relationship should be friend-friend CEMs & Shi 246 Graph 13 The teacher-student relationship should be parent-child CEMs & Shi 247 Graph 14 I love my teacher, but I love the truth more CEMs & Shi 248 Graph 15 If not agreeing with teachers teaching, still follow teacher CEMs & Shi 249 Graph 16 I prefer the teacher use different teaching activities CEMs & Shi 249 Graph 17 I prefer the teacher to encourage me to learn CEMs & Shi 250 Graph 18 I think textbook content is not totally correct CEMs & Shi 250 Graph 19 I think textbook knowledge is useful in real life CEMs & Shi 251 Graph 20 I memorize vocabulary using rehearsal strategies CEMs & Shi 251 Graph 21 I practice reading with textbooks CEMs & Shi 252 Graph 22 I practice speaking by reading aloud & reciting texts CEMs & Shi 253 Graph 23 I practice listening by listening to textbooks tapes CEMs & Shi 253 Graph 24 I practice writing with a diary CEMs & Shi 254 Graph 25 I think the main barrier is I dont work hard enough CEMs & Shi 255 Graph 26 A good learner of English should respect teachers CEMs & Shi 255
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 1 2013
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
1.0 Introduction
The foreign language learning process is a significant event in the life of the learner attempting to learn a foreign language for various reasons in contexts like China, and interest in exploring and highlighting its nature and impact on eventual foreign language proficiency spans many decades. The present research explores the English vocabulary learning process, a key aspect of foreign language learning (FLL), and in particular, two influential factors, that of vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs) and beliefs about language and language learning (BALLL), in order to provide useful insights into the English vocabulary learning process in China. Section 1.1 discusses steps taken to explore the process of vocabulary learning (PVL), 1.2 discusses the background to the research, 1.3 research questions, 1.4 definitions of key terms, 1.5 contribution to knowledge/significance of research and 1.6 structure of thesis.
1.1 Steps taken to explore the process of vocabulary learning
To better know the process of vocabulary learning (PVL) in a Chinese context, VLSs and their use was explored. Early research (e.g. Stern, 1975) found VLSs influenced how vocabulary is learned, and subsequent research confirmed it (e.g. Jiang, 2000; Schmitt, 2010). But it was found that VLSs influenced the range of vocabulary eventually learned (e.g. Gu & Johnson, 1996; Nation, 2001). Research (e.g. Oxford, 1990) suggests that language learning strategies (LLSs) influence the outcome of language learning (e.g. Gu & Johnson, 1996; Gu, 2010), and that VLS use, specifically, can enhance vocabulary learning generally (e.g. Schmitt, 1997).
Beliefs about language and language learning (BALLL) general (e.g. Horwitz, 1988) and specific, Chinese culture of learning beliefs (CCL) (Shi, 2006) were explored. Beliefs have been found to influence how language is learned (e.g. Wenden, 1987), and also the range of language eventually learned (e.g. Horwitz, 1999). Research (e.g. Elbaum et al., 1993) suggests that BALLL influence the initial stage of vocabulary learning. Language learners initially create a mental representation of the object of learning, for example, a foreign language is a tool (see Everett, 2012), based on factors like experience and/or agent influence, such as parents and teachers. Secondly, they create a mental representation of the process of learning The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 2 2013
the foreign language (e.g. rote memorisation of words and grammar (e.g. Gu & Johnson, 1996), again based on factors like experience and/or agent influence, such as parents and teachers. However, an established belief in the mind of the language learner might be difficult if not impossible to change, even when the learner is faced with evidence that contradicts the belief; for instance, the belief that learning another language, for example English, is achieved primarily by imitation alone and doing nothing else.
The research explored the impact of VLSs and BALLL on English vocabulary size (EVS). Research (e.g. Nation, 2001) suggests that vocabulary learning is incremental, the result of not only repeated exposure to language (for instance, new language repeatedly exposed to cognitive processes and consciously manipulated in working memory), but also repeated opportunities to use it (for instance, recycling learned language). Nation (2001) identifies three main aspects of vocabulary knowledge, 1) orthography, 2) pronunciation, and 3) language use, which must be learned. This thesis supports this idea, and vocabulary is seen as the learning objective of all English as a foreign language learners (EFL learners) in order to have complete vocabulary knowledge of a foreign language, particularly English. EVS is explored as an aspect of the process of vocabulary learning (PVL) as much as an outcome (e.g. Levin & Pressley, 1985), and explored with a view to better understanding it and subsequently improving vocabulary learning.
Using mixed methods, the research is exploratory, gathering quantitative and qualitative data to explore VLS use, BALLL and EVS as aspects of the PVL, based on evidence from questionnaires, interview and tests. The research is also interpretive, in that making sense of the data collected on VLS use, BALLL and EVS was achieved through both quantitative measures (e.g. non-parametric tests), qualitative analysis of qualitative data (e.g. thematic analysis) and reference to prior research see Chapter 4: Methodology and Procedures.
1.2 Background
In the foreign language learning (FLL) field, particularly in a Chinese context, no (known) research has explored the English vocabulary learning process the way the present research does (e.g. Gu & Johnson, 1996), researching the relationship among VLS use and BALLL, general and specific, and vocabulary size test (VST) scores to gain insight into the PVL. Gu and Johnson (1996) suggested strategy use and beliefs were the whole process of FLL and a The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 3 2013
process of vocabulary learning but did not show its details, other than list some VLSs and beliefs that were somehow involved, and mentioned that time was a factor. Schmitt (1997) hinted at it in his VLS taxonomy. Griffiths (2013) found patterns of LLS use and highlights that patterns of use were correlated with course level. VLS use, beliefs about language and language learning, general and specific, and EVS (e.g. Gu & Johnson, 1996; Gu, 2003; Tsai & Chang, 2009) have been researched as individual factors affecting language learning outcomes in Chinese contexts. Little is known of the actual process of vocabulary learning in a Chinese context (e.g. Ma, 2009), though research has shown the initial phase of learning vocabulary (e.g. Jiang, 2002). Research has been done on each variable as an individual factor (in both non-Chinese and Chinese contexts) and conclusions drawn about the likely impact on learning outcomes generally, and vocabulary size specifically see Chapter 2, section 2.3 and Chapter 3. The current research is predicated on previous research on each factor, but explores VLS use and BALLL together in the one project. Although VLS use and learning outcomes have been matched in a Chinese context (e.g. Gu & Johnson, 1996; Gu, 2002), albeit at a general level, theories posed to explain the outcome of using strategies, as well as the impact of beliefs for example, the beliefs of the Chinese culture of learning and its impact on proficiency (e.g. Cortazzi & Jin, 1996; Shi, 2006) there is a gap in the research regarding the process of English vocabulary learning where VLS use and BALLL play a role in the development of EVS in a Chinese context. The present research tries to fill this gap.
English language teaching was not explored English vocabulary teaching specifically, or the direct relationship between language teaching and vocabulary learning. The research is focused on the learning side of the equation. Learning is therefore explored without strong reference to teaching, though the context of learning is English language teaching in a formal learning context of higher education in China. Based on the literature (see Chapter 2, section 2.2), learning, especially in relation to English vocabulary learning, is viewed as the result of prior (and continuing) formal education and training, and learning experiences associated with formal education in China.
As will be discussed, learning is influenced by factors, such as cognitive style, learning style and cultural style (e.g. Ehrman, 1996, p. 49), acquired in prior formal learning contexts (primary and middle school) and other sociocultural experiences (such as family life) (e.g. Cortazzi & Jin, 1996) as well as the one in which students presently find themselves (higher education). Chinese English Majors (CEMs) primarily experience formal education (even The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 4 2013
formal English education) in China though they may experience a Westernized education later as senior undergraduates and/or postgraduates so their early experience of formal education is culturally different from students, particularly university students, in either Australia or the United States. This prior, and often continuing, educational and cultural experience must be acknowledged in any analysis of EFL learning in China. Learning holds strong implications for teaching generally, and teaching pedagogy specifically, so the results will provide further insights for both teaching and pedagogy, and vocabulary teaching specifically, in Chinese higher education contexts.
1.3 Research questions and their relationship to the research
In order to gain insights into the English vocabulary learning process in a Chinese context, the research explored CEMs vocabulary learning, their VLS use and beliefs as well as their EVS, and gathered pertinent data to answer the following questions:
Research question No. 1: Which vocabulary learning strategies do Chinese English Majors tend to use? This will be determined using a questionnaire constructed by Ma (2009) with slight modification. The idea is to observe which strategies are used and observe patterns of strategy use across the four grades of a Bachelor degree.
Research question No. 2: What is the difference in vocabulary learning strategy frequency of use among the four grades of Chinese English Majors? This will be determined using a scaling that indicates frequency of use for example, never, rarely, sometimes, often and always, and, firstly, Non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis and Spearmans rho to observe differences in mean scores among individuals within a grade. The students will be able to indicate whether they use a particular strategy and whether they use it on a regular basis (e.g., rarely or often).
Research question No. 3: What are Chinese English Majors general Western beliefs about language and language learning and specific Chinese culture of learning beliefs about language and language learning? Research question No. 4: Do their beliefs about language and language learning correlate with vocabulary learning strategy use? These will be explored using questionnaires validated in and out of China; one exploring general beliefs about language and language learning (Horwitz, 1988), and the other exploring specific Chinese beliefs Chinese The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 5 2013
culture of learning (Shi, 2006). Non-parametric Correlations Test using Spearmans rho will be run.
Research question No. 5: What is the general English vocabulary size of Chinese English Majors in each of the four grades (grade is used in China instead of year) of a four-year Bachelor degree? This will be determined using Nations Vocabulary Size Test. Students vocabulary size will be observed across four grades to observe vocabulary development patterns in each grade and then observe whether the vocabulary learning strategy use and beliefs correlate with vocabulary size in each grade. Non-parametric Correlations Test using Spearmans rho will be run.
Research question No. 6: Do beliefs about language and language learning and vocabulary learning strategy use influence English vocabulary size? Non-parametric Correlations Test using Spearmans rho will be run.
1.4 Definitions of key terms
1.4.1 Vocabulary
English vocabulary is viewed in the present research (see Chapter 2, section 2.1) as having two main appearances, orthographical and phonological: a stand-alone language item (e.g. dog), which possesses meaning, or a combination of stand-alone items often called a multiword (e.g. three dogs) which may or may not consist of morphological components such as prefixes, suffixes, or a lexical chunk like not least of all, well and good and as well as, or acronyms that can carry meaning in an unusual way (e.g. AIDS) (e.g. Aitchison, 2003; McCarthy, 1990; Nunan, 2003; Proctor, 1996). The research agrees with these definitions. These aspects of English are generally called English vocabulary, and Chinese EFL learners will learn them as part of their continuing formal English language education in a Chinese university.
1.4.2 Learning
Learning is viewed as a complex process that uses many cognitive resources (see Chapter 2, section 2.2), not least of all a cognitive tool to acquire generally both skills and knowledge and experience (Phye & Andre, 1986, pp. 142-144). These cognitive resources (Phye & Andre, The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 6 2013
1986) include general LLSs and specific VLSs (e.g. Schmitt, 1997) gained/developed in the process of acquiring the first or other foreign language or skill/knowledge see Chapter 2, section 2.3. Illeris defines learning as any cognitive process that leads to permanent capacity change and which is not solely due to biological maturation or aging (2007, p. 3). In the case of FLL, or more specifically foreign language vocabulary learning, the CEMs in this research are acknowledged as bringing VLSs with them to the English vocabulary learning task, strategies gained in the process of learning a first language (e.g. Chinese Mandarin) or another foreign language (e.g. Russian), as well as other knowledge (such as mathematics and science) and experience which they may or may not modify for learning English vocabulary.
1.4.3 Vocabulary learning strategies
VLSs include learning strategies widely accepted and known by other names: learning skills, learning-to-learn, thinking skills and problem solving skills (e.g. Pan, 2005; Phye & Andre, 1986). These broad definitions and classifications of learning are subsumed in the use of the term learning as it is used in the present research. Language learning isnt viewed here as a single factor activity. Explicit reference is made to Rubins (1987) definition of language learning, which views it as a process using many strategies by which language information is obtained, stored, retrieved and used, and which was co-opted by Schmitt (1997), for instance, to define and classify VLSs. This definition is applied to the cognitive tools employed in vocabulary learning, and the present research will do the same see Chapter 2, section 2.3.
1.4.4 Beliefs about language and language learning
Beliefs are viewed in the present research as psychologically held understandings, premises, or propositions about the world that are felt to be true (Richardson, 1996, p. 103). Beliefs are also described as the relation between two categories when neither defines the other (Open University, 1975), for instance, VLSs and BALLL see Chapter 3, section 3.2. Beliefs are often categorised as mental representations. A mental representation is a presentation in the mind in the form of an idea or an image (Mohamed, 2006) or common sense mental states for example, thoughts, beliefs, desires, perceptions and imaginings (Pitt, 2008). They are about or refer to aspects of reality (e.g. my girlfriend is a blonde or the moon is made of cheese), and are evaluated with respect to consistency, truth, appropriateness and accuracy (Pitt, 2008). The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 7 2013
For instance, in terms of truth, the moon is not made of cheese; it is made of geological material similar to the planet Earth. Whatever the content of beliefs (e.g. descriptive, evaluative or prescriptive), they are action oriented (Rokeach, 1968).
1.4.5 Cognitive and cultural learning styles
Ehrman (1996, p. 49) defined a cognitive learning style as broad preferences for going about the business of learning. Drnyei (2005, p. 121) said a standard definition refers to cognitive styles as an individuals natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills. Thus a profile of an individuals approach to learning (e.g. Benson & Lor, 1999), if one can be compiled, is a blueprint of the habitual or preferred way the individual perceives, interacts with, and responds to the learning environment (Drnyei, 2005, p. 121). And with respect to the present research involving CEMs, such a blueprint is generally referred to as the beliefs of the Chinese culture of learning see Chapter 3, section 3.4.4.
1.5 Contribution to knowledge and significance of the present research
The research is significant and a worthy project. Firstly, the thesis will contribute to the field of the PVL in China. In particular, the thesis will contribute to a deeper understanding of CEMs English vocabulary learning in a university context in China (e.g. four years of a Bachelor degree). Secondly, the thesis will contribute to theory the PVL (for instance, how students behave when they discover new vocabulary and what they do when consolidating learning it). At the time of undertaking the research project, there appeared to be no other studies that explore the PVL in China. Some studies have been conducted in China, firstly, on vocabulary learning strategies and learning outcomes (e.g. Gu & Johnson, 1996; Ma, 2009; Tsai & Chang, 2009; Wei, 2007), and secondly, on BALLL (e.g. Shi, 2006). The present research findings will be useful for: a) Chinese and non-Chinese academics, teachers and students who study vocabulary development, vocabulary learning specifically, language learning generally; b) course designers; and c) improving understanding of learning in Chinese contexts, the impact of Chinese beliefs on learning behaviour specifically.
Academics will find the information on vocabulary development, the vocabulary learning process, useful; as well as how learners behave according to their BALLL, and how beliefs The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 8 2013
impact VLS use. Curriculum designers will find this research useful because the insights into vocabulary learning may suggest ways to improve it, for example, explicit vocabulary teaching vs. incidental vocabulary learning.
The present research extends previous research (e.g. Ma, 2009; Horwitz, 1988; Shi, 2006; Nation, 2001). The thesis provides insight into CEMs English vocabulary development (in a Chinese university) which Chinese teachers can use to assist their students achieve a larger vocabulary size. Moreover, the research will extend the research on the relationship between VLS use, beliefs and their relationship to vocabulary development.
Improving the understanding of the PVL in China will benefit Australian universities, particularly the number of Chinese students that attend them. If the universities are aware of the learning patterns of Chinese students, they may wish to modify existing programs to accommodate or alleviate culturally specific learning styles, and improve Chinese student participation in Australian higher education.
The contribution this thesis makes to vocabulary learning is that beliefs and VLS use impact vocabulary development. This is clear in the research literature (e.g. Gu & Johnson, 1996; Gu, 2010), though the specific gain from using particular strategies is not clear; this is known only in a general sense. With regard to beliefs and their relationship to learning: beliefs impact learning behaviour, language learning generally, and vocabulary learning specifically. Therefore, the thesis will show that VLS use is significant to the process of vocabulary learning, and indirectly to teaching, and worth investigating, and that beliefs are resilient and difficult to change once established early in a learners life (e.g. Mohamed, 2006). Research (e.g. Gao, 2006) suggests beliefs may change in new learning contexts outside those where the beliefs were established and away from influencing agents (such as parents and teachers) which pressure learners to maintain the beliefs of local culture established early in life, but this needs further research, and therefore, makes local beliefs a worthy research topic.
1.6 The structure of the thesis
The thesis consists of eight chapters. Chapter 1 outlines the background to the research, its significance, as well as the research questions and boundaries, in addition to some details about the research context which impact higher education the EFL university context. From the The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 9 2013
literature it is revealed that CEMs VLS use and vocabulary learning outcomes are influenced by their VLS use and BALLL, and act as a restraining influence on choice of VLS and consistent use of VLSs over time. Exploring VLS use, BALLL and EVS will help EFL learners become more aware of their VLS use as well as their BALLL, and the impact these have on their vocabulary learning and development (as outlined above). This research does not explore whether increased awareness of VLSs has a positive impact on VLS use or encourages CEMs to become more autonomous learners (Pan, 2005). To answer the research questions, the research focuses on the contemporary university context where young adult Chinese nationals pursue a Bachelor of Arts (BA) in English, in which they learn EFL. The research focus, therefore, is understanding the learning behaviour(s) and beliefs of CEMs in a real-life context.
Chapter 2 provides a literature review of the conceptual background of English vocabulary, vocabulary learning, establishing learning to be in the cognitive domain and VLSs. The conceptual background of VLSs is discussed in Chapter 2 as well as the research literature on VLSs globally, and then in China.
Chapter 3 provides a literature review of the conceptual background of beliefs generally, BALLL and their influence on language learning, specifically vocabulary learning.
Chapter 4 sets out the methodological framework of the research and the procedures used to achieve the research goals. It also outlines the rationale for the research design, the mixed methods as well as its quantitative and qualitative aspects.
Chapter 5 presents other findings not observed in the statistical analysis but in descriptive statistics to examine individual and group differences in VLS use. It also presents other findings not observed in the statistical analysis but in descriptive statistics to examine individual and group differences in BALLL/CCL.
Chapter 6 presents the results of the statistical analysis of differences in individual and group differences in VLS use, BALLL/CCL and EVS as well as correlations among the main factors explored. Correlational analysis is also conducted among sub-aspects of the research concerning the main factors against age and years of English language education.
Chapter 7 discusses the results and interprets their meaning in relation to the research. This The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 10 2013
chapter highlights the contribution to knowledge, providing recommendations, suggesting what teachers and learners should do to be aware of the requirements and discusses the overall result.
Chapter 8 concludes the thesis and provides a general discussion of the research, its aims, the results and its implications for the research stakeholders, and makes suggestions for further research.
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CHAPTER 2: VOCABULARY, VOCABULARY LEARNING AND VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES
2.0 Introduction
The literature review in this chapter discusses the research background to the research topic: the PVL in a FLL context. This chapter highlights research on two of the three main factors explored: vocabulary (2.1), learning (in relation to vocabulary learning) (2.2), including learning theory, definitions of VLSs (2.3), and VLS research outside China (2.4), and then research in a Chinese context (2.5). The literature review on BALLL is found in Chapter 3.
2.1 Vocabulary and vocabulary knowledge
The discussion begins with definitions of English vocabulary (e.g. Proctor, 1996). What it means to learn and eventually possess vocabulary knowledge (e.g. Nation, 2001) is then discussed. The thesis does not present a theory of vocabulary, rather, how it is generally defined in the literature. This is used as a basis for discussion. The importance of defining English vocabulary is highlighted by the fact that Chinese EFL learners, besides other EFL learners, think learning vocabulary is one of the most important aspects of learning a foreign language (e.g. Horwitz, 1988; Law, 2003; Yang, 1999). The literature on vocabulary is substantial, both on what it is and what it means to possess it (e.g. Aitchison, 2003; Ellis, 1997; Field, 2005; Laufer, 1997; Laufer, 2001; Ma, 2009; McCarthy, 1990; Nation, 2001; Nation & Waring, 1997; Nunan, 2003; Proctor, 1996; Schmitt, 1997). Vocabulary is discussed first because this is the object of learning, the knowledge EFL students are trying to learn.
2.1.1 Definitions of words/word families/morphemes/lemmas and lexemes
Words are used every day but few stop to ask what they are. According to Proctor (1996, pp. 1628678), the word vocabulary means all the words used by a particular person or all the words which exist in a particular language or subject. The present research is not concerned with all the words used or all the words in a particular language, English specifically. It is concerned with the exact meaning of the noun word. For instance, in a general sense the meaning is given as language unit; and in a more specific sense, as a single unit of language which has meaning and can be spoken or written (Proctor, 1996, pp. 1628678). However, The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 12 2013
McCarthy (1990, p. 3) offers this clarification: it is most convenient to think of words as freestanding items that have meaning. But what is a freestanding item?
A freestanding item is discussed in contrast to a bound item, or what are generally referred to as bound and freestanding words or morphemes. The word eating is an example. Eat in eating and the -ing in eating are viewed as separate morphemes, yet one is a freestanding morpheme while the other is a bound morpheme. The eat in eating is a freestanding morpheme whereas the -ing in eating is not an English word with any specific meaning (McCarthy, 1990). Freestanding morphemes are usually referred to as root words (possessing meaning), while bound morphemes are referred to as prefixes or suffixes, depending on whether they appear at the end or at the front of a root word. Placing a suffix or prefix on a root word results in either deriving a new word from the root for instance, eater, where -er is added or eating, where -ing is added (Nation, 2007). The process of adding -er is derivation, where a new word is derived from the root word, while the process of adding -ing is inflection, where the root word is inflected for grammatical meaning for instance, -ing indicates tense, in the sense that it highlights a particular aspect of the verb.
Vocabulary is clearly words. However, words are often discussed more technically in terms of lemmas and lexemes. A lemma is a words generalised or glossed meaning and its word class for instance, noun, verb and adjective (Aitchison, 2003; Field, 2005) whereas a lexeme is a words morphology and form (Aitchison, 2003, pp. 22021), highlighted above in the example eating. Nunan (2003) and Schmitt (2010) include multiword units in the category of lexemes, for example, absolutely fantastic, at once!, in a minute, portable TV, the United States of America. These multiword units are emphasised in the discussion of word families, in which a word can be either a single word item (e.g. die) or a multiword item (e.g. give up the ghost) (Nation, 2001; Nunan, 2003). Multiword items obviously highlight the combinatorial nature of words, and are often referred to as lexical chunks (Schmitt & McCarthy, 1997), for example, Theres no answer vs. There is no answer, heavy rain vs. severe rain, take medicine vs. have medicine or drink medicine (Nunan, 2003, p. 130).
McCarthy (1990) also says that categorising vocabulary proves to be a rather complicated undertaking due to issues like morphology. Morphology is used here to refer to the basic word building patterns found in words, for example, plural, past tense, present tense, stem + ing, The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 13 2013
stem + ed, possessive, (highlighted above) (Nunan, 2003, p. 131). Vocabulary is distinguished according to word families (for instance, walk, walks, walked, walking) (Nation, 2000, p. 2), as well as by token or a type. Word types can be type-tokens and word classes, such as lexical, functional, and inserts (Biber et al., 1999), where the tokens are simply every word counted in a text, while types are every word that has been counted at least once in a text (highlighting word class); a word that appears twice is not counted a second time (Nation, 2001; Schmitt, 1997). Thus words are basically freestanding objects that possess meaning, can be combined with other morphemes (e.g. suffixes) to make new words or can be combined to make bigger lexical items, and initially exist as phonological objects (spoken words) but can be made into orthographic objects (written words). What a word is seems clear enough, but what about the idea of word meanings?
2.1.2 Definitions of word meanings/core meanings
A lexeme refers to a words morphology and form but a lemma refers to a words generalised or glossed meaning and its role in syntax. The present research concerns words and word meanings and does not cover syntax. Word meaning is often associated with its dictionary meaning, but word meaning also consists of the relationship between a word and its referent (the person, thing, action, condition, or case it refers to in the real or an imagined world) (Nation, 2001, pp. 2223). The relationship, often untidy and indirect, is said to be arbitrary, that is, until a community of speakers of a language all tend to agree on a words referent (Nation, 2001, p. 23). According to Nation (2000), because relationships between word and referent can be untidy and indirect, it is better to talk of relationships between a word and its concept. Therefore, establishing the meaning of a word often means describing the concept it represents (Nation, 2001; Ungerer & Schmid, 1996). The relationship aspect of words to concepts is not within the scope of this discussion because the main research concern is learning words, but it is accepted to mean that words possess meanings. In most cases words possess a core meaning. Core meanings are discussed next.
The idea that a word has a core meaning can be demonstrated using any content word. A content word is one that contains knowledge/information, and is not therefore a function word for example, the, but, a, of. But take the word neutral, for example (Nunan, 2003). The Collins COBUILD dictionary lists ten different meanings (in 2003) for the word neutral. These meanings, of course, are not just ten different meanings; they are in fact ten different The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 14 2013
senses of the word, or its core meanings (Aitchison, 2003; Nation, 2001; Nunan, 2003; Schmitt, 1997). But what is really meant by the idea of a core meaning? A policy of dictionary editors in relation to the order of senses how they appear in a dictionary will help clarify the idea of a core meaning:
As a general rule, where a headword has more than one sense, the first sense given is the one most common in current usage. Where the editors consider that a current sense is the core meaning, in that it illuminates the meaning of other senses, the core meaning may be placed first. (Jackson & Amvela, 2000, p. 178)
On the denotative level, word meaning is its commonly accepted dictionary meaning, or current usage according to the dictionary. According to Proctor (1996, p. 776), for example, the word keep has an initial meaning or core meaning of to have or to continue to have in your possession. Core meaning also suggests that the commonly accepted usage can be found in a given community of speakers at a given time, a words referent however can change over time. On the connotative level, word meaning also includes a commonly accepted additional meaning or socio-cultural meaning, above and beyond the dictionary denotative meaning (Proctor, 1996; see Richards et al., 2002). For example, the word chocolate connotes pleasure and indulgence. Word core meanings can, therefore, be quite diverse depending on how and when a word is used and quite ambiguous if the meaning isnt clear.
The idea that words possess a strong societally imposed element is significant. According to Schmitt (2000, p. 27), societally imposed meaning is a common meaning shared by members of the society that imposes meaning on a word or words. While words can also be defined in isolation from context, some word meaning is still attached by societal convention. According to Schmitt (2000), encyclopaedic information, for instance, is a substantial part of a words meaning, so there is some dependence on a words basic core meaning in order to construct encyclopaedic information. And such information, which can be idiosyncratic from individual to individual, will often include an individuals experience and beliefs. Such information can vary from individual to individual, even though they are members of a society, so word meaning will necessarily be communal to a certain extent. Schmitt (2000) uses the word bachelor as an example that everyone would need to agree that the word bachelor refers to a male person who is definitely not married, which, consequently, becomes its core meaning. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 15 2013
While defining what a word is and how it carries meaning seems clear, Aitchison (2003) says that there were difficulties associated with defining what constitutes vocabulary and where word meaning begins and ends. However, these definitions provide a strong sense of what a word is and what a word may mean, and of vocabulary, generally. The next section discusses is what it means to know a word.
2.1.3 Definition of vocabulary knowledge
According to Nation (2001), the different aspects of a word or vocabulary can be generally referred to as vocabulary knowledge. But what does it mean to possess vocabulary knowledge? For Nation (2001), vocabulary knowledge should be discussed in terms of possessing the item and system features of vocabulary. Possessing vocabulary knowledge, according to Nation, means being able to recognise word items (item knowledge) and being able to understand the various features of word items (system knowledge) (Nation, 2001, p. 23). Nation (2001) explains item knowledge as the individual word or form of the word, for instance, dog (the orthographic form), and system knowledge to mean the various features of the word (e.g. phonological, orthographic, semantic) including the words relationship with other words in a persons mental lexicon. Mental lexicon is used here and glossed to mean what a person knows about words (Aitchison, 2003; McCarthy, 1990; Nation, 2001). A three-category framework was devised by Nation to discuss what it means to possess this vocabulary knowledge. It comprises: 1) word form the spoken form (phonological), the written form (orthographic) and the word parts (e.g. base, affixes); 2) word meaning including connecting form and meaning (of a word), concepts and referents, and associations; 3) word use including grammatical functions, collocations and constraints on use (e.g. register, frequency) (Nation, 2001). Nations framework underpins the vocabulary size test used in the current research.
Now that vocabulary has been defined, and how it is defined as knowledge and knowledge to be learned, how vocabulary knowledge can be learned, more specifically, how it can be learned by EFL learners is discussed next.
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 16 2013
2.2 Learning vocabulary
2.2.1 A view of learning (in relation to vocabulary learning)
According to Seedhouse (2010, p. 242), it would help greatly if research projects would adopt a simple protocol briefly detailing the conceptualization of learning used in the research. Nation, though, was quoted (in Chacn-Beltrn et al., 2010, p. 2) as saying (in 1995) that there isnt an overall theory of how vocabulary is acquired, and Chacn-Beltrn et al. (2010) agrees. Therefore the present research will, in the interim, do the same.
Chacn-Beltrn et al. (2010, p. 2) also say that unsuccessful attempts have been made to provide a theory or model that can explain vocabulary learning it will require the coordinated work of linguists, SLA [second language acquisition] researchers, psychologists and neurobiologists in order to create one. Working within the constraint of the absence of an established theory of vocabulary learning, the present research will posit vocabulary learning and VLS use, in particular within the cognitive domain (Schmidt, 1990). Huitt (2009) refers to it as the learning domain, and the present research adopts this view. Tomasello (2000) tries to place learning entirely in the social domain. However, social theory is concerned with what happens in the environment immediately outside the brain for instance, the language learner interacts with an interlocutor or language material in a social context and somehow learning results. This approach bypasses the process involved and goes directly to the product of learning; such views talk of language or vocabulary acquisition as a spontaneous event (e.g. Franceschini, 2003). Therefore, they do not address what happens inside the brain while social interaction happens or immediately after social interaction, and is more a cause and affect, stimulus-response theory, or, perhaps even implies that spontaneous acquisition occurs while the learner is engaged in social interaction. Social theory is not rejected here; it is criticised for not providing a complete picture of the process of learning in social interaction. Strategy research highlights the use of social strategies, for example, ask a classmate for the meaning, in both language learning generally and vocabulary learning specifically its cognitive dimension is the focus in relation to vocabulary learning.
The research recognises the important role social interaction plays in vocabulary learning (e.g. Ellis, 2010; Rosenthal, 1978), but here the cognitive domain is the focus. Cognitive domain is used here to mean that learning is generally connected with thinking or conscious mental The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 17 2013
processes (e.g. Proctor, 1996, p. 255; Schmidt, 1990; LeFranois, 2000). The view of vocabulary learning adopted in the present research is this rather broadly defined process: the process by which (language) information is obtained, stored, retrieved and used (Schmitt, 1997).This leads us to the next step, how learners can get vocabulary knowledge into memory.
Britton (1971, pp. 12829) states that the idea that learning [as] something you do sitting in a seat is a highly sophisticated notion. He was referring to learning in formal contexts, of course. Learning in formal contexts is the focus here; how EFL students learn English vocabulary, specifically in formal learning contexts. According to Schmitt (2007), vocabulary learning is an incremental process, and therefore a complicated process in any learning context. The incremental nature of vocabulary learning strongly suggests words must be met and used multiple times to be truly learned (Schmitt, 2007, p. 830). The number of exposures though, cannot be easily known, because of factors like how salient the word itself is, how necessary the word is for a learners present needs, and whether the word is met incidentally while pursuing some other purpose or studied with the explicit goal of learning it (Schmitt, 2007. p. 830). Certainly, aspects of word knowledge may require a high number of exposures before permanency is achieved. However, is there something that the learner can do to begin the process of achieving permanency?
Britton (1971) hints at the process of learning well before SLA research began that if something remains in consciousness long enough, it can be modified. This is the opposite of Altman and Grays (2002, in Willingham, 2004) contention. Therefore the act of modifying is not a one-off event, but one that is often done to prevent decay and proactive interference from new information. Getting something to remain in consciousness long enough to actually modify it is referred to as a cognitive process (Malim, 1994) this refers to working memories storage capacity. Many cognitive processes are to do with cognition. Cognition, Malim says, is concerned with conscious rather than unconscious processes. Cognition includes issues like selective attention, perception, memory, language and thought (Schmidt, 1990). This is the framework in which the present research is understood.
2.2.2 Learning vocabulary (for example, words, units) as generally conceived
Drnyei (2005) describes the origins of learning strategy research as beginning in the late 1960s, when information processing theories were applied to memory strategies. Out of this The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 18 2013
research came a broader conceptualization of planful and self-directed cognitive strategies (Drnyei, 2005, pp. 18889), and resulted in learning strategies becoming a hot topic. Attempts to theorise the concept ensued. Those of Schmeck (1988) and Kirby (1988) produced the most far-reaching implications (see Drnyei, 2005). The term strategy purportedly originated as a military term, but used in a non-military sense, the term means the implementation of a set of procedures (tactics) for accomplishing something (Schmeck, 1998, pp. 319). Schmeck conceived the notion that a learning strategy is, in a general sense, a sequence of procedures for accomplishing learning (see Drnyei, 2005, p. 189). The idea developed further in an effort to specify the relationship between strategies, skills and abilities. The argument was that skills are existing cognitive routines for performing specified tasks, and strategies are the means of selecting, combining, or redesigning those cognitive routines (see Drnyei, 2005, p. 189). Schmeck (1988) further defined skills as either knowledge skills or action skills; knowledge skills are used to access stimulus patterns of stored representations and associations and action skills are used to transform input information to obtain desired results. For Drnyei (2005, p. 189), learning strategies offered a unique insight into the mechanisms of the learning process in general and they also represented a significant mutable factor in promoting academic achievement for students. This is the heart of the present research.
While learning is generally defined as being connected with thinking or conscious mental processes (e.g. Proctor, 1996, p. 255; LeFranois, 2000), some of the factors involved in learning the vocabulary of another language ones that might make learning the vocabulary relatively easy or relatively difficult should also be appreciated. According to Paribakht and Wesche (1998), knowing a word is sometimes not an easy task. They also say the complexity and amount of information needed, the knowledge associated with a word, is considerable. The learner must establish relationships between form, meaning and function, both in utterances and in texts; they must establish the elaborate knowledge about individual words so they can be used communicatively; and they must establish an associational network of words. The learner must know the meanings associated with stand-alone vocabulary items, bound items or multiword items, in the case of English. These cluster features represent how the vocabulary items, of English for instance, will mostly appear (as single words, phrases and chunks), and, of course, they will vary from language to language. If the meaning of one of these vocabulary items is already known, there is no need to learn it the meaning, that is. Initially the learner simply links the new language item, whether phonological or orthographic, with its already The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 19 2013
known L2 (second language) meaning, for instance, hello in English is linked to ni hao in Chinese (see Jiang, 2000). Research suggests orthographies tend to be re-coded acoustically (Baddeley, 1964, in Willingham, 2004) auditory input is converted to a visual image. This is a two-way street audio is translated into visual and visual re-translated into audio as demonstrated by Willinghams (2004) acoustic translation experiment. This happens in working memory and is manipulated by the person doing the learning. A factor that can significantly make learning the vocabulary of another language difficult, however, is said to be its distance from the L1, or the learners first language. Nation (2001) refers to this aspect as the additional languages receptive learning burden. This factor is significant for CEMs and their English vocabulary learning because the distance can be said to be significant at the orthographic level (e.g. written), and less so at the phonological level (e.g. spoken).
2.2.3 Receptive learning burden of words
The idea that the vocabulary items of another language can possess a receptive learning burden has been discussed from different perspectives, and is said to play an important role in vocabulary learning (e.g. Nation, 2001). When Nunan (2003) discusses this issue, however, he seems to mean that the existence of word families makes it easier to learn words for instance, learning a base/root word like farm makes any derivations/inflections easier to learn (see Nation, 2001; Jiang, 2000). Derivations are derived words, for instance, farmer, farm+er, whose word class has been changed, for instance, adjective, noun, verb (Schmitt, 2000), whereas inflections are inflected words, for instance, farms, farm+s, farmed, farm+ed, farming, farm+ing, whose grammatical category has been changed, for instance, plural, tense (see Schmitt, 2000). Learning derivations/inflections is presumably easier if the learner knows the base/root word, s/he can then easily learn a derived form like farmer or an inflected form like farming, because learning units is made easier in most cases if the meanings of the single words that make up the multiword units are also understood (Nunan, 2003, p. 131). Put another way, there are fewer affixes (for instance, -er, -ate, -ion, -ably) used to derive or inflect words (Bursuck & Damer, 2010) and should be easy to learn as one learns vocabulary as a whole meaning, the whole word with suffixes and affixes attached (Nation, 2001). But this is not what Nation means by the term receptive learning burden.
Discussing the receptive learning burden of words in relation to single vocabulary items, Nation (2001, pp. 2324) grounds it in this warning, that [vocabulary learning is] very The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 20 2013
demanding, [and] often [an] impossible task to [achieve]. This contrasts sharply, of course, with notions of implicit or unconscious acquisition (e.g. Krashen, 2002). In terms of learning vocabulary items, whether single or multiword, learning burden has to do with the amount of effort required to learn [vocabulary] (Nation, 2001, pp. 2324). Nations general principle is that the more a word represents patterns and knowledge already familiar to a learner, then the lighter its learning burden (Nation, 2001, pp. 2324; see Jiang, 2000). If the L2 sound patterns, for instance, are similar to the L1, L2 spelling patterns are similar to the L1, L1 contains L2 cognates, L2 words appear in similar grammatical patterns to L1, with similar collocations/constraints, then the learning burden is very light, making vocabulary easier to learn (Nation, 2001; Laufer, 2001; Jiang, 2000). So when the distance between L1 and L2 is minimal then the learning burden is light; when the distance between L1 and L2 is great, then the learning burden is heavy (Nation, 2001; Jiang, 2000). The assumption here is that the receptive learning burden of English, for instance, is heavy for Chinese EFL learners because the distance between English and Chinese is great, and therefore may present a significant learning issue for CEMs. However, discussing the learning burden of words only goes so far into the PVL; it is necessary to take a step back and review the process by which words can be entered into the mental lexicon, through the use of VLSs (Jiang, 2000; Ma, 2009).
2.2.4 The formal stage of the development of a lexical entry
Jiang (2000) describes the formal stage of the development of a lexical entry or how words can be entered into a persons mental lexicon in great detail. Ma (2009, p. 57) summarises Jiangs (2000) discussion of the formal stage of the development of a lexical entry as follows:
In the initial stage of learning an L2 word, the learners main task is to connect the L2 word form with an existing meaning in the mind, [whose] form [is/must be] an L1 translation or [an L1] definition.
For clarification, word form equals Nations item knowledge. Besides clarifying the idea of receptive learning, this particular process of learning was initially referred to as associative learning (Malim, 1994) that is, learning which happens when an association or a connection is made, usually between two things (Richards et al., 2002; Jiang, 2000; Schmitt, 2000; Nation, 2001; Oxford & Nyikos, 1989). However, a recent development in understanding this process now sees it referred to as connectionism, meaning 1) information processing takes place The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 21 2013
through the interconnections of a large number of simple units, organised into networks and operating in parallel; 2) learning takes place through the strengthening and weakening of the interconnections in a particular network in response to examples encountered in the input; and 3) the result of learning is often a network of simple units that acts as though it knows abstract rules, although the rules themselves exist only in the form of association strengths distributed across the entire network (Richards et al., 2002; Ellis, 2001; MacWhinney, 2001; Ellis, 2003; Hulstijn, 2001; Harrington, 2001).
Jiang (2000, p. 51) summarises connectionism in relation to vocabulary learning:
As ones experience in L2 increases, stronger associations are developed between L2 words and their L1 translations What these strong associations mean, among other things, is the simultaneous activation of L2 word forms and the lemma information (semantic and syntactic specifications) of L1 counterparts in L2 word use Such simultaneous activation of L2 word form and language lemma information may result in a strong and direct bond between L2 word and the lemma of its L1 translation.
Jiangs account of the initial stage of the development of a lexical entry brings the discussion to a precise understanding of how L2, or English vocabulary in this case, can be learned in the initial stage of learning an L2, or an English vocabulary item.
To conclude this section, Schmitts (1997) classification of cognitive and memory strategies (Table 2.1) are used to focus the discussion at this point. Schmitt (1997) lists cognitive strategies to be, for example, verbal repetition, written repetition, using word lists, using flash cards, taking notes in class, using the vocabulary section in a textbook, listening to audio recordings of vocabulary lists, putting English labels on physical objects and keeping a vocabulary notebook. The strategies (Schmitt, 1997, pp. 20708) are listed below.
Table 2.1: Schmitts 26 memory strategies studying words with a pictorial representation of its meaning grouping words together spatially on a page using the Keyword Method imaging a words meaning using a new word in a sentence remembering affixes and roots connecting a word to personal experience grouping words together in a storyline remembering parts of speech The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 22 2013
associating a word with its coordinates studying the spelling of a word paraphrase a words meaning using a semantic map studying the sound of a word using cognates in study using scales for gradable adjectives saying a new word aloud when studying learning the words of an idiom together using the Peg Method imaging a words form using physical action when learning a word using the Loci Method underlining the initial letter of a word using semantic feature grids using configuration connecting a word to synonyms and antonyms
Section 2.3.1 discusses the development of definitions of VLSs, and section 2.3.2.1 discusses the development of classifications of VLSs.
2.3 Definitions of vocabulary learning strategies a brief outline
Early definitions of LLSs implicitly subsume VLSs within them (e.g. Oxford, 1990; OMalley & Chamot, 1990). Oxford (1990, p. 1) defines LLSs as, steps taken by students to enhance their own learning. She classifies LLSs in relation to the four skills (speaking, listening, reading and writing). OMalley and Chamot (1990, p. 1), working on LLSs at the same time as Oxford, also subsume VLSs within a broad definition of LLSs, defining them as the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information. However, unlike Oxford, OMalley and Chamot (1990) were working on situating LLSs within an information processing theory of cognition and memory, while researchers like Gao (2006) tried to situate LLSs within a critical/political sociocultural perspective. Schmitts (1997) work, however, extends LLSs research by expanding and clarifying Oxfords work with his VLS taxonomy, which brings us closer to a clear definition of VLSs. However, while creating his VLS taxonomy, Schmitt (1997) used Rubins early broad definition of LLSs as a definition of VLSs, which Rubin (in Schmitt, 1997) defines as the process by which information is obtained, stored, retrieved, and used.
This initial foray into the field of VLSs found definitions that situate them within a broader definition of LLSs. This research contends with VLS definitions which seem to be inconsistent, attracting only general agreement (Oxford, 1990; Gu & Johnson, 1997; Schmitt, 1997), and general criticism (Drnyei, 2005), and defined in a very general way. Schmitts (1997) general definition of VLSs is the guiding reference in the present research, and defers to Rubins early The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 23 2013
definition adopted by Schmitt (1997), which sees VLSs as any which affect (Rubins (1987)) rather broadly defined process: the process by which information is obtained, stored, retrieved and used.
2.3.2 Classifications of vocabulary learning strategies a brief outline
With observed inconsistencies in definitions of VLSs, any discussion of their classification may show signs of inconsistency and imprecision (Gan et al., 2004). The present study keeps all general classifications in mind but relies on Schmitts (1997) approach to classifying VLSs because his taxonomy is developed from Oxfords LLSs list, and clarifies which LLSs are specifically VLSs.
Amid the early search for strategies, work progressed on a categorisation framework. OMalley and Chamot (1985) began by categorising LLSs as ranging from the metacognitive (our understanding of our own learning experiences), cognitive (the mental activities in our conscious mind) and the social/affective (our interaction with others and the emotions attached to learning). This categorisation describes a large range of strategies, which at the time challenged researchers to create a more detailed classification. Oxford (1990) seems to be the first to produce one of the most comprehensive LLS classification systems. She developed six categories: memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective and social. Gu and Johnson (1997) appear to be the first to produce a list of VLSs, which includes, for instance, BALLL as a strategy. This is important to the present research because it views BALLL as one of two major factors involved in the PVL.
Schmitt (1997, p. 205), however, believed Oxfords classification system unsatisfactory in categorizing vocabulary-specific strategies. Schmitt believed it was unsatisfactory in several ways: firstly, it failed to describe the kind of strategies used by an individual when faced with discovering a new words meaning without recourse to another persons expertise (1997, p. 205). Secondly, Oxfords categories were a little imprecise, or too general, in that some strategies could easily fit into two or more categories, making their classification problematic (Schmitt, 1997, p. 205). Thirdly, that it was often unclear whether some strategies should be classified as Memory Strategies or Cognitive Strategies (Schmitt, 1997, p. 205). Not all cognitive strategies are employed for the purposes of storage putting words in memory. Schmitt (1997, p. 205) believes that the goal of both [Memory Strategies and Cognitive The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 24 2013
Strategies generally] was to assist recall of words through some form of language manipulation, so some other criteria [for categorizing them] must be invoked for example, consolidating learning, hence Schmitts new category of consolidation strategies (as mentioned in Table 2.1) and discussed next.
Schmitt created his taxonomy of VLSs by subdividing storage or memory strategies (see Table 2.2 below), and in turn further subdivided these into six areas: a) repeating, b) using mechanical means, c) associating, d) linking with prior knowledge, e) using imagery, and f) summarising. He thinks a) and b) are closer to cognitive strategies and c), d), and e) are clearly memory strategies (1997, p. 205). Storage refers to working memory and how it allows the holding of input the incoming information being deliberately focused on for a certain length of time before the student must engage a memory strategy like say the word several times or write the word several times (see Chapter 5, section 5.1.1, Table 5.4). Repeating and using mechanical means are cognitive strategies because their manipulation of information is less obvious, whereas associating, linking with prior knowledge, and using imagery are traditionally closer to mnemonic techniques that organize mental information together or transform it in a way which makes it more memorable (Schmitt, 1997, p. 205).
Schmitt makes a distinction between activities useful for, a) the initial discovery of a words meaning and b) remembering that word once it had been introduced (1997, p. 205). He also says that, when encountering a word for the first time, learners must use their knowledge of the language, contextual clues, or reference materials to figure out the new meaning (Determination Strategies), or ask someone else who knows (Social Strategies) (Schmitt, 1997, p. 205).
Besides learning the meaning of vocabulary (if that is required), there are various other kinds of knowledge about words, such as word class, spelling, collocations, and register that students must learn (Schmitt, 1997, p. 206; see also Nation & Waring, 1997). In addition, determining the meaning appropriate to the situation must normally be the most fundamental task on initial introduction (Schmitt, 1997, p. 205).
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Table 2.2: Schmitts 1997 VLS taxonomy Discovery Consolidation Determination strategies Social strategies Social strategies Memory strategies Cognitive strategies Metacognitive strategies
Thus the additional category of consolidation strategies is born (see Table 2.2), the idea being that once learners have been introduced to a new word, it is worthwhile to make some effort to remembering it using strategies from the Social, Memory, Cognitive, or Metacognitive Strategy groups (Schmitt, 1997, p. 206). While initially criticising Oxfords classification system as unsatisfactory in categorising vocabulary-specific strategies, Oxfords (and others) work inspired Schmitt to develop a VLS taxonomy see Table 2.2. In fact, his taxonomy includes Oxfords and others work on LLSs. For the purposes of the present research, the category names have been expanded to highlight their function and goal.
Table 2.3: Categories and strategies for whole group Categories and strategies Discovery: place to find Determination: initial response Determination: study Consolidation: organisation Consolidation: memorisation Consolidation: review Consolidation: remember Consolidation: production
In addition, Schmitts taxonomy categorises six strategy groups under the two new main strategy groups of discovery strategies and consolidation strategies. Discovery strategies include 9 types of determination strategies and 5 types of social strategies, while consolidation strategies include 3 types of social strategies, 27 types of memory strategies, 9 types of cognitive strategies and 5 types of metacognitive strategies. The present research will use Schmitts taxonomy as a reference when presenting the results in Chapters 5 and 6, and the discussion of the results in Chapters 7 and 8. The discussion now turns to some of the research into VLSs. Table 2.4 below shows the main categories and the associated strategies and a brief about function and how they will be thought of in the present research.
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Table 2.4: Categories and strategies and function Categories and strategies Function Discovery: place to find 1a in textbooks and classroom activities 1b in vocabulary lists arranged in alphabetical order 1c in vocabulary lists arranged by meaning 1d during English conversation with others 1e when reading English materials 1f when singing English songs and watching English movies/TV 1g when using/surfing the internet
Discovery-place strategies are where a learner meets new vocabulary, the specific place (e.g. a textbook, vocabulary lists), such an encounter may not directly result in the new language item being learned, but will trigger a response of some kind, referred to as a determination strategy
Determination: initial response 3a pay no attention to and never go back to it 3b pay no attention to it, but go back to later 3c I try to guess the new words meaning from the context 3d study the words prefixes, suffixes and root word for meaning 3e ask a classmate or teacher for the meaning 3f read a Chinese-English or an English- Chinese dictionary 3g read an English-only dictionary
Determination-response strategies are the initial response to meeting a new vocabulary item (e.g. pay no attention to it and never go back to it), but whose goal is generally to acquire the meaning of the new vocabulary item Determination: study 4a its pronunciation 4b the spelling 4c the prefixes, suffixes and root words 4d the Chinese translation 4e the English explanations 4f the example sentences 4g the way the new word is used 4h the new words relationship with other words 4i the new words part of speech Determination-study strategies concern determining what else to do after encountering a new vocabulary item if not to ignore it (e.g. study its pronunciation, study its Chinese translation), and may or may not result in the new vocabulary item being learned, but will certainly result in added meaning and understanding about it
Consolidation: organisation 5a write it down 5b order the information in a vocabulary notebook 5c make vocabulary cards 5d use the vocabulary lists in the textbooks 5e use a vocabulary list like those in the VOCABULARY 5000 and TEM4EasyTest
Consolidation-organisation strategies concern action taken to order the information about the new vocabulary item (e.g. write it down, make vocabulary cards), which will make it easier to manage and learn
Consolidation: memorisation 6a say the word aloud several times 6b write the word several times 6c look at the word several times 6d memorise Chines-English/English-Chinese lists 6e do vocabulary exercises 6f link the word to similar meaning words or opposite meaning words 6g link the word with already known words and have similarities 6h compare words with similar meaning and study together 6i group words in order e.g. meaning, part of speech 6j place word in a context e.g. sentence, conversation
Consolidation-memory strategies refer to action taken to memorise new vocabulary (e.g. say the word aloud several times, link the new word with to similar meaning words or opposite meaning words), whose goal is to try to permanently store new vocabulary in memory by these various means, and which may be called surface learning but can contribute to deep learning
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6k use the new word to make up a sentence 6l listen to tape/CD recordings of words 6m make up rhymes to link new words together 6n practise new words by acting them out e.g. verbs 6o try to imagine what the new word looks like (in a sentence) 6p draw pictures to illustrate the meaning of the new words 6q try to imagine in my head what the new word looks like 6r remember the prefix, suffix and root word of the new word
Consolidation: review 7a say the new word 2 or 3 times the first day 7b say the new words the next time I read them, and again after that 7c read the new words the first day, but not after that 7d read the new words 2 or 3 times first, then again a few days later, a week later, a month later 7e test the new words on my own 7f test the new words with classmates
Consolidation-review strategies refer to action taken after memorisation has been attempted to deflect decay and forgetting (e.g. say the new word 2 or 3 times the first day, read the new word words 2 or 3 times the first day, then a gain a few days later, a week later, a month later), and contribute to permanency Consolidation: remember 8a remember the new word the way I learned it 8b remember the new word by its meaning (when heard again) 8c remember the new word by its meaning (when read again) 8d remember the new words meaning first, then think about its meaningful parts e.g. prefix, suffix and root word 8e try to remember where I first met the word Consolidation-remember strategies are remembering new vocabulary that has been memorised and reviewed but which doesnt not often get used (e.g. remember the new word the way I learned it, remember the new words meaning first, then think about its meaningful parts, e.g. prefix, suffix and root word), which can contribute to deep learning and permanency Consolidation: production 9a try to use words in speaking and writing 9b try to use idioms when I speak 9c try to think in English with the new vocabulary 9d try having conversations using the new words with English speakers e.g. teachers 9e try to e-chat on the internet using QQ, MSN Consolidation-production strategies are using what has been memorised, reviewed and remembered in social interaction (e.g. try to use words in speaking and writing, try to think in English with the new vocabulary), and deeper process knowledge making it part of an existing system of communication
The reader will notice the emphasis on Schmitts work on VLSs, because Schmitt is considered the most suitable and authoritative on the subject of VLSs. Schmitts VLSs taxonomy is viewed as more useful, practical and less ambiguous than other lists. The present research, while concerned with VLS use, defers to Schmitts definition of VLSs, and delimits the exploration of VLS use to Mas (2009) list of VLSs see Appendix 2.
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2.4 Vocabulary learning strategy research a brief outline
This subsection has two main parts: 1) VLSs in a global context outside China (2.4.1), and 2) the VLSs research in a Chinese context (2.5).
2.4.1 Vocabulary learning strategy research conducted globally outside China
LLSs research began in the 1970s, and was viewed as a move away from teaching-oriented perspectives to an interest in how the actions of learners might affect their language learning (Schmitt, 1997). The view that aptitude governs language learning waned, implying that it must be determined more by learner effort (e.g. Ahmed, 1989; Cohen & Aphek, 1981; Horwitz, 1988; Coady & Huckin, 1997; OMalley & et al., 1985; Oxford, 1990; Pressley et al., 1982; Schmitt, 1997; Stern, 1975).
The following brief research review gives an overview of the field in the areas of: the good learner (Stern, 1975); word list, contextualised words and association tasks (Cohen & Aphek, 1981); keyword method (Pressley et al., 1982); strategy training (OMalley & Chamot, 1985); guessing from context (Coady & Huckin, 1997); and five types of learner (Ahmed, 1989).
The good learner Stern (1975) explored the LLSs of the good language learner and found that they are different from the so-called poor learner. He listed (Stern, 1975, p. 316) no less than ten speculative features that might mark a good language learner: 1) a personal learning style or positive learning strategies; 2) an active learning approach to the learning task; 3) a tolerant and ongoing approach to the target language and empathy with its speakers; 4) technical know-how about how to tackle a language; 5) strategies of experimentation and planning with the object of developing the new language into an ordered system and of revising this system progressively; 6) constantly searching for meaning; 7) willingness to practise; 8) willingness to use the language in real communication; 9) self-monitoring and critical sensitivity to language use; and 10) developing the target language more and more as a separate reference system and learning to think in English.
Today (e.g. Posser & Trigwell, 1999; Ramsden, 2003), the implied idea in the good vs. poor learner, which can be extended to language learning, is that good and poor learners are equally The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 29 2013
motivated, just that one is a poor learner. That is, their motivation for learning is identical but their approach to learning is different (for example, shallow vs. deep learning). Such a view doesnt take into consideration true motivation for learning (e.g. exams (shallow learning) vs. learning for understanding (deep learning)), as well as cognitive and cultural styles, and learning styles particularly.
2.4.1.1 Use of strategies by L2 learners
Word lists, rote repetition, contextualised words, and association tasks Cohen and Aphek (1981) found that beginner learners find word lists beneficial while more advanced learners find contextualised words more beneficial, and if learners are more proficient they can better use associations in recall tasks. Associations are a peg method, in which the L1 word is linked to the L2 word and meaning, and sometimes just to the meaning (e.g. a semantic encoding). Some even find using a word that is dissimilar or sounding different as a peg to help them learn the new word. Nation (1982) found that using a word list was an effective way to quickly learn large amounts of vocabulary. Cohen and Aphek (1981), Nation (1982) and OMalley and Chamot (1985) found word lists and rote repetition, what they called shallow strategies (e.g. exam oriented (shallow learning)) were effective.
Keyword Method Pressley et al. (1982) found the keyword method had a positive long-term effect. The word to be learned is linked to a keyword, one that sounds like the native word (an auditory encoding), but is also an interactive image involving both the foreign word and the native word, so it can also be an imagery link (a visual encoding).
Repetition, manipulation of information and mechanical strategies OMalley et al. (1985) found that repetition was a common strategy, but active manipulation of information (imagery, inferencing, keyword method) was used less frequently. Mechanical or basic strategies, for instance repetition, tend to be used rather than more complex ones like keyword method (Schmitt, 1997).
Guessing from context Coady and Huckin (1997) explored guessing from context, which means guessing the meaning of the new word from the context of its use, for example, in a conversation or in a passage of The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 30 2013
written text. Highlighting its sophistication, guessing, however, involves using background information about previously learned language knowledge and encyclopaedic knowledge.
2.4.1.2 The importance of strategy use
Efficacy of strategies Politzer and McGroarty (1985) warned that the frequent use of a strategy does not necessarily mean that it is a good strategy and that strategy use depends on the context of use. Context of use mostly refers to the social, cultural and political environment in which learning occurs, and includes aspects like the teacher, the students, the classroom, the classroom culture, the learners family support, the social and cultural tradition of learning, the syllabus and curriculum, and the learning materials (Gu, 2003). Cohen and Aphek (1981) found that shallower strategies (for example, rote memorisation) can be more beneficial for beginner learners. Active management of strategies (e.g. metacognitive strategies) is found to be an important factor too. Schmitt (1997, p. 201) argues that evidence from cognitive psychology suggests that, activities requiring a deeper, more involved manipulation of information promoted effective learning (the surface vs. deep approaches to learning (e.g. Prosser & Trigwell, 1999)).
Five types of learner and awareness of learning Ahmed (1989) isolated five types of learner who use certain strategies. Good learners are aware of their learning, [know] the importance of learning words in context, and [are] conscious of the semantic relationships between new and previously-learned L2 words (Ahmed 1989, cited in Schmitt, 1997, p. 202); poor learners, on the other hand, [use] fewer strategies, [show] little awareness of how to learn new words or how to connect the new words to old knowledge (Ahmed, 1989, cited in Schmitt, 1997, p. 202). The research then returns to notions of the good vs. poor learner (Stern, 1975; Prosser & Trigwell, 1999). Sanaoui (1995) found two distinct types of learner, those that structure their vocabulary learning, independently engage in a variety of learning activities, review and practise the target words, and those that do not.
Learner characteristics Chamot and Rubin (1994, p. 774) say that the effectiveness of the strategies used will depend on a number of variables, including proficiency level, task, text, language modality, The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 31 2013
background knowledge, context of learning, target language, and learner characteristics. Cohen and Aphek (1981), OMalley and Chamot (1985), Politzer and McGroarty (1985), Chamot and Rubin (1994) and Schmitt and Meara (1997) found that learner characteristics and learner culture were influential.
Cultural differences Schmitt and Meara (1997) found that different cultural groups sometimes have quite different opinions about the usefulness of various VLSs.
Extent of vocabulary learning strategy use vs. language learning strategy use Schmitt (1997) found that VLSs appears to be used more than other LLSs. He adds that VLS use was more than strategy use for listening comprehension, oral presentation and social communication. Schmitt makes some suggestions for the frequent use of VLSs. Firstly, vocabulary learning tends to be a private activity compared to an oral presentation which is a public activity, so VLS use may be easier and applied more effectively given it is undertaken privately in the learners own time away from the pressure of public performance. Secondly, classroom work reportedly emphasises learning activities over integrated activities (e.g. learning grammar and vocabulary vs. learning culture and pragmatics). Thirdly, VLS use is more than general LLS use because learners tend to place great importance on vocabulary learning.
The importance of learning vocabulary Horwitz (1988) found 25 to 39 per cent of the participants in her study agreed with the idea that vocabulary learning was the most important part of learning a foreign language see Section 2.6 for a discussion. This highlights the importance of exploring BALLL (see Tweed & Lehman, 2002).
Prioritising word learning Nation (1994) found that teaching learners the strategies to deal with low frequency words was more efficient than teaching learners the strategies to deal with high frequency words. He also argued that vocabulary can be considered from a cost/benefit point of view. High frequency words are essential to comprehending language so the cost (time and effort) of teaching them is justified. Teaching low frequency words, on the other hand, is not so beneficial and should be left to the learner. Nation suggests three strategies for dealing with low frequency words: The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 32 2013
guessing from context (e.g. sentences, conversation), using mnemonic techniques (e.g. peg method, keyword method), and using word parts (e.g. prefixes, root word).
Frequency of strategy use Unlike Politzer and McGroarty (1985), Schmitt (1997) found that certain strategies (allegedly the most effective) tended to be used with increasing frequency. Increasing frequency of use suggests the strategy is useful and assists the learner in achieving their learning goal.
Section summary
This section discussed vocabulary learning strategy research in a global context outside China. Research began in the 1970s, and was viewed as a move away from teaching-oriented perspectives to how learner actions affect language learning. In this move, aptitude was no longer viewed as governing language learning. The good learner study of 1975 produced some speculative features that mark a good learner. Some of those features included a personal learning style, an active learning approach, and willingness to practise. The notion of a good versus poor learner appears to have been revisited in later research into surface versus deep learning, the former to do with quantity of knowledge, the later to do with understanding knowledge. However, these are equally important for the language learning, where quantity deeply affects later proficiency. A range of strategies have been explored since the mid-1970s, such as learning from word lists, using mnemonic methods, repetition, and guessing form context. The importance of strategy use was also observed, in terms of the efficacy of strategies, types of learning and awareness, learner characteristics, cultural differences and frequency of strategy use.
The discussion now turns to research into VLS use in China or in a Chinese context.
2.5 Vocabulary learning strategies research in a Chinese context a brief outline
Research on VLSs in a Chinese context has generally focused on strategy use in a formal language learning context, for example, middle school and college/university, and use by non- majors or low achievers (e.g. Gu, 2003; Gu & Johnson, 1996; Law, 2003; Wu, 2008; Hwang, Tsai & Yang, 2008; Sun, 2003; Zhang et al., 2004). These studies have also generally looked at all LLSs subsuming vocabulary learning, or on a small group of strategies (for instance, The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 33 2013
mnemonics, guessing from context) used to learn vocabulary as a whole. Participants in these studies tended to speak Chinese-Cantonese rather than Chinese-Mandarin, as in the present research and come from a background where English plays a larger role. Sometimes speakers native language was not mentioned but assumed to be one of the two. Many Chinese in Hong Kong the site of many studies tend to be speakers of Cantonese rather than Mandarin. The participants in mainland China studies were assumed to speak Chinese-Mandarin (if not clearly stated) since the studies were situated in Beijing, and Beijingers tend to be speakers of putonghua or standard Chinese, such as Mandarin. These studies are important to the present research because they highlight VLS use in China and provide the research foundation.
This section is divided into four subsections: 1) China mainland studies of VLSs as a whole group of interrelated strategies (e.g. Gu & Johnson, 1996) (2.5.1); 2) Hong Kong studies of LLSs (2.5.2); 3) Hong Kong studies of VLSs as a whole group of strategies (2.5.3); and 4) Hong Kong studies of strategies as a small group (2.5.4). Hong Kong studies are categorised as studies in a Chinese context though Hong Kong was ruled by the British for about 100 years (e.g. Evans, 2000; Poon, 2004) and only recently returned to Chinas governance. In Hong Kong, schools teach certain subjects in English and the majority are bilingual.
2.5.1 Studies of whole groups of VLSs in mainland China
Gu and Johnson (1996) investigated the VLSs of 850 sophomore Chinese non-English Majors at Beijing University in relation to learning outcomes. They correlated questionnaire data with results on a vocabulary size test and the College English Test (CET) Band 2, or CET 2. Students reported using a wide variety of VLSs and a multiple regression analysis revealed that self- initiation and selective attention, both classified as metacognitive strategies, proved positive predictors of scores on the CET 2, the College Entrance Test for students wishing to enter university.
In terms of beliefs, they found three were prominent: words should be memorised, acquired in context and learned and put to use. Other VLSs included the following: metacognitive regulation, selective attention and self-initiation; guessing strategies, wider context and immediate context; dictionary strategies, comprehension, extended dictionary strategies and look-up strategies; note-taking strategies, meaning-oriented note-taking and use-oriented note- taking; rehearsal strategies, using word lists, oral repetition and visual repetition; encoding The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 34 2013
strategies, association/elaboration, imagery, visual and auditory encoding, using word- structure, semantic and contextual encoding; and activation strategies.
In terms of outcomes, they matched VLSs against English proficiency and vocabulary size. A belief in memorisation was negatively correlated with both English proficiency (CET 2) and vocabulary size. Visual repetition negatively correlated with English proficiency and vocabulary size. However, the two metacognitive strategies, the two guessing strategies positively correlated with the two dependent variables, while only two of the three dictionary strategies showed a significant correlation, and the other a negative correlation. The mnemonic devices (imagery, visual and auditory) were either insignificantly or negatively correlated with the dependent variables, or thought to be related more to vocabulary size. The vocabulary size was found to be the same for the semantic encoding strategies, while word list learning negatively correlated with English proficiency but significantly correlated with vocabulary size. Contextual encoding, on the other hand, positively correlated with both dependent variables. Vocabulary size, however, was found to positively correlate with English proficiency.
They found seven variables significantly predicted scores on the CET 2. The two metacognitive strategies were found to significantly predict overall English proficiency, including contextual encoding and oral repetition. While significant, visual repetition, imagery mnemonics and a belief in memorisation were found to be negative predictors of overall English proficiency. Self-initiation was found the best predictor of vocabulary size, closely followed by dictionary look-up strategies, extra-curricular time spent on English and intentional activation of new words. Semantic encoding was found to only seem to play a role in predicting vocabulary size (Gu & Johnson, 1996, pp. 65859). Visual repetition/imagery encoding were found to be strong negative predictors of vocabulary size.
This study provides a research foundation for the present research to explore the relationship among VLS use and BALLL in relation to the PVL.
2.5.2 Studies of whole groups of LLSs in Hong Kong
Wus (2008) more recent study of the LLSs of ten Chinese ESL students at a vocational institute in Hong Kong also provides some clues about LLS use in a Chinese context. (Note: Wu studied Chinese ESL students as many schools are bilingual, whereas the current research is done on The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 35 2013
Chinese mainland students where English is learnt as foreign language.) Wu tried to identify the contextual influences on LLS use, as well as the learning strategy use among Chinese students in Hong Kong. The participants were students who had completed their five years of secondary schooling.
Wu focused on the use of metacognitive, cognitive and social/affective strategies. Metacognitive strategies included advance organisation, advance preparation, organisational planning, selective attention, self-monitoring, self-evaluation and self-management. Cognitive strategies included resourcing, grouping, note-taking, summarising, deduction, imagery, auditory representation, elaboration, transfer, inferencing and practising. Social/affective strategies included questioning for clarification, co-operation and positive self-talk. In terms of contextual influences, Wu also found that there was a lack of knowledge of LLSs and a perception that they were too difficult to use (2008, p. 77). He concluded that a number of contextual factors influenced strategy use: the role of English in the society, the education system and Confucianism, as well as low English language proficiency.
Wus study is significant for the present research because it highlights the widespread use of LLSs generally in Chinese contexts and that the belief that certain contextual factors influence strategy use.
2.5.3 Studies of whole groups of VLSs in Hong Kong
Law (2003) investigated 80 Form One, Form Three and Form Four Chinese medium-school students VLSs in a Hong Kong Band 4 secondary school context. Her aims were: 1) to explore and describe VLS use through interviews, a survey and think-aloud tasks, and 2) to identify specific strategies or a combination of strategies likely to promote vocabulary acquisition, both with a view to causing changes in vocabulary teaching as well as promoting strategy training.
The results of Laws study indicate that most students thought vocabulary was particularly important in reading comprehension and writing where they needed to comprehend and produce messages with the use of vocabulary (2003, p. 44). However, difficult, boring and troublesome were words used to describe how they felt about learning vocabulary. Fifteen (15) strategies were highlighted and ranked, and included the following (ranked 1 to 15): 1) guessing from contextual context, 2) using an electronic or online dictionary, 3) learning from the mass The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 36 2013
media (newspapers, TV, radio), 4) taking notes in class, 5) using a conventional Chinese- English dictionary, 6) asking the teacher for the meaning, 7) asking classmates or peers for the meaning, 8) analysing available pictures/gestures, 9) analysing the part of speech (e.g. noun, verb or adjective), 10) analysing prefixes, suffixes and roots, 11) learning words through ICQ online chat or chat room communication [ICQ is an abbreviation for I seek you], 12) learning words from English learning or vocabulary websites, 13) interacting with native speakers (for example, the Native English Teacher online or NET teacher for short), 14) discovering new meaning through group work activity, and 15) singing English songs.
Law (2003) concluded that, while her findings may not be generalisable, the themes generated by her study may well be relevant to students in similar situations. In addition, she believes that the choice and the effects of VLSs are likely to be highly influenced by individual styles, preferences, personalities, and motivations (Law, 2003, p. 84).
Laws study is important because it highlights that choice and effect of strategy use is probably influenced by individual learning style, preference, personality and motivations, which the present research indirectly explores by exploring BALLL.
2.5.4 Studies of small groups of VLSs in Hong Kong
Chan (2000) conducted a comparative study of two instructional methods for mnemonics in an EFL secondary teaching context in Hong Kong using 47 Cantonese-speaking students. The two instructional methods studied were 1) the context method that puts the target word, together with its L1 equivalent and a linguistic context exemplifying its meaning, and 2) a combined context + keyword method, where an acoustic and imagery link is developed between the target word and its referent. Results of the study indicated that the combined context + keyword method proved superior in helping the students retain their learning over time, though more effort and time were required when using this method.
Cheung (2004) investigated the effectiveness of the VLSs of 40 Cantonese-speaking Chinese students in a low band (assumed to be low ranked) secondary school in Hong Kong. The primary aim of this study was to compare the effectiveness of combined context method and the keyword method on vocabulary retention. A secondary aim was to observe and describe the different ways to employ the keyword method. In particular, whether students use L1 or L2 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 37 2013
keywords or whether they create their own.
The results of Cheungs study indicate that of the 18 strategies covered, 5 were used often and were found very useful. They were: I remember words by doing dictations, I link the word to a Chinese word with similar sound, I repeatedly spell the word in my mind, I repeatedly write the word and I repeatedly say the word in my mind. These strategies indicate that these students often used repetition and formed an acoustic link from L1 sound to remember the word. Two strategies least often used and least useful were I group words together in a story line and I use sound and meaning associations. These students seemed to prefer to use cognitive strategies and also seemed not to favor strategies like using associations and imagery in learning vocabulary (Cheung, 2004, p. 46).
Cheungs (2004, p. 47) findings indicated that secondary school students remembered more words when taught with the Keyword Method. However, a question remained about whether it was beneficial or not, since a delayed test one week later indicated that students in the keyword condition had lost approximately 52 per cent of the words, while students in the combined context condition had lost approximately 76 per cent. The results seem to support what many studies said about the keyword method, even though its use was queried by some. Cheungs study demonstrates that the keyword method can be practical in a public classroom context and that it can be beneficial to low achievers. Results also indicate that the keyword method is more conducive to cued recall conditions regardless of L1 or L2 keywords. Cheung says that the proportion of words with L1 keywords and L2 keywords recalled, both L1 and L2 keywords are a better receptive retrieval cue while L2 keyword also enhanced productive performance (2004, p. 53). Cheung believes that a L2 vocabulary size issue remained when using L2 keywords, that these students vocabulary size was not large enough. This was indicated by the fact that no L2 keywords were generated by the students.
Cheung (2004) concludes that the keyword method is superior to the combined context method in enhancing retention. In addition, the combined context method, which was being used at that time, may not benefit low achievers in recall, while the keyword method may benefit recall of vocabulary meanings.
The studies discussed in this section are significant because they highlight the prevalence of some individual strategies (for instance, combined context method and keyword method), and The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 38 2013
their effectiveness in teaching and learning.
Section summary
This review of the research into LLSs generally and VLSs specifically in a Chinese context shows that Chinese EFL students use strategies, but that this research is still in its infancy and at a general level of investigation. The research into LLSs generally and VLSs specifically and strategy use is substantial and suggests that EFL learners use strategies; that strategy use is widespread; and that it produces outcomes for learners. The present research will expand research on VLS use in the university context of CEMs, where research is limited. The research will also discuss VLSs and BALLL and their impact on EVS. The present research relies on the cognitive aspect of language development as it investigates conscious use of VLSs.
Chapter summary
This review of the literature demonstrates that English vocabulary can be described and defined according to its phonological shape (spoken item) and/or its orthographic shape (written item), and can exist as a single item (e.g. people) or multiword item (e.g. farm animal) or even as a large chunk (e.g. the United States of America). These descriptions and definitions of vocabulary are widely accepted and uncontroversial.
There has been significant work defining VLSs by Oxford (1990), Gu and Johnson (1997), and Schmitt 1997, but less agreement on a list or taxonomy that is exhaustive. This seems to be due to questions remaining regarding their nature and existence in cognition. But methods found reliable and valid in other contexts (e.g. outside China) or similar contexts (e.g. China) have been used to extend understanding of this issue. Learning English vocabulary seems somewhat of a challenge for many EFL learners (Nation, 2001). This is due to many factors, including the linguistic distance between the native language and the language being learned, personality factors and preferred learning styles, motivation and the language itself (Drnyei, 2007). If, for instance, the language being learned is similar to the known or native language, less effort seems to be needed to learn it (Nation, 2001).
Besides personality factors, preferred learning styles, motivation and the language itself, learning vocabulary involves the use of novel, consciously controlled strategies (Oxford, 1990; The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 39 2013
Schmitt, 2001). These strategies can range from what learners do when they first meet a new vocabulary item (discovery strategies), whether heard or seen, to what they do when they store it in LTM (consolidation strategies), including retrieving it from LTM (rehearsal strategies), so it becomes part of their mental lexicon (Schmitt, 2001; Jiang, 2000). Strategy use may vary between individuals, including intra-group (within the same/similar groups of EFL learners for example, Chinese EFL learners) (e.g. Gu & Johnson, 1996; Wu, 2008; Yu et al., 2004), and variable inter-group (within all EFL/ESL learners whether, for example, Chinese, French, Italian, Russian) (e.g. Ahmed, 1989; Cohen & Aphek, 1981; Coady & Huckin, 1997; Oxford, 1990).
Why VLS use varies from individual to individual and within and between groups of individuals isnt thoroughly understood, but several factors may account for it. Some of the factors found to cause variable VLS use include those mentioned above: personality differences, preferred learning style differences and differing motivations for learning a language, as well as differing experiences of being taught language in formal learning contexts. One significant factor, however, is individual and/or collective beliefs (for instance, within- group beliefs) about language and language learning (e.g. Benson & Lor, 1999; Horwitz, 1988; Mohamed, 2006; Yang, 1999), which is included in this study. Chapter 3 will review the literature on BALLL.
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 40 2013
CHAPTER 3: BELIEFS ABOUT LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGE LEARNING
3.0 Introduction
This chapter will highlight and discuss selected samples of the literature in two main areas: 1) BALLL outside China (3.1), and 2) the beliefs of the Chinese culture of learning (3.3).
3.1 Beliefs about language learning research outside China
In section 3.1.1 a general definition of BALLL is provided to aid discussion, then 3.2 BALLL is discussed in a general and global sense (e.g. Benson & Lor, 1999; Elbaum et al., 1993; Horwitz, 1988, 1999; Jones & Gerard, 1967; Mohamed, 2006; Seedhouse et al., 2010; Open University, 1975; Yang, 1999), including a discussion of research into the effect of beliefs on vocabulary learning (e.g. Bernat & Gvozdenko, 2005; Gao, 2006; Gu & Johnson, 1997; Oxford & Nyikos, 1989; Wenden, 1987). In section 3.3, the research into the Chinese culture of learning is discussed (e.g. Hird 1995; Li 1984; Ma 2009; Phuong-Mai et al., 2005; Xing 2009). In the section following this, the beliefs of the CCL are discussed in more detail (e.g. Cortazzi & Jin, 1996; Kelen, 2002), in relation to language education in China, and specifically English language education in China (e.g. Chan, 2000; Kee & Wang, 2004; Samuelowicz, 1987).
3.1.1 General definition of beliefs
Beliefs are defined as something that denotes an assertion about some aspect of the world or the relation between two such aspects (Open University, 1975, p. 16): the relation between two categories when neither defines the other (Jones & Gerard, 1967, cited in Open University, 1975). The words opinion, value and ideology have also been used to denote beliefs (Open University, 1975). Opinion is usually a verbal statement of an attitude or belief, value denotes what is believed to be good and desirable, while ideology denotes a cluster of related values, attitudes and beliefs. Mohamed (2006) lists several terms that have been used to define beliefs: explicit propositions, subjectively reasonable beliefs, implicit theories, conceptions, personal theories, judgments, untested assumptions, perceptions, images, maxims. But what needs to be known is how beliefs are defined in relation to language and language learning. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 41 2013
Horwitz (1988, p. 283) pointed out that if beliefs about language learning are prevalent in the culture at-large then EFL teachers should consider that students bring these beliefs with them into the classroom. Elbaum et al., (1993, p. 333; emphasis in the original) found that adults strategy beliefs are fairly-well matched to the demands of the learning task as the learners themselves define it, however, they did not specifically define beliefs either. Yang (1999) found that beliefs and strategy use correlate, and proposes a theoretical construct that centres on metacognitive and motivational strategy use, but still does not provide a definition of beliefs. Horwitz (1999), ten years after her landmark 1988 study, found no unambiguous differences between cultural groups, but did find a number of intriguing group differences. However, she still said that it was premature to conclude that beliefs about language vary by cultural group. Yet despite this conclusion, she did not provide a succinct definition of beliefs. Benson and Lor (1999) bring us closer to a succinct working definition of beliefs in their research into conceptions of language and language learning. They place beliefs in the cognitive realm saying that, learning attitudes and behaviours are conditioned by a higher order of mental representations concerning the nature of language and language learning (Benson & Lor, 1999, pp. 45972). They developed a framework for discussing beliefs in relation to conceptions of and approaches to language and language learning (see Seedhouse et al., 2010). While conceptions of learning were found to be concerned with what a learner thinks the objects and processes of learning are beliefs were found to be concerned with what the learner holds to be true about these objects and processes, holding a certain conception of what they are (Benson & Lor, 1999, p. 464; emphasis in the original). While beliefs can be inferred directly from the data (one collects on beliefs), conceptions must be analysed in a different way. And, most importantly, conceptions and beliefs are related to and responsive to context, but beliefs were found to manifest in the approaches learners took to learning. The present research will employ Benson and Lors definition of beliefs as this seems to be the most comprehensive.
3.2 Beliefs in relation to language and language learning/strategies
The literature review of BALLL begins with the early work of Horwitz (1988) followed by notable research on differing aspects of the phenomenon (e.g. Benson & Lor, 1999; Bernat & Gvozdenko, 2005; Elbaum et al., 1993; Gao, 2006; Gu & Johnson, 1997; Horwitz, 1988; Horwitz, 1999; Oxford & Nyikos, 1989; Yang, 1999). The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 42 2013
Earlier research (Horwitz, 1988) demonstrates that language learners possess beliefs about language and language learning; in particular, EFL students. Horwitz (1988) investigated beliefs about language learning and new university foreign language students. She says that if beliefs about language learning are ubiquitous in any culture, then foreign language teachers must realise that students do not dump them at the classroom door but bring them in (Horwitz, 1988). She also says that while the focus of much research has been learner errors/interlanguage systems with a view to documenting learner hypotheses about the language system theyre learning, the research seems to have ignored conceptions of the language learning task (Horwitz, 1988, p. 283). The discussion will now take a step back and explore the cognitive realm to get a better understanding of beliefs in relation to language and language learning, and then move forward.
The individual beliefs of and definitions of the learning task reflect the demands and opportunities of students in and out of school foreign language learning experience, the type of instruction experienced and experience of living in a foreign language community (Elbaum et al., 1993, pp. 32023). Students definitions of the learning task are related to their beliefs about strategies. Elbaum et al. (1993) surveyed 194 undergraduates at the University of Utah (UU) in order to ascertain previous FLL experience, as well as the type of instruction experienced. Sixteen LLSs were given to ten of these UU undergraduates to classify as either a formal strategy or a functional strategy. They were also asked to select what they believed to be the best combination of strategies from the previous exercise. They were then asked to rate how much they would enjoy using these strategies. In terms of definition of the learning task, they were also asked to read descriptions of four types of knowledge that contribute to communicative competence, and assign a percentage to each type of knowledge reflecting the contribution they felt this knowledge makes to a persons ability to communicate in another language.
Benson and Lor (1999) investigated conceptions of language and language learning. They begin with the cognitivist assumption that learning attitudes and behaviours are conditioned by a higher order of mental representations concerning the nature of language and language learning (Benson & Lor, 1999, p. 459). They also say that preferred learning styles can enable learning, however, certain attitudes and behaviours may be more enabling than others (Benson & Lor, 1999, p. 459). So after reviewing much of the literature on the topic, they drew The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 43 2013
three broad conclusions: 1) it is helpful to distinguish between two levels of representation in learners thinking about their learning: conception and belief; 2) conceptions of learning characterise learners thinking at a higher level of abstraction than beliefs; and 3) conceptions and beliefs are understood as relational and responsive to context.
Dart et al. (2000) explores students conceptions of learning, the classroom environment and approaches to learning, surveying 457 from 22 classes in two metropolitan secondary schools in Australia. Referring to Allan (1996, p. 264), they say that an assertion was made that the critical variable in determining how students learn was their conception of learning. The results of Dart et al.s (2000, p. 267) research suggest important associations between conceptions and approaches to learning. Students holding quantitative conceptions of learning tend to use deep approaches to learning and suppress surface approaches (see Biggs, 1999). Quantitative conceptions tend to view the acquisition of knowledge above meaning (the more you know, the better student you are), while qualitative conceptions tend to view the acquisition of understanding and meaning above quantity of knowledge. The problem with this notion is that it cannot be applied to FLL because quantity is very important to the language learner; especially those with goals of further higher education (for example, postgraduate study in an English-speaking country). A high level of proficiency, even vocabulary range, needs to have been achieved to succeed in this environment, especially in universities in English-speaking countries where the notion of surface vs. deep approaches to learning is being adopted.
Data collected through interviews with 16 first-year Arts undergraduates at the University of Hong Kong between 1996 and 1997, identified three broad domains of belief: beliefs about language learning, beliefs about self and beliefs about the learning situation. Within the domain of beliefs, roughly 14 discrete beliefs were identified, which appear repeatedly in the data (Benson & Lor, 1999, p. 465). The discrete beliefs were categorised under three major headings: work, method and motivation. They concluded that conception does constitute a higher and more abstract order of representation that constrains beliefs (Benson & Lor, 1999, p. 471). This is relevant to the present research because the research explored whether CEMs conceptions of language and language learning, and the process of language learning specifically, constrains their beliefs about how best to learn a foreign language.
Wenden (1987, cited in Horwitz, 1988), however, explored the connection between students theories about language learning and students self-reports of LLSs. In a series of interviews, The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 44 2013
she found that students described language learning strategies consistent with their professed beliefs about language learning (Horwitz, 1988, p. 284). While Wenden explored the connection between students theories about language learning through interviews, she did so in a general language learning sense (e.g. Oxford, 1990), not in a specific vocabulary learning sense (e.g. Schmitt, 1997) like the present research. Furthermore, Wenden explored the connection between students theories and language learning strategies in a Western context of language learning. The present research explores the connection between BALLL in a general Western sense (i.e. Horwitz, 1988) and a specific Chinese sense (i.e. Shi, 2006) in a Chinese context of language learning (China), for comparative purposes (recognising that Western beliefs may have infiltrated the thinking of Chinese students since the late 1970s), thereby making it methodologically different if not conceptually different from Wendens research.
Horwitz (1988) investigated the beliefs of new university students about language learning, and focused on individual learner beliefs and belief systems by student type for instance, foreign or second, country of origin, instructional setting, target language (1988, p. 284). She developed a BALLI (Beliefs About Language Learning Inventory) (Horwitz, 1988, p. 284) to collect data on beliefs in relation to five major areas:
1) difficulty of language learning; 2) foreign language aptitude; 3) the nature of language learning; 4) learning and communication strategies; and 5) motivations and expectations.
Horwitzs findings on BALLI item 4, the nature of language learning, revealed that 67 per cent of her respondents in each of the three language groups (German, French, Spanish) agreed with the idea that learning a language differs from learning other school subjects (1988, p. 288). Her respondents also appeared to have endorsed statements indicative of a restricted view of language learning (Horwitz, 1988, p. 288). Restricted view here means learning for examinations and social status. Twenty-five to 39 per cent of those respondents also appeared to endorse the BALLI item the most important part of learning a language is learning vocabulary (1988, p. 288). This tells us how important vocabulary learning is to foreign language learners and FLL generally, and the significance of it to the present research.
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 45 2013
Elbaum et al. (1993) investigated self-regulated learning in relation to previous learning, strategy beliefs and task definition. They defined self-regulated learning as a type of learning in which individuals personally initiate and direct their own efforts to acquire knowledge and skill rather than relying on teachers, parents, or other agents of instruction (Elbaum et al., 1993, pp. 31820). They thought by the time of their study beliefs had not been considered a factor influencing choice of learning strategy, so they investigated two aspects of beliefs about learning: 1) individuals beliefs about the efficacy of different learning strategies, and 2) individuals definitions of the learning task. Furthermore, Elbaum et al. held the belief that there was a relationship between definitions of the learning task and strategy choice. They also wanted to understand the role of school experience in shaping beliefs about learning (Elbaum et al., 1993, pp. 31820). Learning strategies were investigated from the perspective of two general categories in the literature: formal and functional learning strategies. Formal was defined (Elbaum et al., 1993, pp. 31820) as activities that focus attention on the language itself, such as doing pattern drills or memorizing vocabulary, while functional was defined as activities that use the language for communicative purpose, such as conversing with native speakers or reading foreign language newspapers for news about events in other countries.
However, Elbaum et al. (1993) say that the distinction between formal and functional learning strategies has been equated with the distinction between implicit and explicit learning, but do not say how these concepts have been equated. This suggestion is important because, even though it was made in the early 1990s, it implies that formal learning strategies are implicit learning or unconscious learning. Regarding the meaning of implicit learning, the suggestion that formal learning strategies are unconscious learning strategies is problematic. However, to investigate individuals definition of the learning task, they drew on conceptualisations of learning to acquire communicative competence (Elbaum et al., 1993, p. 320).
The results of Elbaum et al.s (1993, p. 324) study show that no significant group differences were found with regard to participants age, major, or reported average grade received in previous foreign language courses, but group differences did differ with regard to gender. A significant difference was found between groups, for example, TRADONLY [traditional instruction only] group had studied foreign language significantly longer than had individuals in the TRAIN + FLC [training in a foreign language community] group (Elbaum et al., 1993, p. 324). However, results indicate that neither gender, length of previous language study, or the interaction between the two accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in hours The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 46 2013
assigned to functional learning strategies (Elbaum et al., 1993, p. 324).
Elbaum et al. (1993, pp. 32426) also found a correlation between length of previous foreign language study and the two principal dependent variables, but not between length of previous foreign language study and enjoyment. There was significant correlation, however, between previous length of study and hours assigned to functional strategies (Elbaum et al., 1993, pp. 32426). A significant difference was found between the groups assigned hours to functional strategies; the IMMERSION group assigned significantly more hours than the other groups, while the TRAD + FLC (foreign language community) and TRAIN + FLC groups were not significantly different. These results, however, confirmed the hypothesis that individuals with immersion or community foreign language experience would place greater emphasis on functional language learning strategies than individuals with only traditional instruction (Elbaum et al., 1993, pp. 32426). So those individuals who had thought certain strategies more enjoyable had assigned more hours to them, but individuals with more classroom language learning experience had assigned more hours to functional strategies. Differences were not therefore due to perceptions of enjoyment of strategy. It would interesting to find whether CEMs in this study, because they receive traditional instruction, will have assigned less hours to functional strategies.
The results of Elbaum et al.s (1993, pp. 32728) study also indicate significant differences among groups per strategy beliefs. In terms of opportunities to use either formal or functional strategies, results indicated that TRADONLY groups had many opportunities to use formal strategies rather than functional strategies (Elbaum et al., 1993, pp. 32728), while IMMERSION groups were the opposite. TRAIN + FLC and TRAD + FLC groups appeared to be equal with respect to using formal and functional strategies. Also, the TRADONLY group tended to use foreign language for classroom language exercises, while the TRAIN + FLC group tended to use foreign language primarily for conversing with native speakers and the memorisation of religious texts. The TRAD + FLC and the IMMERSION groups, on the other hand, appeared to be equal in terms of using the foreign language for in-class and out-of-class communicative purposes.
Significant differences were found among groups in terms of the relative importance assigned to different types of knowledge (Elbaum et al., 1993, pp. 32829). The IMMERSION and TRAD + FLC groups were not significantly different, and placed less importance on grammar The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 47 2013
than either the TRADONLY or TRAD + FLC groups. Neither of these groups differed from each other. The hypothesis that individuals with either immersion or foreign language community experience would place less importance on grammar than individuals with only traditional instruction (Elbaum et al., 1993, pp. 32829) was only partially confirmed, meaning that the individuals, despite their experience in a foreign language community (for example, TRAIN + FLC), placed as much importance on grammar as individuals with only traditional instruction. Furthermore, the IMMERSION group placed more importance on this type of knowledge [grammar] than any of the other groups; TRAD + FLC individuals placed greater importance on communication strategies (Elbaum et al., 1993, pp. 32829) than the TRADONLY group, while the TRAIN + FLC group, was not significantly different from either the TRAD + FLC or the TRADONLY group, and did not differ significantly from either group. These results appear to confirm the hypothesis that individuals with experience in either a foreign language community or an immersion program would place greater importance on communication strategies than individuals with only traditional instruction (Elbaum et al., 1993, pp. 32829). The TRAIN + FLC group, however, placed less emphasis on knowledge of communication strategies and this was an unexpected finding.
The relationship between individuals strategy beliefs and their definition of the language learning task, and the number of hours that participants assigned to functional learning strategies was correlated with the percentage assigned to each type of knowledge (Elbaum et al., 1993, p. 329). Vocabulary and grammar were negatively correlated, while communication strategies were positively correlated. There was not a significant correlation between sociolinguistic knowledge and hours assigned to functional strategies. These results partially support the hypothesis that individuals who define the language learning task as involving more declarative knowledge tend to advocate more formal learning strategies [implicit learning], while individuals who define the task as involving more procedural knowledge tend to favour more functional learning strategies [explicit learning] (Elbaum et al., 1993, p. 329).
The relevance of Elbaum et al.s findings cannot be overlooked, given the present research focus on BALLL. This research may find that CEMs frequently use more formal learning strategies given the emphasis on declarative knowledge at the research site, and therefore may rely heavily on this approach undermining the value of explicit learning, and underutilising functional learning strategies.
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Oxford and Nyikos (1989) investigated variables affecting choice of language learning strategies by university students. The 1200 participants were equally balanced between male and female university students whose majors were humanities/social and science/education. Using a SILL (Strategy Inventory of Language Learning) to collect data on LLSs and a background questionnaire covering several different variables (for instance, motivation), Oxford and Nyikos found that certain variables do affect choice of LLSs. Five significant general categories emerged from Oxford and Nyikoss (1989) data on strategy use: formal rule- related practice strategies, functional practice strategies, resourceful independent strategies, general study strategies and conversational input elicitation strategies. From their second research question, which variables affect choice of strategy, motivation emerged as the single most influential factor. Other factors included proficiency ratings (including speaking, reading and listening), elective vs. required status of a course, years of study, sex (gender) and major. Motivation was found to have significantly interacted with several of the variables. Other interactions included major and elective vs. required status of a course, and years of study and course status.
Horwitz (1999) investigated cultural and situational influences on foreign language learners beliefs about language learning and at the same time conducted a review of BALLI studies. She says, learner beliefs have the potential to influence both their experiences and actions as language learners (Horwitz, 1999, p. 558). In addition, although beliefs about language learning would seem to be naturally related to culture and situational differences no examination of how they differ across learner groups (Horwitz, 1999, p. 558) had been conducted before her study. She then reviewed the BALLI research to observe any cultural and situational differences across learner groups in the data. She focused on the data from seven studies, which included her earlier 1988 study, Kern (1995), Oh (1996), Kunt (1997), Park (1995), Truitt (1995) and Yang (1992).
While Horwitz (1999, pp. 55871) began with a note that the BALLI was initially designed to demonstrate individuality in beliefs about language learning, it could also be used to look for similarities as well as differences in beliefs among groups of learners. She found that there are similarities and differences across learner groups. For example, there were a number of belief differences among the American groups. Primary differences appeared between the French instructors and American learners, students of Japanese and students of more commonly studied languages. The data showed that, Both groups of French learners and French The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 49 2013
instructors differed on a wide range of belief items having to do with the difficulty of language learning, language learning aptitude, the nature of language learning, the importance of accent, and motivation for language teaming (Horwitz, 1999, pp. 55871). The French instructors and French learners belonged to the same cultural group, which suggests that beliefs were influenced by factors other than culture; perhaps age, stage of learning and professional status.
Horwitz (1999, p. 575) concludes that the data did not point to any unambiguous differences in the groups examined; that in spite of a number of intriguing group differences, it seems premature to conclude that beliefs about language learning vary by cultural group. Within- group differences, in fact, might be accounted for by individual characteristics/different instructional practices. And while there appears to be much commonality across beliefs held by the groups of learners in this study, these BALLI studies did not survey the beliefs of all cultural groups. However, the BALLI has proven validity for identifying learner beliefs. And this is important for the present study because it explores CEMs BALLL in order to observe whether they are strongly those of the so-called Chinese culture of learning or more of so-called Western culture, given that China has opened up to the West and is modernising. These culture- specific beliefs are discussed in more detail later, because as will be seen, Shi (2006) found significant differences between Chinese students beliefs and Horwitzs participants. And individual differences and instructional practices for the CEMs in the present study may, in fact, prove a significant finding.
Gu and Johnson (1997) investigated the VLSs and language learning outcomes of 850 sophomore non-English majors at Beijing Normal University. The participants had experienced six years of English language education prior to participating in the study. Data was collected using a questionnaire designed by Gu and Johnson specifically for the study. The questionnaire was administered in the native language of the participants, and though not stated was presumably Mandarin. The questionnaire contained three sections: personal data, beliefs about language learning and VLSs. The three beliefs were vocabulary should be memorised, acquired in context, and learning vocabulary and putting it to use. They found that the beliefs that vocabulary should be memorised received a higher score than the beliefs acquire vocabulary in context and learning vocabulary and putting it to use. They also suggested that beliefs are strategies. While the idea that beliefs are a strategy is appealing, it isnt a strong argument because a belief is not protocol for achieving a goal (e.g. the way to do that); a belief is a statement about what you believe to be true. Believing that vocabulary should be acquired or The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 50 2013
learned in context does not tells us exactly how the learner goes about learning vocabulary in context, though it may hint at it.
Yang (1999) investigated the relationship between EFL learners beliefs and learning strategy use. Yang surveyed 505 Taiwanese university students about their beliefs. Yang uses a combined BALLI and SILL, plus Yang-designed questions. Yangs participants had experienced at least six years of English language education, including their first year of university. A factor analysis revealed that at least four factors represented participants beliefs about language learning:
1) self-efficacy and expectation about learning English; 2) perceived value and nature of learning spoken English; 3) beliefs about foreign language aptitude; and 4) beliefs about formal structural studies.
About 80 per cent of Yangs participants held the belief that they would learn to speak English very well. About 32 per cent held the belief that they had a special ability to learn foreign languages. About 22 per cent held the belief that Chinese were good at learning foreign languages. About 50 per cent judged English to be of medium difficulty to learn, 37 per cent designated it an easy language to learn, while 2 per cent designated it as either very difficult or very easy to learn. The difficulty rating was correlated with expectations and commitment to the learning task, so easy to learn correlated with expect to speak English very well, but those who thought English was difficult to learn invested less commitment in the venture. The remainder of the discussion of Yangs findings will be paraphrased as much as possible given the extent of the findings.
In terms of self-efficacy and expectation about learning English, Yangs participants indicated that they had a strong sense of self-efficacy about learning English (1999, p. 522). In terms of the perceived value and nature of learning spoken English, there was a general belief in the importance and usefulness of speaking English and a strong interest in learning spoken English (Yang, 1999, p. 522). In terms of beliefs about foreign language aptitude, participants generally endorsed the concept of special abilities for learning (Yang, 1999, p. 522). In terms of beliefs about formal structural studies, more than half of the participants, those influenced by traditional teaching methods, held strong beliefs about it and agreed that the most important The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 51 2013
part of learning a foreign language is learning vocabulary (Yang, 1999, p. 522). Some thought grammar was the most important, while some thought translation and memorizing language were important. Some even rejected the formal structural approach.
Yang (1999) applied a factor analysis to the results of the SILL which revealed six categories of LLSs. They included 1) functional practice strategies, 2) cognitive-memory strategies, 3) metacognitive strategies, 4) formal oral-practice strategies, 5) social strategies and 6) compensation strategies. As discussed above, beliefs are statements about the things or the relations between things that the learner believes to be true, of language and language learning particularly; however, they do not reveal the actual process/the protocol followed by the learner to affirm the belief as true or valid. Furthermore, beliefs can change when the learner enters a new and different cultural learning context and finds the cultural pressure to adhere to a particular belief isnt there anymore. Yangs findings are compared with the findings of the present research in Chapter 7.
Gao (2006) studied changes in Chinese students use of learning strategies from a sociocultural perspective. An analysis of 14 Britain-based Chinese learners experiential [interview] narratives interviews he conducted for his 2002 Masters dissertation lent tentative support for the hypothesis that the popular language learning discourses, assessment methods, and influential agents that had been influencing (Gao, 2006, p. 55) frequency of use and choice of strategy while getting an education in China either disappeared or were undermined by the new sociocultural educational setting sometime after settling in Britain.
Gao (2006) found that the 14 Chinese learners narrative accounts of their strategy use while based in China revealed some interesting things. For example, these students had been subject to a predominant learning discourse that had conceptualized English as a means or tool to pursue social promotion in mainland China (Gao, 2006, p. 58). Gao said this discourse of English as a tool was particularly useful in mobilizing their learning effort and directly associated with the frequency and intensity of strategy uses while in China. Strategy use was found to be closely related to popular perceptions of exams under this tool discourse (Gao, 2006, p. 58). Mediating or influencing agents, including teachers, learning experts and parents, in China had advised these learners to pursue language learning in relation to exams, as well as advising them to engage in strategy use oriented to exam settings.
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Focusing only on mediating agents in China, Gaos procured narratives revealed much about the beliefs about language learning of mediating agents in China. For instance, mediating agents had directly or indirectly caused these Chinese learners to adopt certain strategies, for instance, rote memorization (Gao, 2006, p. 62). The participants are quite clear on this issue, saying the teacher made them recite all classroom texts, suggesting it was compulsory, or that an expert suggested they could learn words through at least seven revisions aloud of a word. With regard to family members as a mediating influence, some students parents were English language teachers. These parents encouraged their children to learn English while young and sent them to private providers of English language education. These learners experienced a certain type of mediating-agent influence while living in China; however, on relocating to Britain, the mediating agents influence disappeared or was undermined by the new sociocultural educational setting and so the learner was therefore forced to devise new ways of learning to compensate, because the old ways werent as effective in achieving academic goals.
This last point raises an important question about the efficacy of learned beliefs and behaviours in China if they must be changed in order to achieve academic goals in a new cultural setting. This does not question the value of the beliefs and behaviours in the home setting, just queries why they seemed ineffective in another setting.
Section summary
This discussion tells us that investigations into beliefs about language and language learning since Horwitzs (1988), investigations into beliefs in relation to LLSs specifically, VLSs generally, as well as research into beliefs about language and language learning in relation to other factors has been substantial (e.g. Benson & Lor, 1999; Bernat & Gvozdenko, 2005; Elbaum et al., 1993; Gao, 2006; Gu & Johnson, 1997; Horwitz, 1988; Horwitz, 1999; Oxford & Nyikos, 1989; Yang, 1999). All of this research affirms that beliefs about language and language learning are strongly linked to and can affect language learning strategies (LLSs) generally, vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs) specifically. There is limited research on VLSs and BALLL and their influence on vocabulary learning, which this thesis addresses. In the next section 3.3, the discussion of beliefs progresses but narrowly focuses on beliefs about language and language learning in a Chinese context; specifically, the beliefs of the Chinese culture of learning. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 53 2013
3.3 Chinese culture of learning beliefs about language and language learning and English language education/learning in a Chinese context
Previous research has affirmed the importance of learning culture to BALLL. The discussion of research into the nature of Chinese culture of learning beliefs about language and language learning begins with early research (e.g. Hird, 1995) into Confucian beliefs about language learning and then includes later notable research (e.g. Phuong-Mai et al., 2005; Ma, 2009; Xing, 2009).
An early discussion by Hird (1995, p. 23) on the nature of Confucian beliefs about language learning began by characterizing it as a Chinese tradition of language study involving a meticulous analysis in a textbook-based approach, and included a systematic unlocking of the meaning of each fragment of language. Other characterizations included the following: perfection through a painstaking undertaking of every language item; no personal creations and interpretations; care and certainty favoured above quantity and experimentation; rote memorization; passive classroom learning; teacher-centred approach; social distance and formality. A principle of learning sparingly but well, however, was thought to place a particular constraint on language output, the obligation to be error-free. Such an approach to language learning would appear 1) to place a significant teaching burden/constraint on Chinese English language teachers who are strongly aware of a personal responsibility they have for their students fortunes in English courses, and 2) a significant restricted learning burden/constraint on students of English language.
In a detailed discussion by Phuong-Mai et al. (2005) of the Confucian heritage cultures (CHC) collectivism in relation to education, teaching and learning, group learning was highlighted. A study of group learning within the CHC reveals the inter-dependency of CHC students when it comes to learning. Such strong inter-dependency suggests that autonomous/independent learning might be a challenge for many Chinese students. However, the preferred learning styles in relation to teaching of CHC learners appeared to be didactic and teacher-centred. Fourteen per cent of CHC respondents in one study had indicated that they prefer to be spoon- fed by the teacher while 21 per cent of CHC respondents in the same study had indicated that they learn well when most of the information is given by the teacher. Other studies (Samuelowicz, 1987, Chan, 1999, cited in Phuong-Mai et al., 2005, p. 407) reveal that CHC The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 54 2013
respondents/learners are more likely to depend on the teacher and not on themselves in order to engage in group learning.
The Phuong-Mai et al. (2005) study of the nature and character of CHC inter-dependency learning seem to imply that the other 86 per cent/79 per cent of CHC learners engage in independent learning when not engaged in such inter-dependent/group learning. While the findings may characterise CHC learners as having a strong inter-dependency condition or prefer group learning over individual/autonomous learning, another reading of the findings suggests something else, if Phuong-Mai et al.s opening statement about the experience of an American teacher called Samantha Burk is any indication. Samantha had assigned some group work activity to her students, and two weeks later got the group work assignments back. She was stunned to learn that in two of the groups, students had paid money to one of the members of the group, who did all of the assignments for all the members of that group. Another interpretation of the findings then, might be one that suggests that the behaviour of Samantha Burks students is rather more common and widely spread than might appear from her lone anecdotal. In other words, even when faced with individual learning, though passive, learning in the classroom, students strong inter-dependency condition might result in students more often than not relying on one or two of the best students in the classroom group study groups are in fact a microcosm of the larger macrocosm of classroom group (see Ma, 2009) to do their work for them; even going so far as to pay them to do it for them. This, in fact, has also been my observation and experience as an EFL teacher in China.
This situation is alluded to in Phuong-Mai et al.s (2005) discussion of student-student relationships. It would appear that in a learning group (for instance, classroom group), power distance does affect (2005, pp. 40708). A chief characteristic of a Confucian society is its unequal relationships, and patriarchal orientation. The father is the leader of the family, the teacher is the leader of the school, and the class monitor [a student] is the leader of a classroom. There are strong hierarchy rules in a Confucian society: If there is a group, there is a leader (2005, pp. 40708). In a collectivist society like China, as opposed to an individualist society like the U.S.A., people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups which continue to protect them throughout their lifetime in exchange for unquestioning loyalty (2005, pp. 40708).
More insights can be gleaned from Phuong-Mai et al.s (2005, pp. 40910) discussion of The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 55 2013
whether collectivism can actually act as cultural supportive background for group-working success. Harmony seems to be viewed as a virtue in a collectivist classroom; therefore, confrontations and conflicts should be avoided at all cost. Losing face seems to be viewed as a very serious issue, apparently, and can result in serious personal damage, so it too should be avoided at all cost. Fear of losing face, which appears a belief of CHC students, tends to constrain students behaviour in the classroom: remain silent in the classroom to avoid being thought of as silly or to avoid humiliating others. Saving face is more important than telling the truth, apparently. The silent way in the classroom appears to satisfy giving face, saving face, and asserting face all in the same approach. A CHC students objective appears to be to maintain harmony.
The above discussion highlights the significance of the present research, in that beliefs can have a strong influence on learning, English vocabulary learning specifically, in a Chinese context, but again, though they may serve a particular cultural predilection for certain cultural behaviours in China, but not be so useful in a non-Chinese context.
The above discussion of the nature and characterization of apparent Confucian constraints on learning behaviour is also referred to as the Chinese culture of learning (CCL). One prominent discussion of the CCL describes it as being associated with traditional beliefs and attitudes to teaching and learning, often under the influence of the specific culture of a group (Ma, 2009, pp. 24346). Such a description seems to agree with another prominent description by Cortazzi and Jin (1996, p. 169, cited in Ma, 2009, p. 243):
[] behaviour in language classrooms is set within taken-for-granted frameworks of expectations, attitudes, values and beliefs about what constitutes good learning, about how to teach or learn, whether and how to ask questions, what textbooks are for, and how language teaching relates to broader issues of the nature and purpose of education.
This particular description or framework for the taken-for-granted norms [the term used here after to refer to the framework above] has been referred to as the hidden curriculum. While the CCL appears to be subject to the influence of the socio-economic environment within which it exists, understanding it means understanding the learning process and learning outcome of language learning (2005, pp. 40708). Hird (1995) and Phuong-Mai et al. (2005), above, have discussed in detail some of these characteristics. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 56 2013
The taken-for-granted norms, Ma (2009) said, are heavily rooted in culture and tradition. This appears to be particularly true for the Chinese culture of learning (CCL). The CCL is said to have been deeply influenced by both Confucianism and Taoism apparently, more than 2000 years of influence. The ideas of Confucianism and Taoism are said to permeate the Chinese in China, influencing their daily behaviour, their thinking and attitudes (2009, pp. 24344). They have been passed down from generation to generation, and have come to be known as the so-called Chinese orthodoxy. And this orthodoxy persists in influencing the lives of the Chinese in China despite the influx of Western philosophies and ideologies. The influence can be seen, apparently, in the conception of language, assumptions about language learning, and the way language learning should be conducted in the classroom (2009, pp. 24344).
Ma (2009) said the Chinese conception of language has been found to differ from the Western conception of language. The Chinese conception is said to be prescriptive and pragmatic while the Western conception is said to be descriptive and semantically motivated (2009, pp. 24344). This conception of language, therefore, assumes that language can be learned and taught in a prescriptive manner (2009, pp. 24344). Such a conception also defines the role of the teacher, and indirectly, the student: the teacher prescribes the correct words, their correct uses; the teacher corrects the students errors (2009, pp. 24344). This is a Confucian view of the teacher no less, and indirectly, the Chinese student. A fundamental assumption of this conception of language is that (italics mine) language is the means by which right action is achieved or a system of appropriate discursive acts (2009, pp. 24344). This assumption raises an important question: Were Samantha Burks students (and mine) behaving like they possessed a language which helps them achieve right action? If they were behaving according to their cultural expectation in China, they would, yes. But what effect does this behaviour have on the learning of a foreign language; the learning of English vocabulary, specifically?
While Kelen (2002) purportedly approaches his discussion of the CCL from a philosophical point of view, Hu (2002, cited in Ma, 2009, p. 245) purportedly approaches his discussion of the CCL from a more education-oriented point of view. Hu (2002) observes a series of features in the CCL which he believes to be innate:
1) A high respect for education 2) That education involves gaining knowledge/developing moral qualities The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 57 2013
3) Education is perceived as a process of increasing knowledge (rather than constructing it) 4) An insistence placed on keeping hierarchical yet harmonious relationships between the teacher and the students 5) That education can be achieved by individual effort (including determination and will power) regardless of intelligence/ability/family background
Ma (2009, p. 245), however, says these traditional Chinese educational features are heavily rooted in Confucianism. Such a view of education is closely linked with the close bond between knowledge and power (2009, p. 245).
Ma (2009) concludes her discussion of some of the consequences of the CCL perceptions and practice with the Cortazzi and Jin (1996, cited in Ma, 2009, p. 246) summary, which is reproduced here to conclude this section:
Chinese approaches to language teaching have a long-standing concern with mastery of knowledge, which is focused on the four centers of the teacher, the textbook, grammar and vocabulary. Knowledge of English is transmitted through the teacher, as an authority, a source of knowledge and an intellectual and moral example. This knowledge is also in the textbook, which is a key element in Chinese learning; texts are taught and learned in exhaustive detail. They are often memorized. Grammar and vocabulary are further elements of knowledge which are explained and transmitted. Students engage heavily in memorizing hundreds, even thousands, of words each year.
Section summary of the CCL beliefs about language / language learning
The discussion of the so-called Chinese tradition of language study found it defined, characterized and discussed extensively in the literature (e.g. Chan, 1999; Cocroft & Ting- Toomey, 1994; Cortazzi & Jin, 1996a; Cortazzi & Jin, 1996b; Hansen, 1999; Hird, 1995; Hofstede, 2003; Hu, 2002; Wong, 2004; Kelen, 2002; Li, 1984; Ma, 2009; Phuong-Mai et al., 2005; Samuelowicz, 1987; Ting-Toomey, 1988; Xing, 2009). The characterization of Confucian beliefs is viewed by some as a constraining force on language learning (Hird, 1995), while others speak more positively of Confucian beliefs about language and language learning (Gu, 1996). A strong interdependency condition appears to be instilled in Chinese language The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 58 2013
learners (Phuong-Mai et al., 2005); which sometimes has a positive effect on language learning or a negative one. That is to say, that while Chinese education invokes a strong cooperative principle in a Chinese learning context, the strong interdependency is positively applied in language learning contexts; in particular, English language education in China (e.g. Cocroft & Ting-Toomey, 1994; Hofstede, 2003; Phuong-Mai et al., 2005; Ma, 2009). This Confucian way of conducting language education, including English language education, is called the Chinese culture of learning (CCL) (Cortazzi & Jin, 1996b; Ma, 2009).
The CCL is also referred to, in perhaps a negative sense, the hidden curriculum (Ma, 2009, pp. 24344). And understanding it means understanding the learning process and learning outcome of language learning (2009, pp. 24344). The hidden curriculum in turn is referred to as a Chinese orthodoxy. This orthodoxy is said to persist in influencing the lives of the Chinese in China despite the influx of other philosophies (Western philosophies and ideologies). The influence can be seen, apparently, in the conception of language, assumptions about language learning, and the way language learning should be conducted in the classroom (2009, pp. 24344). This conception of language and language learning is a prescriptive one, describing not only how Chinese language should be taught in the classroom but how it should be learned by Chinese students (e.g. Kelen, 2002), and such a prescription seems also applied to English language teaching and learning in China (e.g. Chan, 1999; Cortazzi & Jin, 1996b; Hansen, 1991; Hofstede, 2003; Hu, 2002; Samuelowicz, 1987; Ma, 2009). This situation may be a constraining factor for Chinese EFL learners both in the way they experience ELT (English language teaching) in China and how they should go about learning English since the Confucian view of education is closely linked with the close bond between knowledge and power (e.g. Ma, 2009, pp. 24546; Phuong-Mai et al., 2005), strong hierarchy rules, and an orthodoxy that persists in influencing the lives of the Chinese in China.
Hence to understand learning and teaching in the Chinese context, research into the Chinese culture of learning is an essential first step in the aims to explore the extent to which beliefs of the CCL permeate the thinking and learning behaviour of a group of Chinese EFL learners who use VLSs in the overall process of English vocabulary learning for mainly academic purposes. As stated before, the gap in the knowledge regarding the process of English vocabulary learning in a Chinese context, will be in identifying a relationship between general BALLL/CCL beliefs and VLS use and the subsequent effect these working together have on overall English vocabulary size. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 59 2013
Chapter summary
The review of the literature of language learning beliefs suggests they are universal. That is, they can be found in every culture (e.g. Horwitz, 1987). Such universal beliefs have been found in several diverse cultures as well as shared within the same culture, for instance, intra- group. However, beliefs tend not to be particularly contrastive intra-group. Though they have been found in shared intra-group contexts, they tend not to have a specific historic-cultural origin in such contexts (e.g. Horwitz, 1987). That is, the beliefs appear to originate from a general, global culture of language learning rather than a specific historic-culture of learning, for instance, Anglo-Saxon. Beliefs found in some cultural groups, however, appear to share a single historic-cultural origin, for instance, Asian cultures (e.g. Cortazzi & Jin, 1996; Shi, 2006). One cultural group in particular which appears to share a single set of beliefs about language and language learning that originates from an historic-cultural origin is the Chinese in China (e.g. Ma, 2009; Shi, 2006; Xing, 2009).
The Chinese in China generally share a set of beliefs about language and language learning that originates in Confucianism and Taoism (e.g. Phuong-Mai et al., 2005; Ma, 2009; Xing, 2009). The beliefs of Confucianism view language and language learning in a pragmatic and prescriptive sense (e.g. Ma, 2009). In a pragmatic sense, language is viewed as something that can lead one to achieve the right action, for instance, speaking Chinese Mandarin can lead one to the right action. In a prescriptive sense, language is viewed as a simple set of discursive acts, for instance, every utterance made by one person has its counterpart in what is uttered by another. However, for Chinese, at least, what one says must have its correct corresponding utterance in someone else, not just any utterance; it must be the right utterance, for example, face-saving activity. Thus behaviour will conform to the Chinese culture of learnings conception of language as a set of discursive acts (if one adheres strictly to Grices (1975) conversational maxims, for instance), which has significant consequences for learning a foreign language like English (in which Grices conversational maxims can be regularly flouted).
Learning the English language according to the norms of Confucianism may be rather novel. And novel here means learning English in an untypical or unusual way. For instance, learning English in China will not be the same for French learners of English (e.g. Noels et al., 2001). The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 60 2013
The French in Canada learn English according to some generalized collective European ideals (e.g. Commission of the European Communities, 2004), whereas the Chinese in China learn English according to some non-generalized ideas of Confucianism, or generalized to all Chinese. Therefore, English language learning tends to be contrastive from a French, European context to a Chinese, Confucian context.
Confucianism, therefore, may influence Chinese students learning of English. Research on the influence of Confucianism on Chinese students learning of English isnt extensive, less than on other cultural groups. And the findings tend to be mixed; neither completely negative nor completely positive.
Teaching and learning English vocabulary in a Chinese Confucian oriented context may be quite customized. Customized teaching/learning here means that teaching English vocabulary tends to apply Confucianism or Chinese culture of learning beliefs about education/learning in every English language education context in China, whether private or public. While studies suggest that English vocabulary learning can be characterized as involving a large range of language learning strategies, the picture of the process of English vocabulary learning through vocabulary learning strategy use in Chinese context is still far from being solid. One estimate (see Cortazzi & Jin, 1996) put English vocabulary learning for Chinese students of English at hundreds, even thousands of English vocabulary items every year and use a range of strategies to learn it. Thus the present study extends the research on VLSs and BALLL in the Chinese context, for which research is not extensive. It specifically focuses on university vocabulary learning of Chinese English Majors, which is a context overlooked.
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CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES
4.0 Introduction
The first part of this chapter (4.1) outlines the approach or methodological framework informing the research design (for example, mixed methods questionnaire and interview), the theoretical perspective (4.2.1) and the rationale behind the questionnaire and interview method (4.2.2.1) in relation to the aims of the present research. The research design and the administration of the data collection instruments (4.6), is discussed in the second part, along with a discussion of the data collection methods, the questionnaires (4.6.1.2 to 4.6.1.4) and interview method (4.6.1.6), to show the link between the research design and the research questions. This discussion includes data management and data analysis (4.7.2.1 to 4.7.2.6). A summary of the intended outcomes completes the chapter.
4.1 Methods and selection of methods
The focus of the present research is the process of English vocabulary learning in a Chinese context. This automatically implies a path of some sort, or at least, a starting point and an end point. The starting point is the moment a foreign language learner encounters a new piece of vocabulary belonging to the foreign language and then behaves in such a way as to learn that new piece of vocabulary. The end point of the process, viewed as achieving the goal of the learning process, is that which is learned. To better understand this process in a FLL context, the research firstly explored CEMs VLS use; secondly, their BALLL; and thirdly, their EVS. Several LLS taxonomies will be referenced (e.g. Gu & Johnson, 1996; Oxford, 1990), some explicitly; Schmitts (1997) taxonomy is the primary VLSs reference; general BALLL are explored with reference to Horwitz (1988); and specific CCL beliefs explored with reference to Shi (2006). EVS is explored using Nations (2001) VST.
Selection of the data collection instruments can be viewed as an extension of the research questions. According to Nunan (1992), the research questions by their very nature suggest which method(s) of data collection to use to collect the necessary data. For example, the construction of relationships in interview sessions cannot be done with a questionnaire.
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However, this immediately raises some questions about data collection methods and their suitability to highlighting an almost invisible behaviour, vocabulary learning, given that it occurs inside the head of the learner (see Illeris, 2007; Phye & Andre, 1986), whether spontaneously as some researchers argue (e.g. Franceschini, 2003), or consciously as many researchers have found through empirical research, through the use of some cognitive tools (e.g. Anderson et al., 2001; Pan, 2009; Phye & Andre, 1986). Therefore, any investigation of cognitive activity is going to be indirect. Thus any exploration of cognitive behaviour uses indirect methods to collect data on what learners do in their heads when they learn something (see Macaro, 2006); in this case, vocabulary.
4.1.1 Self-reports
According to Chamot (2005), self-reports can provide the best picture of the mental/cognitive processes involved in a learning task. Self-reports can be defined as respondents generalised statements, including the answers to multiple choice questions on a questionnaire about his/her learning behaviour and descriptions of what he/she believes about him/herself (McDonough & McDonough, 1997). The self-report instruments used to observe strategy use tend to be the questionnaire, think-aloud, written diary and interview.
According to Chand (2007), there are two types of self-reports. One is when a learner is instructed to use a particular strategy or set of strategies and asked to report what happened when the strategies were used. The second type is when a learner is simply asked to report on the strategy or set of strategies being used when engaged in a task but where the strategy use is not predetermined by the researcher/instructor. The present research elicited the second type of self-reports from learners/participants, but predetermined the questions (for example, questionnaires, interview questions); the second type was collected because the first type is associated with experimental research.
Zhang (2003), for instance, conducted a review of the data collection instruments used in LLS research up until 2002 (it is assumed that no new data collection methods have been added to this list): questionnaire, interview, think-aloud, diary and experiment. Of these, the presented research used the questionnaire and interview method, because of 1) expediency, working within a time constraint and the busy schedules of the participants, and 2) because it can conveniently gather useful information when time is a factor and is a common form of data The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 63 2013
collection to understand the vocabulary learning process in terms of VLS use and beliefs. Apart from the traditional methods, researchers are now using technology to collect data for example, online questionnaires and interviews (for instance, James & Busher, 2009).
4.2 Mixed methods design
4.2.1 Theoretical framework
The present research is informed by a combination of positions, the most prominent being the constructionist and advocacy/participatory paradigms and a critical theory perspective (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2006). The research uses a mixed methods approach; it uses surveys, interviews, case study and grounded theory. The research recognises that all methods have limitations, but that the results from one method can inform the other. The data collection was sequential, in that quantitative data was collected first, then the qualitative data. Creswell and Plano Clark (2006, p. 21) argue a research problem is an issue or a concern that needs to be addressed. A specific research approach is often called for if a concept or phenomenon needs to be understood because little research has been done on it (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2006, p. 22). The specific type of mixed methods design chosen is the quantitative-to- qualitative, discussed by Creswell and Plano Clark (2011).
4.2.2 Definition of mixed methods
Generally speaking, a mixed methods approach is one in which elements of quantitative and qualitative approaches are used (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2006; Richards et al., 2012). This may mean using both quantitative and qualitative points of view in data collection and analysis methods. Such is the case in the present research.
The present research used questionnaires to collect quantitative data, which was collected prior to the qualitative data. Administering the questionnaires first was more convenient because the participants were students with a busy course program and their availability depended on when they were free to participate. The interviews were also conducted later as a result of participant availability. My interest was in collecting quantitative data first and, based on the design, interview questions were used to probe further answers to the questionnaire. Participation in the interviews was different time-wise, because they were required to make more time than for The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 64 2013
the questionnaires. Participation also depended on the reliability of the online communication tool QQ. At the research site, while audio was generally available on QQ, video was not, and vice versa. The research could not be conducted face to face because participants werent available during the fieldwork.
Research exploring language learning in a classroom context or formal learning context tends to employ a qualitative or quantitative design or a combination of both (Best & Khan, 1989). The difference between qualitative and quantitative approaches lies generally in observing and asking (qualitative) or counting and measuring (quantitative). If observing, as in ethnography, the researcher watches people doing whatever it is they do, asks them questions about what they do and aims to provide a thick description of the activity and people involved (see Fontana & Frey, 2005). If the researcher prefers to count the number of times an incident occurs or to measure the time it takes to complete a task, then quantitative research is undertaken. The present research design, in fact, satisfies one of Grotjahns (1987, p. 59-60) mixed forms paradigm number six in which the study:
1) is a non-experimental design; 2) collects quantitative and qualitative data; 3) applies an interpretive analysis of the data (e.g., thematic analysis).
The present research is exploratory, mixed methods, interpretive and collects data on: 1) VLS use; 2) frequency of VLS use across four grades; 3) BALLL, particularly, the beliefs of the CCL; 4) the EVS of CEMs.
The benefits of using mixed methods are the ability to generate and test theory, to answer complex research questions and the possibility of corroborating findings (DeCuir-Gunby, 2008).
The use of mixed methods the present research followed the tradition of previous research in exploring VLSs and beliefs. Table 4.1 highlights some LLSs researcher(s), their method(s) of data collection and the factor they explored.
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4.2.2 Benefits and influence of the self-report questionnaire and interview method
4.2.2.1 The questionnaire method
Some of the scholarly explorations into LLSs/VLSs were highlighted in Chapter 2: Literature Review, section 2.3.1., and below in section 4.2.2.2. Many studies (e.g. Elbaum et al., 1993; Gu, 1997; Gu & Johnson, 1996; Horwitz, 1988; Law, 2003; Oxford, 1990; Oxford & Nyikos, 1989; Schmitt, 1997; Shi, 2006; Wu, 2008; Yang, 1999) have used the questionnaire method to research LLSs generally, VLSs specifically, and BALLL, and point to the methods dependability (McDonough & McDonough, 1997). Other reasons include: 1) the questionnaire method provided easy access to suitable data (for example, VLSs use; BALLL; EVS); and 2), the interruption to the participants was minimal. DeCuir-Gunby (2008) says quantitative data is useful in generalising and studying large numbers of people. The questionnaire was used to answer the research question about VLSs used and frequency of use and BALLL No. 1: Which VLSs do CEMs tend to use (as individuals and as a group)?; No. 2: What is the difference in frequency of use of VLSs among individuals within and between grades (four grades) and as a group of CEMs?; No. 3: What are CEMs Western or Chinese BALLL?; No. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 66 2013
4: Do their specific BALLL correlate with VLS use?; No. 5: What is the general EVS of CEMs in each of the four grades (years) of a four-year Bachelor degree?; No. 6: Do BALLL and VLS use influence EVS?
4.2.2.2 The interview method
The interview method is widely used in strategy research, and most researchers have used face to face (off line) and telephone methods. Wenden (1987) explored learners explicit beliefs about how best to approach the task of learning a second language. She used a semi-structured face-to-face approach, taking 90 minutes to complete. In her analysis, which used adapted procedures for content analysis, she searched her transcripts for recurring statements of beliefs. Benson and Lor (1999) also used the interview method to explore higher order conceptions of BALLL, and analysed their transcripts for categories following phenomenography.
According to Fontana and Frey (2005), the reliance on electronic outlets is only recent but increasing. University campuses around the world are now, generally speaking, connected. Electronic interviewing has the potential to reach 100 per cent of specialised populations, which would include foreign language learners in countries distant from the researcher (Fontana & Frey, 2005). The possibility of virtual interviewing, as they put it, where Internet connections are used synchronically or asynchronically to obtain information must be viewed as a positive development (Fontana & Frey, 2005, pp. 695-728). The immediacy of internet communication tools like QQ and Skype allows for synchronised interviewing, and thus can offset the effects of non-synchronised discussion and survey research (Gaiser & Schreiner, 2009). When video is added, there is little to distinguish it from face-to-face interviews, except that the environment (the space in which interaction occurs) is slightly different (e.g., computers and screens) (James & Busher, 2009). The present research has used the internet communication tool QQ to conduct interviews: 1) as this is a popular and familiar tool to the participants and they frequently use it, and 2) they were not available for interview on site due to their busy schedules.
4.3 Reliability and validity
This thesis embraces a particular view of language and language learning, particularly vocabulary learning. This has influenced the focus of the research to some degree. As an The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 67 2013
English language teacher at the research site, the learning behaviours of most of the CEMs were observed in their learning context without hindrance. However, VLS use was not observed with any intensity as the CEMs used them to learn English vocabulary. The assumption was that, most of the time, vocabulary learning happened, except when explicitly observed in the classroom context or in class tests. Observing how vocabulary learning was happening (though through self-reports), for this particular group of Chinese EFL learners, was one of the aims of the research.
According to Yin (2005), reliability is concerned with whether the next researcher can follow the procedures used and whether s/he can replicate the case study, and generate the same findings and conclusions. The emphasis is on replicating the same case study, not on getting the same results. The goal of reliability, according to Yin (2005), is to minimise the errors and biases. Essentially, if there is no careful documentation of procedures, not even the researcher could repeat his or her own work. The questionnaires were administered first, and then the interviews were conducted at a later stage. Students were recruited from their home classroom students in Chinese universities are grouped and allocated a classroom where they meet and study, called the home classroom and a day and time agreed to complete the questionnaires and tests. On this day, informed consent was obtained and instructions given on how complete the activity. The questionnaires and tests were collected, scanned and emailed. The completed questionnaires and tests were then checked for consistency and errors.
On the issue of external validity, the issue is whether the findings can be generalised beyond the immediate case study (Yin, 2005). This study involves replicating some of what others have done: Horwitzs (1987) exploration of general BALLL, Shis (2006) exploration of the beliefs of the CCL, Mas (2009) exploration of VLSs and Nations (2001) exploration of vocabulary size using units of analysis previously explored in other contexts validating the test (e.g. Beglar, 2010), thus demonstrates replication is possible using the same methods of data collection and analysis as previous studies. However, this research is conducted in the context of CEMs in China combining questionnaire and interview. The questions in the questionnaires were not fundamentally changed, though they were, in some instances, clarified to meet the needs of pre- to intermediate students and to sharpen the focus of the research (for instance, the original questionnaire questions referred to a foreign language, whereas the present research refers to the English language).
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Paltridge and Phakiti (2010) discuss the dual concerns of reliability and validity and sampling when the sample size is low. The sample size for the research was 105 80 for the questionnaires and 25 for the interviews. The concerns are whether the data collection instruments are reliable and valid in the context. Potential participants were informed of the nature of the research, sufficient for participants at the research site to decide to participate (see Appendix 11), to try to counter issues relating to the Hawthorne Effect (behavioural change due to being observed) (Paltridge & Phakiti, 2010). Paltridge and Phakiti also (2010) say the receptive vocabulary size test (e.g., 2000, 3000, 5000, 10,000 and academic vocabulary) can be completed in 30 minutes, and imply that this time of completion can satisfy the dual concerns of reliability and validity. However, during the pilot study for the present research, the multi-questionnaire the combined VLSs questionnaire, two beliefs questionnaires, and the vocabulary size test (1000, 2000, 3000 and academic words) took an average of 30 and 55 minutes to complete; the VST took an average of 8 and 20 minutes to complete. This is within Paltridge and Phakitis contention that 30 minutes would satisfy the dual concerns of reliability and validity. Perhaps they think that if the time is longer, reliability may decrease? The patterning of the data does not suggest that participants in the present research rushed to complete the multi-questionnaire (see Chapter 5). The time taken to complete the vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire VLSQ (see section 4.6.1.2 below) was between 30 and 50 minutes for grade 1 students the time decreased with each successive grade.
To increase validity of results, a variety of methods were used questionnaires and interviews to achieve consistency in the results. The present research uses a form of triangulation, by gathering data with two methods: questionnaire and interview (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2006). The interviews aimed to provide support and explain some of the questionnaires, depending on the Creswell and Plano Clark model (2011), the sequential exploratory. A sequential design can apply to any sequence of data collection but the present research begins with quantitative data collection (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). The quantitative is collected and analysed first, then the qualitative. The qualitative is used to either help explain or elaborate on the quantitative result. The quantitative provides a general understanding of the issue being explored, and the qualitative refines and possibly explains the results.
While studies can be influenced by researcher bias, every effort was made to ensure that the results and interpretations were reliable. This was achieved by providing a thick description of the research activities and events throughout the research; by conducting an extensive search The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 69 2013
of the literature; by using reliable and valid data collection methods; by doing a pilot study; by holding briefing and debriefing sessions with the CEMs wherever possible; and by allowing Chinese nationals to review the interpretations of the data. Such an approach aimed to minimise the threats to the reliability and validity (Yin, 2005).
4.4 Case and participants
4.4.1 The case study of a Chinese university
According to Nunan (1992, pp. 7576), the case study can be initiated in two ways. The first can be when an issue or hypothesis is proposed, and an instance drawn from that class is selected and studied (Nunan, 1992, pp. 7576). The other way is when a case is selected and studied in its own right rather than as an exemplar of a class (Nunan, 1992, pp. 7576). Whichever way is chosen, the case will be a bounded system or single instance, such as an individual teacher, a classroom, or even a school district (Nunan, 1992, pp. 7576). Best and Khan (1993, p. 193), however, say a case can be an exemplar, even a prototype for, a category of individuals. McDonough and McDonough (1997, p. 205) highlight aspects such as key players, key institutions, group characteristics and critical incidents as a guide, which includes issues such as geographical parameters, group characteristics and organisational and institutional arrangements. Case study is an empirical enquiry investigating a contemporary phenomenon, and a range of evidence is used, including both qualitative and quantitative data (Yin, 2005). The results can be used to extend our understanding of the issue studied, the relationship between phenomena, and even offer suggestions about how to better manage it and its effects.
The present exploratory research of the PVL concerns English an instance of it drawn from a university context in which a group of CEMs learn English vocabulary. The university context and English vocabulary learning of CEMs was selected as a case study for this group of Chinese students. English vocabulary learning usually happens in this higher education context in China. The research site enrols several hundred English Majors every semester and, as is the case at most if not all universities in China, enrolled students are placed in a course of study. Students do not normally choose their course of study but are placed in different disciplines depending on exam scores.
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An English Majors curriculum is supported by Chinas MoE. The curriculum has an emphasis on grammar, reading, writing and listening. The teaching method is also supported by the China MoE. The method is, therefore, a typical Chinese traditional teaching method, (e.g., teacher- centred), where students are generally viewed as recipients of teaching (Richards et al., 2002). Teaching typically involves the grammartranslation method. Grammartranslation here means that teaching makes use of [Chinese] translation and grammar study as the main teaching and learning activity (Richards et al., 2002, pp. 231, 563). According to Richards et al. (2002), this type of lesson typically involves presenting grammar rules, lists of vocabulary and a translation exercise. Learned language knowledge is measured through formal tests such as the Test of English Majors Band 4 (TEM 4) and the Test of English Majors Band 8 (TEM 8). Passing these formal tests is believed to demonstrate language proficiency. Students can sit these tests twice; if they fail the first time they sit it the same time the following year. There are no specific vocabulary classes or vocabulary training on site.
Anecdotal evidence from both students and teachers at the research site (and other sites) suggests most students fail formal English tests the first time and many fail the second time. This provided a strong incentive to conduct this research, to investigate vocabulary learning strategies and because they have been found to contribute to language learning. This research aimed to find out if students employed VLSs in general, and how they approached their vocabulary learning.
4.4.2 Participants in the research
This research offers an exploration into the process of English vocabulary learning by pre- to intermediate CEMs. The research does this by focusing on their VLS use, their beliefs and EVS in a university context in China. The students were categorised by different factors grade, VLS use, BALLL and EVS.
The CEMs were mostly speakers of Mandarin, although some spoke Cantonese. They had experienced roughly six years of formal English language education prior to entering university. As English Majors they study English for general purposes (EGP) (Richards et al., 2002). EGP here also means EFL someone who learns English [for general purposes] in a formal classroom setting, with limited or no opportunities for use outside the classroom, in a country in which English does not play an important role in internal communication (China, The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 71 2013
Japan and Korea, for example) (Richards et al., 2002, p. 233). Although these students learn English in an EFL context, they are expected to continue learning English vocabulary throughout their undergraduate degree program. Most have plans either for further study at a university in an English-speaking country such as the USA or Australia, or work as a translator/interpreter in their home country. However, informal observations suggest learning English vocabulary in at least one Chinese university seems to be viewed as an implicit activity (by teachers and university administrators) in the classroom and an explicit activity outside the formal activities of the classroom. That is, these particular university students do not have a class with a specific focus on vocabulary. The researcher was a teacher in some of their institutions and is aware of the system. The classes these students generally attend emphasise reading (for instance, intensive, extensive), pure linguistics (for instance, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics), and compulsory traditional grammar, in which vocabulary is presented as part of the class content but not explicitly focused on for example, vocabulary is viewed as incidentally learned. An adjunct class here means that the class uses a topic- centred approach, in which content and teaching and learning activities are centred around topics or themes, i.e. the family (Richards et al., 2002, p. 717).
Therefore, vocabulary is expected to be learned in preparation for the formal tests that must be completed, but not as explicit activity in the classroom and cannot be monitored. Given the pressure of time to learn vocabulary, this possibly contributes to the observed phenomenon that students do not often pass the formal tests on their first attempt and must try a second time (see section 4.4.1 above).
Participants in the research were English Majors in one of the four grades (years) of a four- year undergraduate degree course. The partitioning of the CEMs by grade is deliberate, since the present research tries to capture not only the experience of grade one students but the experience of continuing students in an effort to capture a snapshot of VLS frequency of use and beliefs in each of the four years of their undergraduate degree program (as well as the development of EVS). This is the main contribution of this research, which hasnt been addressed before.
The expectation was that 120 CEMs would be surveyed but the actual number was 80. The research goal was to survey 30 students from each of the four grades. The reduced sample size was due mainly to students busy study schedules and student numbers at the research site. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 72 2013
Fewer grade four students participated in the research. Twenty-five participants were interviewed after the questionnaire phase to gain further insight into VLS and beliefs. Participants were randomly chosen from among the CEM cohort at the university based on membership in this group.
A gender imbalance was expected since more females than males were enrolled as English Majors at the research site a ratio of roughly 25 females to 1 male. The CEMs (n=105 (80 + 25) were presumed to hold a particular English proficiency level; although proficiency levels were not measured, it was estimated to be somewhere in the vicinity of pre-intermediate to intermediate, according to the ACTFL Proficiency guidelines (SIL International, 1999).
4.5 Role of the researcher
The present research was exploratory and interpretive, using mixed methods (questionnaires and interview). The approach involved providing explicit reasons for the focus of the research, views about the research and my relationship with the people/issue/phenomenon being explored. I was initially an outsider, who at one time was a teacher of CEMs. As a result, I possess insider knowledge of the CEMs learning behaviour and their BALLL. Some of the CEMs may not have known me as well as other CEMs, since I did not teach them English language instruction or they did not interact with me when I worked at the research site, though they may have been aware of me or have known of me. In addition, I was an Australian conducting research in a Chinese context, which means that some of the participants or interested parties may view my interest in their learning behaviour and beliefs with suspicion (for instance, threats to integrity, threats to face) (Phuong-Mai et al., 2005), though none of the participants involved in the research experienced this view. These issues were dealt with by discussing them with Chinese nationals (e.g., students and teachers) at the research site and at other times. Most of the participants, however, seemed to be open and sincere in their interactions with me because I was not their teacher.
While studies can be influenced by researcher bias, the study addressed the limitations by providing a thick description of the research activities and events throughout the research; by conducting an extensive search of the literature; by using reliable and valid data collection methods; by doing a pilot study; by holding briefing and debriefing sessions with the CEMs wherever possible; and by allowing Chinese nationals to review the interpretations of the data. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 73 2013
These measures were taken to minimise the threats to the reliability and validity (Yin, 2005).
4.6 Data collection method and administration procedures
4.6.1 Data collection instruments, their nature and function
This subsection is divided into two: section 4.6.1 discusses the multi-questionnaire data collection instrument, its nature and function, as well as the interview method and interview questions; and section 4.7 discusses the administration of the multi-questionnaire data collection instrument and interview protocol, and management of the collected data and data analysis. The Table 4.2 below shows all data collection instruments in the multi-questionnaire instrument and the interview method in the research and in which section each is discussed:
Table 4.2: Multi-questionnaire data collection instruments and methods Items: Section: 1 General Demographics and Language Background (GDLB) 4.6.1.1 2 Vocabulary Learning Strategies Questionnaire (VLSQ) 4.6.1.2 3 Beliefs about Language and Language Learning Questionnaire (BALLLQ) 4.6.1.3 4 Chinese Culture of Learning Questionnaire (CCLQ) 4.6.1.4 5 Vocabulary Size Test (VST) 4.6.1.5 6 Interview (Int.) 4.6.1.6
Five main data collection instruments, collectively known as the multi-questionnaire data collection instrument, plus the interview, were employed in the present study:
1) Characteristics and Language Background (Appendix 1); 2) Vocabulary Learning Strategies Questionnaire, the first data collection instrument (Appendix 2) to answer research questions No. 1 and No. 2; 3) Beliefs about Language and Language Learning Questionnaire, the second data collection instrument (BALLI Appendix 3) to answer research questions No. 3 and No. 4; 4) Chinese Culture of Learning Questionnaire, the third data collection instrument (CLQ Appendix 4) to answer research questions No. 3 and No. 4; 5) Vocabulary Size Test, the fourth data collection instrument (Appendix 5) to answer research question No. 5; The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 74 2013
6) Statistical tests to observe relationships between the main factors and answer research question No. 6; and, 7) Interview to answer research questions No. 1 to No. 3.
The quantitative data collection instruments, referred to as the multi-questionnaire, were collectively employed at a particular moment in time to collect data cross-sectionally (e.g., between grades, but were not different nominally because they were all English Majors; they were different in terms of being in a different grade while in the same major) and pseudo- longitudinally (e.g., providing a snapshot of four different grades in a BA) (Jarvis & Pavlenko, 2008; Chun & Quaddus, 2012). Each data collection instrument is highlighted and discussed below, including a discussion of which research question(s) was answered by which research instrument. The interviews were conducted at a later stage, to gain qualitative insights into students VLS use and beliefs and strengthen the validity of the research.
4.6.1.1 Characteristics and language background
The characteristics and language background questionnaire (GDLB) was designed to collect the characteristics of the CEMs participating in the research (see Table 4.4 below). The data collected were name, age, gender, native language spoken, number of years of English language education, grade (at the time of the survey) in university, and College Entrance Test score (CET 2) (if known). It was collected at the time the student participated in the study (see Table 4.3 below and see Appendix 1). This data answered several aspects of the research questions for the present study for instance, inter-group differences and strategy use trends in one of the four grades were gathered through the questionnaires (VLSQ, BALLLQ, CLQ, and VST), the multi-questionnaire. Collecting this demographic information allowed participants data to be cross-referenced (though coded) with the information obtained by all the data collection instruments. Students took on average five minutes to complete the GDLB.
Table 4.3: General demographics and language background Category: Details: Averages: Ethnicity Han 97.5% Hui 1.25% Bai 1.25% Year of enrolment Grade 1 27.5% Grade 2 27.5% Grade 3 30% The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 75 2013
Grade 4 15% Age 19 to 20 21.25% 21 to 22 53.75% 23 to 24 plus 25% Gender Female 88.75% Male 11.25% Degree English 100% Years of English language education 7 to 9 57.5% 10 to 12 36.25% 13 to 15 plus 3.75% Mother tongue Mandarin 80% Cantonese 13.75%
The VLSQ was used to gather information on VLSs and VLS use of the CEMs. A distinction is made because one can talk about strategies without talking about their actual use, which is what the present research is more concerned with. The VLSQ was a slightly modified version of Mas (2009) VLSQ used in a Chinese context (see Appendix 2). The version in the present research includes two new questions, one about where students obtain or acquire the VLSs they use (for instance, teacher, classmate), and one about the location or space in which the VLSs are used, as well as where vocabulary is generally learned (for instance, classroom, library, dormitory room), given that the broadened definition of a formal learning context goes beyond the classroom but includes it. The first question was included because the present research explores the idea that CEMs are not necessarily born with VLSs, which are therefore obtained from an external source (or developed through experience and reflection), and from this the research can infer training practices (e.g., strategy training). The second question was included because CEMs did not attend a class in which vocabulary is explicitly a focus, so they were asked where in the broader conception of the formal learning context at the research site VLSs were used, where they tended to learn vocabulary the most if not in the classroom. This will provide useful suggestions for student learning and how they generally approach vocabulary learning. This might also provide insights into language teaching.
The main goal of the questionnaire, however, was to collect data on VLSs and VLS use, those listed by Ma (2009) in her questionnaire. Question 1 asks Where do you discover new words? and provides participants with seven choices of place of discovery for instance, textbooks The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 76 2013
and classroom activities, lists of vocabulary arranged alphabetically, lists of vocabulary arranged semantically. This type of question reflects Schmitts (1997) idea that learners discover a word initially a strategy in its own right (discovery strategies) and then determine what to do with it, and employ a strategy or group of strategies to learn it (consolidation strategies). Thus it is viewed as belonging to Schmitts first group of strategies: discovery strategies (see Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.3.1). However, certain words and phrases in the questionnaire have been simplified, where necessary, to cater for students with a lower than expected English proficiency for instance, arranged semantically was replaced with arranged by meaning (see Appendix 2). Questions which seemed vague were modified to make them more specific. For example, Q1: Where do you discover new words? with the strategy choice When using/surfing the Internet (for example, English websites, e- chatting) (see Appendix 2). Students took on average 10 minutes to complete the VLSQ. Cronbachs Alpha of 0.877 suggests the slight modification of the questionnaire did not affect the questionnaires reliability.
The rating scale (Likert) measured the frequency of VLS use (Drnyei, 2007) never, rarely, sometimes, often, always with which the discovery of a new word occurs in a particular place, such as textbooks, classroom activity, and was numbered 1 to 5. Illustration No. 1 shows the Likert rating scale as it appears in the questionnaire.
Illustration No. 1: 1. Where do you discover new words? In textbooks and from classroom learning activities F: 1 2 3 4 5 Frequency of use (F:) 1=never, 2=rarely, 3=sometimes, 4=often, 5=always
Participants only needed to draw a circle around the number that represented the frequency.
The data generated by the questionnaire answered the following research questions:
No. 1: Which VLSs do CEMs tend to use (as individuals and as a group)? No. 2: What is the difference in frequency of use of VLSs among individuals within and between grades (four grades) and as a group of CEMs?; and, provides a basis for answering part of research question No. 3: What are CEMs Western or Chinese beliefs about language and language learning? No. 4: Do their specific beliefs about language and language learning correlate with vocabulary learning strategy use? The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 77 2013
Statistical analyses conducted were non-parametric tests to produce descriptive statistics (e.g., means, standard deviations, minimum, maximums), Kruskal-Wallis Test to produce a student mean (to show variability in individual scores), as well as correlational analysis (Spearmans rho) to show how strong the relationship is among the factors. Factor here means an aspect of the phenomenon being explored for example, the PVL. The two main factors in the process of vocabulary being explored are VLS use and BALLL. The tests were used to observe individual differences within a grade and between grades on each factor (e.g., VLS use, BALLL and VST), as well as to observe statistically significant relationships between individuals within a grade and between grades, and overall (e.g., to observe relationships between VLSs, BALLL and CCL, and VST). Non-parametric tests were used because 1) the sample is less than 100, 2) because normality could not be determined with a sample below 100, and 3) these factors are viewed as unevenly distributed among the population.
The statistical justification for observing between grade differences was the Kruskal-Wallis (ANOVA-type) Test, shown below in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: three mean-scores ranking against factor mean-scores Range: N Mean Rank Chi-square df Asymp. Sig. CCLTOTAL Upper 29 39.31 Middle 28 49.20 7.521 2 0.023* Lower 23 31.41 BALLLTOTAL Upper 29 37.17 Middle 28 49.48 6.724 2 0.035* Lower 23 33.76 VLSTOTAL Upper 29 42.74 Middle 28 44.29 3.370 2 0.185 Lower 23 33.07 * p < 0.05
Table 4.4 shows that null hypothesis (H0) is rejected and that the between grade scores would be the same as the individual scores within a grade between beliefs and academic size test scores, except for VLS use and academic size test scores. There is a significant difference for general BALLL and CCL beliefs and academic scores, therefore, we accept H1 that they would be the same or similar at the all-students level or between grades for VLS use and academic scores, at least, if observed in the ranges of mean-scores of upper, middle and lower academic The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 78 2013
mean-scores.
The data generated by the two additional questions in the questionnaire, Do you remember who taught you how to learn a foreign language? and Where do you often learn English vocabulary during the semester? allowed the indirect exploration of the influence of context and culture on learning (e.g. OMalley & Chamot, 1985). The assumption behind the first question is that if the strategy is one that was taught and/or promoted by a teacher (or parent) during the students early or later education (for instance, university education), then it might be a strategy that is promoted by a particular point of view or is a culturally based BALLL (for instance, the CCL). Statistical analyses were applied to the data generated by these questions and the result can be found in Chapter 6: Statistical Analysis. The data generated by these two questions is not used in the main discussion of the process of vocabulary learning, but as an aside to it.
4.6.1.3 Beliefs about Language and Language Learning Questionnaire
The BALLI was designed and validated by Horwitz (1988) and demonstrates BALLL. Horwitz (1988) used the BALLI (the BALLLQ in the present research) to collect data on BALLL in a non-Chinese context (see Appendix 3), but the present research uses it in a Chinese context. As far as is known, it has not been used before in China, therefore, this is an important contribution of this study.
The BALLIs reliability and validity is discussed by Kuntz (1996). The present research used a modified version of the BALLI, which refers to learning English since the participants are CEMs. Students took about seven minutes to complete the BALLLQ for the present research. Cronbachs Alpha was calculated for this modified version of the questionnaire and the result was 0.622. This finding suggests that the slight modification and reducing the scaling from 6 to 5 maintained a good reliability rating.
The rating scale (Likert) measured the strength of the belief held by the participant (Drnyei, 2007, p. 36) strongly agree, agree, neither agree or disagree, disagree, strongly disagree. Illustration No. 2 shows Question 5 and the rating scale as it appears in the questionnaire but later coded to reflect the scaling on the other instruments (for instance, A=1, B=2, C=3, D=4, E=5): The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 79 2013
Illustration No. 2: Q.5 English is structured in the same way as Chinese S: A B C D E (A) strongly disagree (B) disagree (C) neither agree or disagree (D) agree (E) strongly agree
The respondents only had to draw a circle around the letter representing the strength of opinion about the belief statement. The order in which the values appeared in the questionnaire used in the present research is the reverse of Horwitzs. The reason for the reverse order was consistency. The VLSQ values begin with a negative (never) and the CCLQ values begin with a negative (disagree). Beginning the value range in the BALLLQ with a negative value (strongly disagree) averts any confusion that might have been created by the switch from a negative value to a positive value from one instrument to the next.
The data generated by the BALLLQ answered research question No. 3: What are CEMs Western and Chinese beliefs about language and language learning? No. 4: Do their specific beliefs about language and language learning correlate with each other and their vocabulary learning? This relationship was shown running a Kruskal-Wallis Test.
4.6.1.4 Chinese Culture of Learning Questionnaire
The CCLQ was designed by Shi (2006) and validated in a Chinese context, and was used to gather information on the beliefs that Shi (2006) classified as belonging to the CCL. The questions were designed to elicit culturally biased responses (Shi, 2006) from participants (see Appendix 4).
The rating scale (Likert) used an odd number of values (5) and the Shi questionnaire used an even number (4) (see Illustration No. 3 below). The decision to use five values in the present research was for consistency; the other questionnaires use a 5-point rating scale.
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Illustration No. 3 3. A good teacher of English should a) Be knowledgeable about his/her area 1 2 3 4 5 b) Often use games/activities when s/he teaches 1 2 3 4 5 c) Be light-hearted 1 2 3 4 5 d) Be serious 1 2 3 4 5 e) Provide clear and comprehensive notes 1 2 3 4 5 f) Help me pass exams 1 2 3 4 5 g) Improve my English skills (reading, writing, listening, speaking) 1 2 3 4 5 Other (Please explain):
1=strongly disagree; 2=disagree; 3=neither disagree or agree; 4=agree; 5=strongly agree
The respondent only has to do draw a circle around the number that represents the strength of his/her belief. Besides increasing the rating scale to 5 points, extra formatting was added (see Appendix 5) to increase participant accuracy when rating a statement. The 5-point Likert scaling was chosen because it is the most common, and because it was used in the other questionnaire. Changes were made so there wouldnt be any confusion in scaling from one questionnaire to the next. The Shi questionnaire does not have the content in boxes and, when it was initially reviewed, the numbering was not very clear. Students took about 10 minutes to complete the CCLQ. To ensure reliability of the modified questionnaire, Cronbachs Alpha was calculated and was found to be 0.790, which suggests reliability was not affected.
The data generated by the CCLQ provided information on whether the beliefs held by the students within a grade were strongly those of the CCL. In particular, the data answered research question No. 3: What are CEMs Western or Chinese beliefs about language and language learning? and No. 4: Do their specific BALLL correlate with vocabulary learning strategy use? The beliefs of the CEMs in the present research are presumed to belong strongly to the CCL (Cortazzi & Jin, 1996b; Flowerdew, 1998; Hird, 1995; Jin & Cortazzi, 2006; Ma 2009; Phuong-Mai et al., 2005; Shi, 2006; Xing, 2009), given that the participants are Chinese. For instance, the belief that a good teacher should be knowledgeable about his/her area is a belief of the CCL, whereas often uses games/activities when s/he teaches is not. The results were compared with Shis (2006) classification of the beliefs of the CCL and the results of her exploration, and can be found in Chapter 5.
Gaining insights into the beliefs of the CCL will suggest, by the strength of the belief (e.g., strongly agree, disagree), a possible influence on CEMs and subsequently on whether they tend The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 81 2013
to learn English vocabulary from this particular cultural point of view. Such data allows inferences be made about their role in the PVL. This can also inform vocabulary teaching pedagogy.
4.6.1.5 Vocabulary Size Test
In the present research the VST was used to collect data on the vocabulary size (according to Nations measurement tools) of the CEMs (see Appendix 5). The data generated by the VST was expected to answer research question No. 5: What is the general English vocabulary size of CEMs in each of the four grades (years) of a four-year Bachelor degree? And part of research question No. 6, with the help of non-parametric tests. Students took on average 15 minutes to complete the VST.
Initially, the question was posed and explored as a logical extension of research question No. 1: VLS use. It was also asked in response to Cortazzis and Jins (1996) statement that Chinese EFL learners memorise thousands of words each year in the standard six years of English language education prior to university. Memorise, however, can mean remember forever once memorised. But remembering must be discussed in relation to forgetting (Schmitt, 2000; Anderson, 1995). The research does not take for granted that all the English vocabulary a CEM encounters and memorises is remembered forever. The vocabulary size of the CEMs at the research site, for instance, were estimated at entry to university to be somewhere between 1500 and 2000 vocabulary items (see Appendix 6). The estimate seemed low and was far less than the vocabulary size suggested by Cortazzi and Jin (1996) thousands of words each year.
Vocabulary size is the logical outcome of learning, though only a rough outcome when all factors are taken into consideration (e.g., forgetting). If one learns, there will be a result: something. But is the result of learning always remembered? No, it is not. What will remain is the learners vocabulary size at the moment in time it is measured regardless of how much has been learnt; basically, what is retained after learning. Vocabulary size is therefore explored merely as a reflection of learning, not as the exact outcome of learning but to argue that learning happens; retaining what is learned is not explored in this research.
Nation (2001) devised the VST and argued that knowing a word involves being able to recognise it when it is seen/heard (item knowledge) and being able to understand it systemically The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 82 2013
for instance, the various meanings and relations with other words (see Chapter 2, section 2.1). Even if the CEMs in the present research had merely undertaken to memorise thousands and thousands of words, as Cortazzi and Jin (1996) suggest, it implies remembering everything always. However, Nation (2001) implies that English language learners might still be able to recognise words, despite the fact that a certain amount of forgetting may have occurred since they initially memorised the vocabulary. Therefore, the bilingual version was used at the lower levels but not for the size tests. The present research did not explore vocabulary testing, but explored vocabulary size because, according to entry levels, only a certain amount of vocabulary seemed to have been retained.
The VST 1000, a test of the first 1000 most frequently used English words, contains four sections of 10 vocabulary points (see Appendix 6). The VST 1000 tests a learners knowledge of the first 1000 words in which a vocabulary item is presented in context. See illustration VST 1000 Question 1 (Table 4.5) with four vocabulary items. One item represents the meaning, while the other three are distracters. Distracters are items like a polysemous word, an antonym or an unrelated item. Table 4.5 provides an illustration of the bilingual version of VST 1000 Question 1. As will be seen, the first answer to Question 1 is a polysemous word while the other two possible answers are unrelated.
Table 4.5: VST 1000 Question 1 1. see: They saw it. a. (cut) b. (wait for) c. (looked at) d. (started)
The testee only had to draw a circle around one of four multiple-choice answers. The correct answer is c, and the others (a, b and d) are distracters. The VST appears to test reading skills rather than listening skills but the present research explores English vocabulary learning from the perspective of reading rather than learning vocabulary from the perspective of listening. (The VST does not test retention, but retention may result when other strategies are regularly used, for example, consolidation strategies.) The listening aspect is acknowledged to have been a feature of the CEMs prior English language education. However, the present study is premised on the notion that a substantial amount of an EFL learners vocabulary, especially the students in the present research, is gained through reading. The CEMs would have learned The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 83 2013
much of the English vocabulary required for their formal tests from a vocabulary book (for instance, TEM 4EasyTest). Therefore, the version of the VST used in the present study is viewed as valid, reliable and practical, given the circumstances of its use (Nation, 2001).
4.6.1.6 Interviews
Wenden (1999), Benson and Lor (1999) and Gao (2006) all used the interview method; Wenden, and Benson and Lor, on beliefs and Gao on Chinese students strategy use in an English learning context. Gan et al (2004) used interviews to collect data on successful and unsuccessful Chinese EFL learners. Peacock (2009) used interviews to collect data on learner attributions, that is, what learners attributed to their success or failure in FLL.
The benefits of the interview method were discussed in section 4.2.2.2 above. Generally, they give additional insight into a phenomenon, complement quantitative data and help strengthen validity. They gather respondents generalised statements about learners learning behaviour, as well as descriptions of what they believe about themselves. These mental/cognitive processes, generally invisible, are exposed with targeted, useful questioning.
Twenty-five semi-structured interviews were conducted in an effort to gain further insight into the PVL by CEMs. Semi-structured interviews were used where questions were used to guide the responses of the participants (Cohen, 2010). These questions were asked to enhance the quantitative data and strengthen reliability.
The following questions from the three questionnaires (VLS use, general BALLL and CCL) were used to further explore the vocabulary learning process, and as a guide to data gathering:
1. Where do you meet/encounter new words? 2. What do you usually do when you meet a new vocabulary item? 3. Do you practise vocabulary items? What strategies do you use? 4. How do you memorise vocabulary items? 5. How would you rate your English competence? 6. What are the characteristics of a good teacher? 7. What do you think the relationships between the teacher and the student should be like? 8. What does learning another language involve in your opinion? The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 84 2013
9. Do you think vocabulary learning strategies should be taught?
Such questions are designed to delve deeper into the PVL (see Section 4.7.2.6 below and Chapter 5). This design is also part of the mixed methods approach.
4.7 Procedures: administration, data management and data analysis
The multi-questionnaire was administered in the following order: the GDLB section 4.7.2.1 (see Appendix 1; 4.6.1.1 above), VLSQ section 4.7.2.2 (see Appendix 2; 4.6.1.2 above), BALLLQ section 4.7.2.3 (see Appendix 3; 4.6.1.3 above), CCLQ section 4.7.2.4 (see Appendix 4; 4.6.1.4 above), VST section 4.7.2.5 (see Appendix 5; 4.6.1.5 above) and the interview section 4.7.2.6 (see Appendix 11; 4.6.1.6 above). The questionnaires were administered together, and the interviews separately, and to all who participated (n=105 (80 questionnaires and 25 interviews post-questionnaires).
The researcher visited the home classrooms of all the CEMs at the research site, inviting them to participate. At the same time on a specified day, students were briefed on the nature of the project and a time was organised for students to complete the multi-questionnaire. On the day, the students were briefed about informed consent (see Appendix 12), and those agreeing to participate completed the informed consent form (see Appendices 13 and 14) prior to completing the multi-questionnaire data collection instrument. Students were asked to record start and completion times on each data collection instrument. When the multi-questionnaire was administered, students indicated they did not have time for immediate interview.
The completed multi-questionnaires were then collected and processed by the on-site research assistant. Processing involved, among other things, collecting and counting the number of questionnaires, and then scanning them and emailing the digital file. Two research assistants, Chinese English teachers one was a teacher at the research site, the other was a student at the research site (but soon after graduated as a teacher) were briefed on and assisted with the procedure for administering the multi-questionnaire. Before the data was analysed important checks were carried out to ensure that all questionnaires contained the relevant and appropriate information.
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4.7.1 Pilot study
A pilot study was conducted to ascertain the impact on students of such a large data collection process, and to improve validity of questionnaire items. There were concerns that students may find completing three consecutive questionnaires, followed immediately by a set of VSTs, overwhelming. Seven CEMs participated in the pilot study; six females and one male; ages 19 to 21; 7 to 12 years of English language education; enrolled in grade 2 of a Bachelor degree.
The time taken by students to complete three questionnaires was commensurate with times taken to complete each individual questionnaire when administered in previous research (e.g. Ma, 2009; Horwitz, 1987; Shi, 2006). Students were asked if they encountered any problems in the questionnaires (e.g., structure and language) and how they felt after completing them (e.g., tiredness) and the response was positive. No problems were encountered with length of questionnaires and/or time taken to complete them; no problems were encountered with the structure and/or language used in them.
The pilot study helped to validate questionnaire items and provide insight into potential practical problems.
4.7.2 Data management and data analysis
The data management was similar for all the data collection instruments VLSQ, BALLLQ, and CCLQ except the VST, which received additional and slightly different data analysis because it was a test. All the quantitative data generated by the instruments GDLB, VLSQ, BALLLQ, CCLQ and VST was initially managed and analysed in Excel data tables, generating descriptive statistics such as means and standard deviations. The means present an average of scores while the standard deviation shows the closeness or distance of scores from each other (e.g., individual scores were slightly further apart than overall scores).
The data was entered into SPSS [statistical package for the social sciences] for further analysis using Non-parametric Tests to observe mean differences and correlational analysis using Spearmans rho. Non-parametric analysis was run because the factors (for example, VLS use, BALLL) were not viewed as being normally distributed in the population of CEMs, and because the sample size was less than 100 (StatSoft, 2003) a sample above 100 will provide The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 86 2013
evidence of normality. Non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis Test was used to observe differences in scores on the three questionnaires and the four VSTs to see if they are related. The Spearmans rho was run to observe correlations among three factors (VLS use, general beliefs and CCL beliefs) and between five factors including age and years of English language education (see Chapter 6, section 6.3, Tables 6.6 to 6.9).
The descriptive statistics show, for instance, averages of students VLS use within a grade, and percentages provide a general range of the most students using VLSs within a grade. The results of the analyses can be found in Chapter 6: Statistical Analysis.
The multi-questionnaire instruments were all offered in English with a Chinese translation in order to cater for students with lower than expected proficiency (see Appendices 2 to 5). There were no reports of a translation being needed. All instruments were checked to ensure that all had been properly completed. There were no invalid or excessively incomplete questionnaires (for instance, a few questions were not answered by only one student). Questionnaire data was then transferred to computer storage and/or data storage disk while the paper copy of the questionnaire was stored in an appropriate folder in a lockable cupboard (in a Chinese research assistants home).
The interview data was transcribed and analysed for themes and categories (see section 4.7.2.6 below). Following a phenomenographic analysis (Paltridge and Phakiti, 2010), in which key data are coded into categories (e.g., informal behaviour, gender division), then depending on the frequency of the codes, grouped in themes.
4.7.2.1 Characteristics and language background, analysis and management
Students took, on average, a few minutes to complete the short general demographics part of the multi-questionnaire: 11 questions in all (see Appendix 1).
Participants names were coded where necessary (see Table 4.6). The research was not initially anonymous because names were used to match up an individuals data on each of the data collection instruments and with other data in the correlation analyses. Names were preserved until after the analysis phase, but were coded (made anonymous) as data in Chapter 5. Each student provided GDLB data which was entered into a table like Table 4.6 below. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 87 2013
Table 4.6: One students general characteristics and language background 2010 RESEARCH DATA from Multi-Questionnaire: GRADE 1 Xiao A Part 1: General Demographics and Language Background Name: A G E NL YoELE D YoE CET Date: Xiao A 20 f Han Cantonese 7 English 1 124 12/03/2010
Note: A for Age, G for gender, E for Ethnicity, NL for native language, YoELE for years of English language education, D for BA degree, YoELE for year of enrolment or grade and CET for College Entrance Test score. The research ran correlational tests on the explored factors (e.g., VLS use, BALLL, VST) against Age and Years of English language education (see Chapter 6, section 6.3, Tables 6.6 to 6.9).
The whole grade GDLB data was collated and presented in extended versions of Table 4.6 in Table 4.7 below.
Table 4.7: GDLB for whole of grade 1 RESEARCH DATA 2010: CEMs GRADE 1 Part 1: Characteristics and Language Background of GRADE 1 Name: A G E NL YoELE D YoE CET Date: 1. Xiao A 20 f Han Cantonese 7 English 1 124 21/04/2010 2. Xiao B 20 f Han Mandarin 7 English 1 111 21/04/2010 3. Xiao C 20 f Han Mandarin 9 English 1 107 21/04/2010
The data generated by this can be viewed in the table in section 4.6.1.1.
Students took, on average, about 40 minutes to complete the VLSQ which contained 62 questions (see Appendix 2).
The VLSQ was a slightly modified version of Mas (2009) questionnaire which was used in China (see Appendix 2). The survey had a strict structure but allowed respondents to add new strategies not mentioned in the questionnaire on some questions, but not in all questions. This was done to cut completion time and focus students attention on the strategies offered. Following Ma (2009), participants ranked each strategy in terms of frequency of use, but not The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 88 2013
for helpfulness. Helpfulness was not explored in the present research. Comparisons were made between the four grades of students in terms of the percentage of students using the strategy and the frequency of strategy use.
Each students raw data of response choices was entered into a table like Table 4.8 below to observe individual VLS use.
Table 4.8: One students raw data of VLS use Part 2: VLS use of Xiao A GRADE 1 Question 1 Scale: 1 2 3 4 5 Total Q.1 Where do you meet new words? 1a 1 1 1b 1 1 1c 1 1 1d 1 1 1e 1 1 1f 1 1 1g 1 1 max: 0 1 3 2 1
Key to scaling: 1=never, 2=rarely, 3=sometimes, 4=often, and 5=always Key to Q.1 codes: 1a to 1g represent sub-aspects or strategies of the main question seen in Table 4.9
Table 4.8 above revealed patterns in the data of individual VLS use. It shows the total number of response choices, with the heading max meaning maximum number of response choices per response range. Table 4.9 below shows which strategy is used and the frequency with which it is used.
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Table 4.9: Percentage of students using a VLS and VLS frequency of use at grade 1 level grade 1: Vocabulary Learning Strategy Used by Frequency of use Q1 Discovery strategies: Where do you meet new vocabulary? % Response item 1a In textbooks and learning activities 50 often 1b In vocabulary lists arranged in alphabetical order 45 sometimes 1c In vocabulary lists arranged by meaning 50 sometimes 1d During English conversations with others 45 rarely 1e Reading English materials e.g. newspapers, magazines 45 often 1f When singing English songs and watching English movies/TV 41 often 1g When surfing/using the internet 50 sometimes
Each individuals raw data was then entered into a table like Table 4.10 below to show the whole grades raw data.
Table 4.10: VLS use raw data of grade 1 re: Question 1 Part 2: VLS use of CEMs in GRADE 1 Scale: 1 2 3 4 5 Total Q.1 Where do you meet new words? 1a 0 2 6 11 3 22 1b 0 1 10 9 1 21 1c 0 5 11 4 2 22 1d 0 10 7 3 2 22 1e 0 3 7 10 2 22 1f 1 2 8 9 2 22 1g 1 4 11 2 4 22 max: 1 10 11 11 4 22
Key to scaling: 1=never, 2=rarely, 3=sometimes, 4=often, and 5=always Key to Q.1 codes: 1a to 1g represent sub aspects or strategies of the main question seen in Table 4.9 above
Table 4.10 above revealed patterns in the data in terms of whole grade VLS use. Note that VLS 1b in Table 4.10 only has 21 respondents because one student did not respond to the sub-aspect.
Table 4.11 also revealed patterns in the data in terms of the percentage of students using a particular VLS (e.g., roughly 60 per cent of grade 3 students often use VLS 1a: In textbooks and classroom learning activities). While Table 4.10 above shows the largest response to a question and then made a percentage (e.g., 50% of students often use strategy 1a), Table 4.11 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 90 2013
below shows what all the raw data converted to percentage looks like for a single question. A table containing all results like this can be found in Appendix 8.
Table 4.11: Raw data converted to percentages for all grades for each question item never % rarely % sometimes % often % always % 1. In textbooks and classroom learning activities
Key: item = sub-aspect of question 1; never % = response item in the scale 1 to 5 which equals 1=never, 2=rarely, 3=sometimes, 4=often, 5=always.
Differences in the data were highlighted with tables highlighting percentages (see Table 4.11 above) and frequencies (e.g., the percentage of students generally using a particular strategy and the frequency with which it is generally used) (see Chapter 5). Tables like Table 4.12 below were used to help show percentages and frequencies within a grade; the highest response percentage is shown.
Table 4.12: Percentage of students using a VLS and VLS frequency of use at grade 1 level grade 1: Vocabulary Learning Strategy Used by Frequency of use Q5 Consolidation strategies: How do you put in order the info about the new vocabulary? % Response item 5a Write it down 45 sometimes 5b Order the info in a vocabulary notebook 32 often 5c Make vocabulary cards 55 rarely 5d Use the vocabulary lists in a textbook 41 often 5e Use a vocab list like those in the VOCABULARY 5000/TEM4EasyTEST 32 often
Key: Q5=Question 5; 5a to 5e are question sub aspects or strategies; Used by % = the percentage of students using a strategy; Frequency of use/Response item = the frequency scaling; scaling = never, rarely, sometimes, often, always; in the far left column and at the top is the phrase grade 1, this is just indicate that the table highlights the analysis of grade 1 students response to Question 5, indicated with Q5, and its sub aspects or strategies 5a to 5e.
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Table 4.12 above revealed differences in VLS use and VLS frequency of use in grade 1. The table shows all the necessary information to highlight the question and strategy offered, the data converted to show the percentage of students who use it, and the response choice that shows the frequency with which the strategy is used. In the above table, colour highlights the grade, and italics the question asked.
To highlight all grades percentages and frequencies, Table 4.13 showed all four grades (represented by the code: g1, g2). The highest response percentage is shown, meaning the most students.
Table 4.13: Percentage of CEMs who use a VLS and VLS frequency of use of all grades Q5 Consolidation strategies: How do you put in order the info about the new vocabulary? g1 g2 g3 g4 Response item 5a Write it down 45 45 38 42 sometimes 5b Order the info in a vocabulary notebook 32 41 33 42 sometimes/often 5c Make vocabulary cards 55 59 50 42 rarely 5d Use the vocabulary lists in a textbook 41 45 42 42 rarely/sometimes/often 5e Use a vocab list like those in the VOCABULARY 5000/TEM4EasyTEST 32 36 42 50 sometimes/often
Key: Table 4.13 highlights the analysis of data for all four grades on each sub aspect of Question 5 (Q5 top of far left column), 5a to 5e; grade has been abbreviated to g g1 (grade 1); Response item (top of far right column) indicates the frequency item from the scaling, for example, 1=never, 2=rarely, 3=sometimes, 4=often, 5-always.
However, VLSs were ranked by the percentage of students using it, see Table 4.14 (see Chapter 5, Table 5.1). The table shows, in the first column the ranking (for example, 1 to 62), 1 being that students used it the most, in the second column the VLS code (for example, 8c, 1a, 4g), highlighting where it appears in the questionnaire (for example, 8c is Question 8 subpart c), in the third column the name of the VLS (for example, Remember a new word by its meaning (when read again)), and in the last column the percentage of CEMs that used it. The ranking was calculated by percentage rather than by the mean because the present research was more concerned with the percentages of students using a strategy and the frequency of use.
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Table 4.14: Overall ranking of VLSs Rank: S#: Ranked vocabulary learning strategies over all: % 1 8c Remember a new word by its meaning (when read again) 63% 2 1a In textbooks and classroom learning activities 55% 3 1e When reading English materials 50% 4 8b Remember a new word by its meaning (when heard again) 49% 5 4g The way the new word is used 48% 6 3c I try to guess the word's meaning from the context 48% 7 6b Write the word several times 46% 8 3f Read a Chinese-English or an English-Chinese dictionary 45% 9 4d The Chinese translation 41% 10 6c Look at the word several times 40%
Key: Table 4.14 highlights the results of analysing strategy use based on the percentage of students using a strategy (based on the highest response percentage), but the analysis is based on one the response item often, for example, 63 per cent of all students often use strategy 8c: Remember a new word by its meaning (when read again).
Two additional questions were added to the VLSQ (see Appendix 2). One asks Where do you obtain the VLSs you use?. A VLS or all VLSs used may have been acquired from a teacher, a classmate or a textbook, or be self-generated. The source of the VLSs the students use was believed familiar to students and also believed that students would be able to say whether they obtained the strategies they use from one of these possible sources, and this knowledge contributed to the research. Other sources conceivably exist, but these were not explored in the present research. The other question asks Where do you often learn vocabulary during the semester? This question relates to the fact that an inclusive view of the learning context (for instance, the university) has been adopted in the present research. Obtaining data that reflects vocabulary learning in this broader view of the learning context was thought advantageous, rather than a traditionally narrow view of the formal learning context as the classroom.
However, to conduct the statistical analysis, the raw data were analysed in SPSS (see Chapter 6: Statistical Analysis).
4.7.2.3 Beliefs about Language and Language Learning Questionnaire
The BALLLQ was designed to collect contextual data on BALLL. The questionnaire contains The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 93 2013
57 belief statements. The questionnaire is an exploratory tool and the data generated by it answers the general question of whether CEMs BALLL can be classified as Westernized and then compared with the results of data generated by Shis (2009) CCL questionnaire (see Appendix 3) to observe any differences and whether they correlate.
Table 4.15 below was created to show the raw data generated by the BALLLQ.
Table 4.15: All students all grades responses to belief statement #1 (BS#1) BS#1 It's easier for children than adults to learn a foreign language Scale: 1 2 3 4 5 Total grade 1 0 0 6 10 6 22 grade 2 0 3 1 10 8 22 grade 3 0 4 1 12 6 23 grade 4 1 1 2 6 2 12 min: 0 0 1 6 2 max: 1 4 6 12 8 mean: 0.3 2.0 2.5 9.5 5.5 SD: 0.5 1.8 2.4 2.5 2.5
Key to scaling: 1=strongly disagree; 2=disagree; 3=neither disagree or agree; 4=agree; 5=strongly agree; Table 4.15 highlights raw data responses by each grade to belief statement No. 1.
Table 4.15 above revealed patterns in the data at the grade level. It shows all the information needed to highlight the actual question, or, in this case, the belief statement, and the raw data (not converted to a percentage see Table 4.16 below) showing the total number of responses per response choice. The most responses per response choice are highlighted with colour, along with the grade and the raw data for the whole grade as a total number, and the belief statement. The largest number (for instance, 12 the cell is highlighted in green) indicates the number of students that agreed with the belief statement. In all grades, most students (12 in grade 3) tend to agree with the belief statement BS#1.
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Table 4.16: All students all grades responses to belief statement #1 (BS#1) as percentages BS#1 It's easier for children than adults to learn a foreign language Scale: 1 2 3 4 5 Total grade 1 0 0 27.3 45.4 27.3 22 grade 2 0 13.6 4.5 45.4 36.4 22 grade 3 0 16.7 4.2 50.0 25.0 23 grade 4 8.3 8.3 16.7 50.0 16.7 12
Key to scaling: 1=strongly disagree; 2=disagree; 3=neither disagree or agree; 4=agree; 5=strongly agree; Table 4.16 shows raw data (highlighted in Table 4.16 above) converted to a percentage.
The raw data was analysed using SPSS, running Non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis Tests and correlations by Spearmans rho for example, for grade 1, grade 2 per instrument. The tables generated are the same as the tables shown in 4.7.2.2 above. The results of the statistical analysis can be found in Chapter 6: Statistical Analysis.
4.7.2.4 Chinese Culture of Learning Questionnaire
The CCLQ was designed to answer the general question of whether and to what extent the participants (CEMs) BALLL are those of the CCL, generally. The questionnaire has 18 questions (see Appendix 4). The quantitative data generated affirmed/disaffirmed whether CEMs beliefs are distinctly those of the CCL (see Chapter 3, section 3.4). Whether beliefs actually drive VLS use was inferred from the data.
Tables like Table 4.17 below were created to show the raw data generated by the CCLQ.
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Key to scaling: 1=strongly disagree; 2=disagree; 3=neither disagree or agree; 4=agree; 5=strongly agree; Table 4.17 highlights raw data responses by each grade to CCL belief statement No. 1
Table 4.17 above was useful in revealing patterns in the data at the grade level. It shows all the information needed to highlight the actual question, or, in this case, the belief statement asked about, the raw data (not converted to a percentage see Table 4.18 below) showing the total number of responses per response choice. The most responses per response choice is highlighted by colour. The reader can also see in the above table, with the added help of colour, the grade and the raw data score for the whole grade as a total score. The largest number (for instance, 13) indicates the number of students who agree with the belief statement (for instance, in grade 2) and the strength of their belief (e.g., agree). The table shows that most grade 1 students (9) agree with B#1 and that, in all four grades, most students tend to agree with the CCL B#1.
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Table 4.18: All students all grades responses to CCL Beliefs #1 as percentages B#1 I enjoy learning English Scale: 1 2 3 4 5 Total grade 1 0 4.5 18.2 40.9 27.3 20 grade 2 0 4.5 27.3 59.1 0 20 grade 3 0 0 20.8 41.7 12.5 18 grade 4 0 8.3 0 66.7 16.7 11
Key to scaling: 1=strongly disagree; 2=disagree; 3=neither disagree or agree; 4=agree; 5=strongly agree; Table 4.18 shows raw data (highlighted in Table 4.17 above) converted to a percentage.
Mean analyses using SPSS, Non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis Test and then the correlations by Spearmans rho were conducted for instance, for grade 1, grade 2 per instrument. The tables generated look the same as the tables shown in 4.7.2.2 and 4.7.2.3. The results can be found in Chapter 6: Statistical Analysis.
4.7.2.5 Vocabulary Size Test
The VST collected data on the vocabulary size of CEMs. The goal was to roughly ascertain vocabulary size at entry to university and a snapshot of each of the four years of a Bachelor degree post entry to observe changes in vocabulary size. The VST was designed by Nation (2001) and had been shown to be a valid and reliable instrument for ascertaining ESL/EFL learners vocabulary size (Schmitt et al., 2001) (see Appendix 5). The VST used in the present study includes the bilingual Mandarin version (Nation, 2009) of the VST 1000 word size, but not for the other sizes. There are 10 vocabulary items per size and each item represents 100 vocabulary items for that size (for instance, 10 items in a test represent 100 vocabulary items for the respective 1000 word size or 10 X 100 = 1000). Therefore, if a student gets one wrong answer in the VST 1000, for instance, it would generally mean that less than 1000 words are known in this range, or approximately 900 words are known at that particular size (Nation, 2009). The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 97 2013
The raw data was collated and presented in tables like Table 4.19 below showing students general vocabulary size in grade 1 at the first 1000 most frequent English words (1000 word size).
Table 4.19: Known words at the 1000 word size Words: No. K % Total 1. saw 21 95 22 2. time 21 95 22 3. period 16 73 22 4. figure 10 45 22 5. poor 21 95 22 6. drives 19 86 22 7. jump 21 95 22 8. shoe 21 95 22 9. standards 19 86 22 10. basis 3 14 22
Key: No. K = number of students who knew the word; % = the number of students who knew the word converted to a percentage.
Table 4.19 above revealed patterns in the data at the grade level, or individual differences within a grade. Tables show all the information needed to highlight the actual question, or the word asked about, the raw data showing the total number of students who gave an answer or knew the word, and a percentage, meaning the percentage of students who knew the word (Table 4.19). The left-hand column lists the word asked about; the second column lists the number of students who knew the word; the third column lists the number of students who knew the word, converted to a percentage; the far right-hand column lists the total number of students who did the test. A whole grade mean of the total number of students who knew the word was used to make comparisons between grades and the whole group level (80); the means were used to make general observations about group differences in known words at a particular word size (e.g., an average of 17 grade 1 students knew all the words at the 1000). The scores can be found in Appendix 6.
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4.7.2.6 Interviews
Interviews were conducted after questionnaires were collected and analysed using QQ, an internet communication tool (see section 4.2.2.2 above). QQ is widely used in China by Chinese students, and therefore is more familiar to them than Skype. QQ and Skype are virtually identical allowing the same applications to run for example, written chat, audio and video. However, many of the students in China do not have access to the video app. (or restrictions on use apply) and therefore interviews were restricted to written chat most of the time the student was seen.
Students were initially invited to participate (through a contact at the research site) and asked to provide an email address so the details of the interview could be sent them, as well as an informed consent form to sign and return. Students provided details of availability and a time suggested to conduct the interview. They could negotiate the time, but most were happy with the time suggested and they made themselves available at that time.
The initial interview began with ice-breakers in an effort to relax the student. A range of general demographic questions was asked prior to the interview proper (e.g., age, gender, year of enrolment). Then the main interview began (see Chapter 5). When responses to the main questions appeared to be exhausted, the student was thanked for their participation and asked if they would like to receive the results of the interview.
The analysis of interviews for themes and categories can be found in Chapter 5. An example of the interview transcript and a first-look analysis appear below: FriendshipOn11:11:37 AM So you meet new words when surfing internet websites? Donna 11:11:44 AM yes
FriendshipOn11:11:55 AM What about when you [are] chatting in QQ?
FriendshipOn11:12:08 AM ... when youre chatting in QQ Donna 11:13:18 AM in [the] website there are many professional words [belief experience]
FriendshipOn11:13:38 AM The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 99 2013
Are the websites English websites? Donna 11:13:50 AM but in QQ a little better [belief - experience] Donna 11:13:56 AM yes [the websites are English websites]
FriendshipOn11:14:05 AM Why is QQ a little better? Donna 11:14:24 AM we can communicate [goal of strategy use] Donna 11:14:38 AM with each other
FriendshipOn11:14:51 AM So you meet more new words when chatting [on QQ] than reading English websites? Donna 11:15:55 AM no, chatting is better than reading [quality of activity - experience]
FriendshipOn11:16:10 AM Ok
The part interview above occurred on the internet communication tool QQ in chat form. The combined video/audio aspects were not available at the time of the interview. QQ automatically transcribes the chat and can be easily printed. My membership name is FriendshipOn and the interviewees membership name appears in Chinese characters with a question mark either end, though she used the English name Donna.
Paltridge and Phakiti (2010, pp. 102103) say the classic method for analysing qualitative data usually follows these steps: 1 Coding: converting the comments on each piece of data to key words or phrases for example, informal behaviour, gender division, teacher control. There may be more than one such code for each piece of data; but basically this is a method for seeing how each code is distributed throughout the data. 2 Determining themes: the codes which occur with significant frequency are then grouped within themes. 3 Constructing an argument: The themes are then used as headings and subheadings for constructing an argument about what can be learnt from the data. Under each thematic heading, extracts from the data which exemplify the theme are collected and used as evidence for the points made in the argument. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 100 2013
4 Going back to the data: Collecting extracts to support the argument will involve going back to the data, reassessing the codes and refining or possibly changing the themes. The process of drafting and redrafting the argument will also add to this process of refinement.
This was the general approach to analysing the interview data. It was analysed quantitatively by putting the themes in a table in categories and counting them. Table 4.20 below shows the discovery strategies students suggested. Discovery-place strategies concern the place where new words are met. Excerpts from the interview are shown below and show how students responded to the question. How the interview data was analysed and mined for the themes that appear in table 4.20, is also shown.
Table 4.20: Discovery-place strategies Theme #: Theme: No.: 1 in books 3 2 in textbooks 16 3 in newspapers 8 4 in magazines 8 5 extensive readers 1 6 in passages 1 7 in novels 4 8 educational books 1 9 vocabulary books 1 10 other books 1 11 listening resources 1 12 in tests 2 13 in exams 2 14 in school 1 15 in class 1 16 in conversation 1 17 on computer 1 18 computer games 1 19 in libraries 1 20 on internet 4 21 news websites 1 22 on TV 10 23 on radio 1 24 in public 1 25 on trains 1 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 101 2013
26 in hotels 1 27 restaurant menu 1 28 in advertising 4 29 in posters 1 30 in movies 9 31 in music 1 32 in songs 3 33 everywhere 1
Interview data tables were constructed after the interview. This allowed the interview response to be placed in the appropriate place after the initial question and subsequent questions (see table below). The interview data as it appeared in QQ was simply cut-and-pasted into the table to be analysed.
student Age Major grade CET score gender YoELE 1) Xiao HONG 21 English 3 111 f 12 Question: Answer: 1) Where do you meet/encounter new English words? English text books, newspapers and maga zines. Ok Anywhere else? On the internet Anywhere else? Anywhere around where I live; life; yeah, and on billboard, on the street, and in the product Introductions. When you meet them in your textbook, are they by themselves in a list or in sentences and passages? When I am in grade1 and grade 2 there is a new word list but now, there is no word list in text books; we learn it in the sentences. Why is there no word list now? Because when we are freshmen, we need to learn new words to be the foundation. Now I'm a junior and the textbooks focus on other abilities; like rhetorical device. Which abilities? What the author want to tell the readers. What kind of words do you learn as a freshman? Many kinds of new words; in our text books, each lesson will have a word list, and belong to the lesson. They belong to the lesson? What kind of lesson will you have? Maybe some essays and novels. So the new words are in the essays and novels? Yeah Are the words you learn as a freshman different from the words you learn now? Yeah, the words I learn now are longer and m ore difficult to remember.
To make the responses to the questions more legible, some spacing was added between some words. The questions elicited responses about where new words are met or found by the student. The first response shows English text books, which is expected given the respondent The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 102 2013
is a student, newspapers and magazines. Subsequent probing questions elicit more places new words are met by the student. The nominals (newspapers; on the internet; on the billboard) were extracted from the responses and tabled. If a response could be generalised, for example, on the billboard, then it was classified under the rubric Advertising.
4.8 Intended outcomes of the research
The intended outcomes reflect the main objectives of the research. As mentioned in 4.1 above, and throughout the methodology, the research questions for the present research reflect the main objectives of the study:
1) Observe CEMs VLS use and frequency of use in a higher education context; 2) Observe any differences in VLS frequency of use in each grade of a four-year Bachelor degree; 3) Compare and contrast strategy use among the four grades of strategy users and with previous research; 4) Observe CEMs beliefs, generally and specifically, and observe differences and compare with previous research; 5) Compare and contrast the findings of all four factors (VLS, BALLL, CCL, VST) and observe the relationship among them; and, 6) Observe patterns in the data that reveal aspects of the PVL.
The research generated data that:
1) explored CEMs VLSs and frequency of use in a Chinese university context in mainland China; 2) explored CEMs BALLL, generally, and CCL, specifically; and, 3) explored CEMs EVS.
This was done to better understand the process of English vocabulary learning by CEMs in China. The term factor to label VLS use and beliefs isnt a substitute for the label variable or status variable (Heppner et al, 1999), they are synonymous because these factors (e.g., VLS use and beliefs), as with status variables, are liable to change. A VLS or belief may not change its nature, however its utility may change given a learners experience and/or reflection, and The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 103 2013
depending on the circumstances of use (e.g., learning task). A VLS or set of strategies will be employed during the learning task (for instance, use X to do Y); a belief, depending on the learners experience of learning whether a learning goal was achieved, for instance is part of the learners particular learning approach and a belief or set of beliefs will be activated during the learning task (for instance, use X to do Y because X is the best way to do Y or because X is expected to be used to do Y). The utility of the factor being liable to change, they are never- the-less the process (VLSs being procedural knowledge and beliefs action directed) of vocabulary learning, the independent variable (IV), if you will, whose utility is dependent on the demands of the learning task (for example, preparing for an exam). The IV, the process of vocabulary learning (VLS use and beliefs), has some effect on the dependent variable (DV), in this case, vocabulary learning. The present research does not conduct an experiment (Kerlinger, 1986) or try to manipulate the IV to observe the impact on the DV (vocabulary learning), it explores the process of vocabulary learning the IV; it explores VLS use and beliefs to better understand the process (IV), and infers the impact or effect on vocabulary learning (DV) through observing vocabulary size.
A mixed methods approach was used. Quantitative and qualitative data collection methods were used. The quantitative was collected with three questionnaires and vocabulary tests. The qualitative was collected with an interview. The research is exploratory, interpretative and a case study. The research explores the PVL, focusing on two important aspects, VLSs and BALLL. The possible effect on EVS was explored using several VSTs. Chapter 5 presents the results of the research.
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CHAPTER 5: VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES AND BELIEFS ABOUT LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGE LEARNING DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
5.0 Introduction
This chapter discusses the results of descriptive analysis to observe trends and patterns in the data. There are two main sections: Part 1, section 5.1, Vocabulary learning strategies, and Part 2, section 5.6, Beliefs about language and language learning. Section 5.1 discusses the results by research question, and begins with research question No. 1: Which vocabulary learning strategies do Chinese English Majors use?; and 5.2 discusses research question No. 2: What is the difference in vocabulary learning strategy use among the four grades of Chinese English Majors?. Part 2, section 5.6, discusses research question No. 3: What are Chinese English Majors Western beliefs about language and language learning and Chinese culture of learning beliefs about language and language learning?, but only the presentation of similarities and differences; meaning, where general beliefs and CCL beliefs are similar or different.
5.1 Research question No. 1:
Which vocabulary learning strategies do Chinese English Majors tend to use?
The purpose of this section is to highlight through descriptive statistics significant trends and patterns in the data. Percentages rather than means are preferred when discussing frequency because the latter highlights general use (yes/no) whereas scaling (e.g., rarely, often) highlights frequency of use. The means are also included, however, to strengthen confidence in percentages. The discussion begins with the questionnaire data, then interview data is presented and compared with the questionnaire data.
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5.1.2 General differences in students VLS use and the frequency of VLS use
5.1.2.1 VLSQ data
The aim of the research question was to explore CEMs use in relation to Mas (2009) list of VLSs and their frequency of use. The view was that CEMs do use VLSs, since the existence of VLSs have been empirically confirmed (see Chapter 2: section 2.3 Definitions of vocabulary learning strategies a brief outline) and research has shown that Chinese EFL learners do use VLSs (see Chapter 2: section 2.4.1 Vocabulary learning strategies research in a Chinese context a brief outline). Therefore, the research explored VLS use by CEMs in relation to Mas (2009) list and Schmitts (1997) general classification of VLSs (for example, discovery and consolidation strategies).
5.1.2.2 Means of strategy use show level of strategy use
The following means tables are used to highlight and add support to the observation in descriptive statistics that strategy use is medium. Table 5.1 presents the means for the whole group and all VLSs, while Table 5.2 presents the means for individual strategies.
CEMs showed average VLS use, generally, shown in the means (see Tables 5.1 and 5.2 below). Using the idea that 1.00 to 2.49 is low use, 2.50 to 3.49 is medium use, and 3.50 to 5.00 is high use (see Wahyuni, 2013), 15 out of 62 VLSs experienced high use and only one category (determination-study strategies) experienced high use. Table 5.13 provides another view of the spread of strategies not used in each grade. In grade 1, a total of 19 strategies were not generally used, 15 were not used in grade 2, 18 were not used in grade 3 and 12 were not used in grade 4 (see Table 5.15). However, while strategy use happened to a greater or lesser extent in each grade, strategy use was variable.
Key to Table 5.1: table shows means of categories and strategies for the whole group; left- hand column shows the categories; the three right-hand side columns shows mean, standard deviation and sample number.
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Table 5.1: Categories and strategies and means suggesting use Categories and strategies M SD n 1. Discovery: place to find 3.39 0.57 80 2. Determination: initial response 3.03 0.64 80 3. Determination: study 3.64 0.60 80 4. Consolidation: organization 3.06 0.71 80 5. Consolidation: memorization 2.95 0.56 80 6. Consolidation: review 2.92 0.63 80 7. Consolidation: remember 3.46 0.49 80 8. Consolidation: production 2.93 0.57 80
Table 5.1 shows the means of the 8 categories of vocabulary strategies. The means firstly, show use, specifically, the first four groups and seventh group seemed to experience medium use, whereas categories 5, 6 and 8 seem to experience less use.
Key to Table 5.2: left-hand column shows the categories and all sub-strategies; the three right- hand side columns show mean, standard deviation and sample number. Category 3 experienced high use, the rest experienced medium use.
Table 5.2: Categories and strategies for whole group Categories and strategies M SD n Discovery: place to find 1a in textbooks and classroom activities 1b in vocabulary lists arranged in alphabetical order 1c in vocabulary lists arranged by meaning 1d during English conversation with others 1e when reading English materials 1f when singing English songs and watching English movies/TV 1g when using/surfing the internet
3.89 3.33
3.15 2.71 3.75
3.55 3.31
0.72 0.95
0.94 0.75 0.79
0.92 0.97
80 80
80 80 80
80 80 Determination: initial response 3a pay no attention to and never go back to it 3b pay no attention to it, but go back to later 3c try to guess the new words meaning from the context 3d study the words prefixes, suffixes and root-word for meaning 3e ask a classmate or teacher for the meaning 3f read a Chinese-English or an English- Chinese dictionary 3g read an English-only dictionary
1.92 2.94
3.67
3.28 2.65
3.98 2.76
0.74 1.00
0.80
0.82 0.91
0.82 1.03
80 80
80
80 80
80 80 Determination: study 4a its pronunciation 4b the spelling 4c the prefixes, suffixes and root words 4d the Chinese translation 4e the English explanations
4.27 4.21 3.13 4.29 3.32
0.78 0.87 0.89 0.71 0.99
80 80 80 80 80 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 107 2013
4f the example sentences 4g the way the new word is used 4h the new words relationship with other words 4i the new words part of speech 3.23 3.69
3.05 3.59 0.97 0.83
0.88 1.08 80 80
80 80 Consolidation: organisation 5a write it down 5b order the information in a vocabulary notebook 5c make vocabulary cards 5d use the vocabulary lists in the textbooks 5e use a vocabulary list like those in the VOCABULARY 5000 and TEM4EasyTest
2.98
3.43 2.26 3.44
3.19
0.91
1.09 1.04 0.97
1.00
80
80 80 80
80 Consolidation: memorisation 6a say the word aloud several times 6b write the word several times 6c look at the word several times 6d memorise Chinese-English/English- Chinese lists 6e do vocabulary exercises 6f link the word to similar meaning words or opposite meaning words 6g link the word with already known words and have similarities 6h compare words with similar meaning and study together 6i group words in order e.g. meaning, part of speech 6j place word in a context e.g. sentence, conversation 6k use the new word to make up a sentence 6l listen to tape-/CD recordings of words 6m make up rhymes to link new words together 6n practise new words by acting them out e.g. verbs 6o try to imagine what the new word looks like (in a sentence) 6p draw pictures to illustrate the meaning of the new words 6q try to imagine in my head what the new word looks like 6r remember the prefix, suffix and root word of the new word
3.17 3.81 3.27
3.50 3.01
3.04
3.21
3.02
2.76
3.32 2.89 2.64
2.45
2.44
3.05
1.85
2.64
3.09
0.96 0.92 1.03
0.99 0.91
0.91
0.79
0.92
0.92
0.83 1.05 0.98
0.92
1.01
1.01
0.83
1.10
0.95
80 80 80
80 80
80
80
80
80
80 80 80
80
80
80
80
80
80 Consolidation: review 7a say the new word 2 or 3 times the first day 7b say the new words the next time I read them, and again after that 7c read the new words the first day, but not after that 7d read the new words 2 or 3 times first, then again a few days later, a week later, a month later 7e test the new words on my own 7f test the new words with classmates
3.09
3.13
2.55
2.98
3.19 2.61
0.93
0.84
1.12
1.08
1.12 0.98
80
80
80
80
80 80 Consolidation: remember 8a remember the new word the way I learned it 8b remember the new word by its meaning (when heard again)
3.41
3.63
0.73
0.88
80
80 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 108 2013
8c remember the new word by its meaning (when read again) 8d remember the new words meaning first, then think about its meaningful parts e.g. prefix, suffix and root word 8e try to remember where I first met the word
3.87
3.23
3.17
0.62
0.81
1.08
80
80
80 Consolidation: production 9a try to use words in speaking and writing 9b try to use idioms when I speak 9c try to think in English with the new vocabulary 9d try having conversations using the new words with English speakers e.g. teachers 9e try to e-chat on the internet using QQ, MSN
3.60 2.83
3.18
2.76
2.30
0.89 0.92
1.00
0.90
0.95
80 80
80
80
80
In Table 5.2 above we see the individual strategies within a category and the whole group mean for each strategy is highlighted. Five determination-study strategies appeared to experience high use, with means 3.50 or higher: 15 strategies experienced high use, 41 medium use and 6 low use.
5.1.2.3 Frequency of vocabulary learning strategy use
The following subsection presents the highest percentage of students using a VLS and frequency of use to observe patterns and in relation to Schmitts (1997) categorisation of two main VLS groups discovery/determination strategies and consolidation strategies (see Chapter 2, section 2.2.4, Table 2.1). When reading this presentation of a specific finding, the reader is asked to think about how strategy use may affect the way students learn in each grade of their Bachelor degree.
Tables 5.3 to 5.11 show which VLSs were often/always, rarely/never or sometimes used, or a combination of these, by CEMs. A total of 26 VLSs of 62 strategies were rarely or never used. A total of 17 VLSs were rarely or never used in grade 1, 15 VLSs were not used in grade 2, 16 VLSs were not used in grade 3 and 12 VLSs were not used in grade 4 (see Table 5.15 below). Five VLSs were consistently not used across all grades: VLSs 3a, 5c, 7c, 7f and 9e (highlighted in soft orange see Appendix 8, Table 4). While 3a was a discovery strategy (Pay no attention to a new word, and never go back to it), the others were consolidation strategies (5c: make vocabulary cards; 7c: read the new words the first time, but not after that; 7f: test new words with classmates; and 9e: try to e-chat on the Internet using QQ, MSN Messenger).
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The combination of the total number of response choices shows which strategy was regularly used and the frequency of VLS use (for instance, never (1), rarely (2), sometimes (3), often (4) and always (5)). The data shows whether 1) the same VLS was used in successive grades, and 2) the frequency of its use. The strength of the frequency of VLS use can be seen in terms of use [not means] (for instance, the frequency of VLS use was unchanged in each a grade (for example, rarely used in each grade), or increased (for example, went from rarely to often), or decreased (for example, went from often to rarely) (see section 5.2 Three frequency-of-use strategy groupings below).
Tables 5.3 to 5.11 below also highlight the grade percentage, frequency, mean and standard deviation of CEMs strategy use and the frequency. Key to Table 5.3: the left-hand column lists the question and its parts, with its code at the top, for example, 1/1a, 1/1b, and the name of the strategy next to it; the second column shows grade; the third column shows the percentage of students using the strategy in each grade; the fourth column lists frequency item all percentages and frequencies for each grade can be seen in Appendix 8, Table 2; the fifth column shows the mean for each grade; the sixth column shows the standard deviation (SD); and the end column shows the number of students in each grade who completed the questionnaire.
Table 5.3: Question 1: Where do you meet new words? [Discovery-place strategies] By grade, highest percentage, frequency, mean and SD strategy grade % freq. mean SD n 1/1a: In textbooks and classroom learning activities
1 50 often 3.68 0.84 22 2 55 often 4.00 0.69 22 3 63 often 4.04 0.62 24 4 50 often 3.83 0.72 12 2/1b: In vocabulary lists arranged in alphabetical order
1 45 often 3.32 0.99 22 2 36 often 3.59 0.96 22 3 54 sometimes 3.17 0.64 24 4 33 sometimes 3.25 1.22 12 3/1c: In vocabulary lists arranged by meaning 1 50 sometimes 3.14 0.89 22 2 41 sometimes 3.18 0.85 22 3 33 sometimes 3.21 0.93 24 4 50 often 3.08 1.08 12 4/1d: During English conversation with others 1 45 rarely 2.82 1.01 22 2 50 rarely 2.41 0.59 22 3 42 rarely/often 2.96 0.91 24 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 110 2013
4 67 sometimes 2.67 0.49 12 5/1e: When reading English materials 1 45 often 3.50 0.86 22 2 59 often 3.91 0.75 22 3 42 often 3.83 0.92 24 4 58 often 3.75 0.62 12 6/1f: When singing English songs and watching English movies/TV 1 41 often 3.41 0.96 22 2 45 sometimes 3.59 0.80 22 3 38 often 3.71 0.91 24 4 33 often 3.50 1.00 12 7/1g: When using/surfing the internet 1 41 sometimes 3.18 1.10 22 2 55 sometimes 2.91 0.87 22 3 42 sometimes 3.33 1.09 24 4 58 often 3.83 0.83 12
Table 5.3 shows frequency of use of a discovery-place strategy in each grade there are seven in this category. This information tells us about the popular strategies used in each grade. Knowing this also suggests what type of learning is being done in each grade or what students did or didnt do in each grade for instance, they often meet new words in textbooks but they rarely find new words during English conversations with others. Three were used often, three sometimes and one rarely.
Table 5.4: Question 3: What do you do when you meet new vocabulary items? [determination initial response strategies] By grade, highest percentage, frequency, mean and SD strategy grade % freq. mean SD n 8/3a: Pay no attention to it and never go back to it
1 50 rarely 2.05 0.65 22 2 68 rarely 1.77 0.53 22 3 50 rarely 2.13 0.80 24 4 50 never 1.75 0.97 12 9/3b: Pay no attention to it, but go back to it later
1 41 often 3.50 1.01 22 2 64 rarely 2.73 0.77 22 3 29 sometimes 2.46 1.14 24 4 42 sometimes 3.08 1.08 12 10/3c: I try to guess the words meaning from the context 1 41 often 3.86 0.94 22 2 59 often 3.59 0.73 22 3 54 often 3.71 0.62 24 4 50 sometimes 3.50 0.90 12 11/3d: Study the words prefixes, suffixes and root word for meaning 1 50 sometimes 3.32 0.84 22 2 45 sometimes 3.14 0.83 22 3 50 sometimes 3.00 0.72 24 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 111 2013
4 42 often 3.67 0.89 12 12/3e: Ask a classmate or teacher for the meaning 1 45 rarely 2.91 1.15 22 2 41 rarely/sometimes 2.36 0.79 22 3 42 rarely 2.67 0.82 24 4 42 rarely 2.67 0.89 12 13/3f: Read a Chinese- English or an English- Chinese dictionary 1 41 often 3.86 1.08 22 2 50 always 4.45 0.60 22 3 50 often 3.83 0.87 24 4 42 sometimes/often 3.75 0.75 12 14/3g: Read an English-only dictionary 1 45 rarely 2.55 1.22 22 2 45 rarely 2.64 0.90 22 3 29 rarely/sometimes 2.79 1.10 24 4 50 sometimes 3.08 0.90 12
Table 5.4 shows the use of a determination initial response strategy, concerning what a student does when meeting a word for the first time. We can see that students often try to guess the new words meaning from the context but rarely ask a classmate or teacher for the meaning. Two were used often, one sometimes and the rest had a mix of frequencies.
Table 5.5: Question 4: When learning new vocabulary, what aspects do you study? [determination-study strategies] By grade, highest percentage, frequency, mean and SD strategy grade % freq. mean SD n 15/4a: Its pronunciation 1 41 often 4.09 0.87 22 2 45 often/always 4.36 0.66 22 3 50 always 4.38 0.71 24 4 50 always 4.25 0.87 12 16/4b: The spelling 1 45 often 4.27 0.70 22 2 45 often/always 4.36 0.66 22 3 63 always 4.38 1.01 24 4 33 often/always 3.83 1.11 12 17/4c: The prefixes, suffixes and root word 1 45 sometimes 3.32 0.95 22 2 55 sometimes 3.14 0.77 22 3 46 sometimes 3.08 0.88 24 4 67 sometimes 3.00 0.95 12 18/4d: The Chinese translation 1 50 often 4.18 0.80 22 2 55 always 4.50 0.60 22 3 58 always 4.46 0.72 24 4 50 often 4.00 0.74 12 19/4e: The English explanations 1 32 sometimes 3.36 1.05 22 2 50 sometimes 3.59 0.85 22 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 112 2013
3 42 sometimes 3.33 0.92 24 4 42 often 3.00 1.13 12 20/4f: The example sentences 1 27 sometimes/often 3.45 1.14 22 2 50 sometimes 3.27 0.77 22 3 58 sometimes 3.04 0.69 24 4 58 often 3.17 1.27 12 21/4g: The way the new word is used 1 41 sometimes 3.64 0.90 22 2 64 often 4.00 0.62 22 3 42 often 3.54 1.02 24 4 50 often 3.58 0.79 12 22/4h: The new word's relationship with other words 1 64 sometimes 3.05 0.84 22 2 41 sometimes 3.14 0.77 22 3 46 sometimes 2.92 0.83 24 4 42 sometimes 3.08 1.08 12 23/4i: The new word's part of speech 1 45 sometimes 3.32 1.09 22 2 41 often 3.91 1.06 22 3 38 sometimes 3.54 0.93 24 4 33 often 3.58 1.24 12
Table 5.5 shows the use of a determination-study strategy. This is a range of strategies concerning studying a new word a student has just met for the first time. We can see that students often study the new words pronunciation but sometimes its prefixes, suffixes and root word. Four were used often, four sometimes and one a mix of frequencies.
Table 5.6: Question 5: How do you put in order the info about the new vocabulary? [consolidation-organisation strategies] By grade, highest percentage, frequency, mean and SD strategy grade % freq. mean SD n 24/5a: Write it down 1 45 sometimes 3.05 0.84 22 2 45 sometimes 2.91 0.92 22 3 38 sometimes 3.04 1.08 24 4 42 sometimes 2.92 0.79 12 25/5b: Order the information in a vocabulary notebook 1 32 often 3.41 1.14 22 2 41 sometimes 3.59 1.05 22 3 33 often 3.29 1.16 24 4 42 sometimes 3.42 1.00 12 26/5c: Make vocabulary cards 1 55 rarely 2.27 0.98 22 2 59 rarely 2.05 0.84 22 3 50 rarely 1.96 1.12 24 4 42 rarely 2.75 1.22 12 1 41 often 3.73 1.08 22 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 113 2013
27/5d: Use the vocabulary lists in the textbooks 2 45 sometimes 3.36 0.85 22 3 42 often 3.50 0.93 24 4 42 rarely 3.17 1.03 12 28/5e: Use a vocabulary list like those in the VOCABULARY 5000/TEM4EasyTEST 1 32 often 3.32 1.25 22 2 36 sometimes 2.68 1.13 22 3 42 sometimes 3.75 0.90 24 4 50 sometimes 3.00 0.74 12
Table 5.6 shows how students organise the information about a new word they have just met in preparation to engage in learning it. Sometimes write it down, and they rarely make vocabulary cards. Two were used sometimes, one rarely and the rest was a mix of frequencies.
Table 5.7: Question 6: How do you memorise new vocabulary? [consolidation-memory strategies the first 9] By grade, highest percentage, frequency, mean and SD strategy grade % freq. mean SD n 29/6a: Say the word aloud several times 1 32 often 3.36 1.36 22 2 45 sometimes 3.23 0.97 22 3 58 sometimes 3.08 0.65 24 4 58 sometimes 3.00 0.85 12 30/6b: Write the word several times 1 50 often 3.55 1.18 22 2 45 often 4.14 0.83 22 3 42 often 3.96 0.86 24 4 50 often 3.58 0.79 12 31/6c: Look at the word several times 1 36 often 3.59 0.96 22 2 36 often 3.05 1.09 22 3 50 often 3.21 1.10 24 4 33 sometimes/often 3.25 0.97 12 32/6d: Memorise Chinese- English/English-Chinese lists 1 45 often 3.45 1.14 22 2 36 often 3.77 1.02 22 3 38 sometimes 3.54 0.93 24 4 50 sometimes 3.25 0.87 12 33/6e: Do vocabulary exercises 1 41 rarely/sometimes 2.77 0.75 22 2 45 sometimes 3.14 0.99 22 3 38 rarely 2.96 0.86 24 4 33 rarely/often 3.17 1.03 12 34/6f: Link word to similar meaning words or opposite meaning words 1 50 sometimes 2.82 0.80 22 2 36 sometimes 3.09 1.11 22 3 46 sometimes 3.00 0.98 24 4 67 sometimes 3.25 0.75 12 1 59 sometimes 3.14 0.64 22 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 114 2013
35/6g: Link the word with already known words and have similarities 2 45 often 3.41 0.96 22 3 54 sometimes 3.13 0.85 24 4 50 sometimes 3.17 0.72 12 36/6h: Compare words with similar meaning and study together 1 55 sometimes 2.73 0.83 22 2 55 sometimes 3.18 1.01 22 3 33 sometimes 3.25 1.07 24 4 42 sometimes 2.92 0.79 12 37/6i: Group words in order e.g. meaning, part of speech 1 55 rarely 2.82 0.91 22 2 45 rarely 2.50 0.91 22 3 42 sometimes 2.79 0.98 24 4 42 rarely 2.92 0.90 12
Table 5.7 shows the first range of consolidation-memory strategies; how a student will attempt to memorise a new word. They often write the new word several times, but rarely group words in order. Two were used often, four sometimes, one rarely and the rest were a mix of frequencies.
Table 5.8: Question 6: How do you memorise new vocabulary? [consolidation-memory strategies the second 9] By grade, highest percentage, frequency, mean and SD strategy grade % freq. mean SD n 38/6j: Place word in a context e.g. sentence, conversation 1 36 sometimes/often 3.23 0.87 22 2 41 sometimes 3.05 0.95 22 3 54 sometimes 3.25 0.74 24 4 42 sometimes/often 3.75 0.75 12 39/6k: Use the new word to make up a sentence 1 32 rarely/often 3.00 1.02 22 2 50 sometimes 2.68 0.99 22 3 33 rarely 2.79 1.02 24 4 33 often 3.08 1.16 12 40/6l: Listen to tape-/CD recordings of words 1 45 rarely 2.27 0.88 22 2 45 rarely 2.36 0.85 22 3 42 sometimes 2.67 0.96 24 4 33 sometimes 3.25 1.22 12 41/6m: Make up rhymes to link new words together 1 36 sometimes 2.86 0.89 22 2 45 rarely 2.23 0.81 22 3 50 rarely 2.38 0.82 24 4 33 rarely/sometimes 2.33 1.15 12 42/6n: Practise new words by acting them out e.g. verbs 1 41 sometimes 2.77 1.07 22 2 41 rarely 1.95 0.95 22 3 50 sometimes 2.54 0.93 24 4 42 sometimes 2.50 1.09 12 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 115 2013
43/6o: Try to imagine what the new word looks like (in a sentence) 1 41 often 3.09 1.11 22 2 36 sometimes 3.09 0.97 22 3 46 sometimes 3.08 0.97 24 4 33 sometimes/often 2.92 1.00 12 44/6p: Draw pictures to illustrate the meaning of new words 1 64 rarely 1.64 0.49 22 2 41 never/rarely 1.82 0.85 22 3 58 rarely 1.88 0.74 24 4 42 sometimes 2.08 1.24 12 45/6q: Try to imagine in my head what the new word looks like 1 41 sometimes 2.55 1.06 22 2 32 rarely/sometimes 2.68 1.09 22 3 50 sometimes 2.92 1.02 24 4 33 never 2.42 1.24 12 46/6r: Remember the prefix, suffix and root word of the new word 1 45 sometimes 2.91 0.92 22 2 59 sometimes 3.27 0.88 22 3 46 sometimes 3.08 0.83 24 4 33 often 3.08 1.16 12
Table 5.8 is the second list of consolidation-memory strategies to memorise a new word. Students in grades 1 and 2 rarely listen to tape-/CD recordings of new words, but sometimes do this in grades 3 and 4. They sometimes remember the prefix, suffix and root word of the new word in grades 1 to 3, but often do this in grade 4. All strategies experienced a mix of frequencies.
Table 5.9: Question 7: How do you review vocabulary? [consolidation-review strategies] By grade, highest percentage, frequency, mean and SD strategy grade % freq. mean SD n 47/7a: Say the new word 2 or 3 times the first day 1 41 rarely 2.91 1.11 22 2 41 sometimes 3.36 0.95 22 3 58 sometimes 2.92 0.83 24 4 42 often 3.17 0.83 12 48/7b: Say the new words the next time I read them, and again after that 1 59 sometimes 3.05 0.65 22 2 41 sometimes 3.00 1.02 22 3 46 often 3.29 0.86 24 4 42 often 3.17 0.83 12 49/7c: Read the new words the first day, but not after that 1 45 rarely 2.55 1.10 22 2 27 never/rarely 2.41 1.14 22 3 54 rarely 2.67 0.87 24 4 33 rarely 2.58 1.38 12 50/7d: Read then new words 2 or 3 times first, 1 36 sometimes 2.86 1.25 22 2 36 sometimes 3.09 1.11 22 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 116 2013
then again a few days later, a week later, a month later 3 29 never/rarely 2.88 1.08 24 4 50 sometimes 3.08 0.90 12 51/7e: Test the new words on my own 1 27 never/rarely 3.41 1.10 22 2 41 sometimes 3.27 0.98 22 3 33 rarely/sometimes 3.00 1.02 24 4 33 rarely 3.08 1.38 12 52/7f: Test the new words with classmates 1 36 rarely 2.91 0.97 22 2 50 rarely 2.45 1.06 22 3 50 rarely 2.50 0.88 24 4 50 rarely 2.58 1.00 12
Table 5.9 shows a range of consolidation-review strategies used to review a new word and any information about it that students are trying to learn. Grade 1 students rarely say the new word aloud 2 or 3 times the first day they meet it. Grades 2 and 3 sometimes do this, but grade 4 does it often. One was rarely used and the rest had a mix of frequencies.
Table 5.10: Question 8: How do you remember words you have memorised? [consolidation- remember strategies] By grade, highest percentage, frequency, mean and SD strategy grade % freq. mean SD n 53/8a: Remember the new word the way I learned it 1 32 sometimes/often 3.32 1.09 22 2 50 sometimes 3.32 0.65 22 3 50 sometimes 3.58 0.65 24 4 58 sometimes 3.42 0.51 12 54/8b: Remember the new word by its meaning (when heard again) 1 41 sometimes 3.82 0.96 22 2 55 often 3.86 0.77 22 3 71 often 3.75 0.61 24 4 42 sometimes/often 3.08 1.16 12 55/8c: Remember the new word by its meaning (when read again) 1 55 often 4.18 0.66 22 2 50 often 4.00 0.82 22 3 88 often 3.88 0.34 24 4 50 often 3.42 0.67 12 56/8d: Remember the new words meaning first, then think about its meaningful parts e.g. prefixes 1 55 sometimes 3.14 0.77 22 2 36 sometimes 3.18 0.96 22 3 58 sometimes 3.33 0.76 24 4 42 sometimes/often 3.25 0.75 12 57/8e: Try to remember where I first met the word 1 41 rarely 2.95 1.17 22 2 36 sometimes/often 3.36 0.90 22 3 38 often 3.21 1.22 24 4 50 often 3.17 1.03 12 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 117 2013
In Table 5.10 there is a range of consolidation-remember strategies used to try to remember the new word students are trying to learn. Students in all grades often remember the new word by its meaning when read again, but sometimes remember the new words meaning first, then think about its meaningful parts, but some students in grade 4 do this often. One was often used, two sometimes and the rest had a mix of frequencies.
Table 5.11: Question 9: How do you make use of new vocabulary? [consolidation-production strategies] By grade, highest percentage, frequency, mean and SD strategy grade % freq. mean SD n 58/9a: Try to use words in speaking and writing 1 36 sometimes 3.64 1.05 22 2 50 often 3.50 0.74 22 3 25 rarely/often/always 3.50 1.14 24 4 58 often 3.75 0.62 12 59/9b: Try to use idioms when I speak 1 36 rarely/often 3.00 0.87 22 2 50 sometimes 2.64 0.73 22 3 38 rarely 2.83 0.96 24 4 33 rarely/sometimes 2.83 1.11 12 60/9c: Try to think in English with the new vocabulary 1 41 often 3.32 0.99 22 2 50 sometimes 3.18 1.01 22 3 42 sometimes 3.13 0.99 24 4 58 sometimes 3.08 1.00 12 61/9d: Try having conversations using the new words with English speakers e.g. teachers 1 36 rarely/sometimes 2.86 1.04 22 2 45 rarely/sometimes 2.50 0.67 22 3 42 rarely 2.75 0.90 24 4 58 sometimes 2.92 1.00 12 62/9e: Try to e-chat on the internet using QQ, MSN 1 55 sometimes 1.95 0.79 22 2 41 sometimes 2.05 1.00 22 3 50 sometimes 2.38 1.10 24 4 50 sometimes 2.83 0.94 12
In Table 5.11 there is a range of consolidation-production strategies, which involve making use of the new vocabulary students are trying to learn. Students in grade 1 sometimes try to use words in speaking and writing, grade 2 students often do this, grade 3 are mixed in this activity, and grade 4 often use the strategy. Most students in all grades sometimes try to e-chat on the internet using communication tools like QQ (a popular Chinese communication tool), MSN Messenger, or Skype. One was used sometimes, and the rest had a mix of frequencies.
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 118 2013
Tables 5.3 to 5.11 above show the highest percentage of student response to a question and its frequency, highest percentage of students using it and grade mean. Appendix 8 shows all student responses to the questions as percentages and frequency of use. The major finding is that CEMs VLS use is on a range of frequencies never to always.
Section summary
This section presented the results of the analysis of the data collected to answer the question of VLS frequency of use among CEMs, and discussed in relation to Schmitts (1997) general list of VLSs (e.g., discovery and consolidation strategies) see Table 5.1 above. The questionnaire data revealed 1) that the CEMs sampled in this research indicate that they use many of the strategies on the questionnaire to a greater or lesser degree (never, rarely, sometimes, often or always), 2) that they generally use VLSs frequently (often) or infrequently (rarely) as the case may be (in each grade of a four-year Bachelor degree), and 3) that VLS use tends to be variable. Interview data extended the range of VLSs in discovery strategies generally (e.g., where new vocabulary is met), determination strategies (e.g., the response to the new word and what to do with it), consolidation-practice strategies (e.g., ways to practise new vocabulary), and consolidation-memorisation strategies (e.g., ways to memorise the new word) see section 5.3 below.
5.2 Three frequency-of-use strategy groupings
Three general groupings of frequency of VLS use were observed in Tables 5.3 to 5.11 according to the highest percentage of students using a strategy. For instance, if the lowest percentage was in grade 1, a higher percentage in grade 2, the highest percentage in grade 3, and a lower than grade 3 percentage observed in grade 4, the pattern of frequency of use is increasing then decreasing. From this grouping we can determine which strategies are used and which never or rarely used in each grade, when strategies are used and for which learning activity and task, generally.
One graph will be used to highlight the patterning for the group. A certain percentage of students in all grades, the highest percentage, often or always or sometimes or rarely or never use the strategy. The distribution of the remaining percentages can be seen in Appendix 3.
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 119 2013
5.2.1 1) Increase grouping
In the increase group, the trend in strategy use increased from grade 1 and either kept increasing or experienced one of several other trends (e.g., decreasing; decreasing then increasing; decreasing then unchanged). There are 33 strategies in this grouping. Only the highest percentage of responses to questions is discussed because it suggests what the most students are doing.
Increase (1) in percentages of students using a strategy
Here there is an increase in the percentage of students using of S#5e in each grade. Maybe it is not surprising given that English language learning in China appears to be exam oriented and the two vocabulary books are used when preparing for an exam, so students would have relied heavily on these vocabulary resources to organise vocabulary for learning. For grade 1, it was often, but for the other grades it was an increase in the percentage of students sometimes using lists.
50 42 36 32 strategy 28/5e Use a vocabulary list like those in the VOCABULARY 5000/TEM4EasyTEST graph 1 - increase grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 often sometimes sometimes sometimes The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 120 2013
Increase then decrease (11) in percentage of students using a strategy
There are 11 strategies highlighted in this section. #: Code: Strategy used: Type of strategy: Occurrence of strategy: 1 1/1a in textbooks and from classroom activities a discovery-place strategy when meeting new words 2 6/1f when singing English songs and watching English movies a discovery-place strategy when meeting new words 3 10/3c I try to guess the new words meaning from the context a determination initial response strategy when meeting new words 4 18/4d the Chinese translation a determination-study strategy when deciding how to study a new word 5 26/5c make vocabulary cards a consolidation-organise strategy when deciding what to do with a new word to try to learn it 6 33/6e do vocabulary exercises a consolidation-memory strategy when trying to learn a new word 7 38/6j place the new word in a context e.g. a sentence a consolidation-memory strategy when trying to learn a new word 8 41/6m make up rhymes to link words together a consolidation-memory strategy when trying to learn a new word 9 46/6r try to remember the prefix, suffix and root word of the new word a consolidation-memory strategy when trying to use a new word 10 54/8b remember the new word by its meaning (when heard again) a consolidation-remember strategy when trying to remember a new word 11 59/9b try to use idioms when I speak a consolidation-production strategy when trying to use a new word
The above graph shows an example of the highest percentage of students in each grade who 50 63 55 50 Strategy 1/1a In textbooks and from classroom activities graph 2 - increase then decrase grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 often often often often The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 121 2013
use the strategy, in this case 1/1a, a discovery-place strategy, In textbooks and from classroom activities, when meeting new words.
This grouping appears perhaps because students focus on English language learning throughout their degree program but may focus on different aspects of the language at different times through their degree program. Their focus may not be always on vocabulary; it may be on vocabulary during one semester for example, in preparation for tests like the Test of English Majors (TEM) Band 4, focused on in grade 2, and the TEM Band 8, focused on in grade 4.
Increase, decrease then increase (9) in percentage of students using a strategy
There are nine strategies highlighted in this section. #: Code: Strategy used: Type of strategy: Occurrence of strategy: 1 5/1e when reading English materials a discovery-place strategy the place students meet new words 2 7/1g when using/surfing the internet a discovery-place strategy the place where students meet new words 3 9/3b pay no attention to it and never go back to it a determination initial response strategy what students initially do when they meet a new word 4 17/4c the prefixes, suffixes and root-word a determination-study strategy what students study when learning a new word 5 21/4g the way the new word is used a determination-study strategy what students do to learn a new word 6 25/5b order the information about a new word in a notebook a consolidation-organise strategy organising information about a new word in order to learn it or review it as part of the process of learning 7 58/9a try to use words in speaking and writing a consolidation-production strategy what students do to use what they are learning to establish it in memory 8 60/9c try to think in English with the new vocabulary a consolidation-production strategy what students do to make what they are learning permanent in memory 9 61/9d try having conversations using new words with English speakers a consolidation-production strategy what students do to make what they are learning permanent in memory
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 122 2013
In the example above the highest percentage of students in each grade using strategy 5/1e, when reading English materials, a discovery-place strategy, is shown. The strategy concerns the place students meet new words. A certain percentage of students in all grades often use the strategy.
This grouping appears perhaps because the focus changes on English language learning increases from grade 1 to grade 2, decreasing from grade 2 to 3, and increasing from grade 3 to grade 4. Why a decrease from grade 2 to 3 is unclear, but suggests less focus on reading English materials in grade 3.
Increase, decrease then unchanged (5) percentage of students using a strategy
There are five strategies highlighted in this section. #: Code: Strategy used: Type of strategy: Occurrence of strategy: 1 8/3a pay no attention to it and never go back to it a determination initial response strategy what students do when they first meet a new word 2 19/4e the English explanations a determination study strategy what students decide to study of the new word after they first meet it 3 27/5d use the vocabulary lists in the textbooks a consolidation-organise strategy what students do to learn new words 4 39/6k use the new word to make up a sentence a consolidation-memory strategy what students do to memorise the new words they meet 5 51/7e test the new words on my own a consolidation-review strategy what students do to review the new 58 42 59 45 Strategy 5/1e when reading English materials graph 3 - increase, decrease then increase grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 often often often often The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 123 2013
vocabulary they are trying to learn
The above graph shows the highest percentage of students using strategy 8/3a, pay no attention to it and never go back to it, a determination initial response strategy. The strategy concerns what students do when they first meet a new word. We see that students in grade 1 to 3 grades rarely do this and grade 4 students never do it.
This grouping appears perhaps because the focus changes on English language learning; it increases from grade 1 to grade 2, decreases from grade 2 to 3 and is unchanged from grade 3 to grade 4. Why the others are rarely used is unclear, given for instance, that students are preparing for exams in grades 2 and 4 but rarely use the vocabulary lists in the textbooks and do use the vocabulary test books (strategy 28/5e above).
Increase then unchanged (4) in percentage of students using a strategy
There are four strategies highlighted in this section. #: Code: Strategy used: Type of strategy: Occurrence of strategy: 1 15/4a its pronunciation a determination-study strategy what a student decides to study of the new word in order to learn it 2 20/4f the example sentences a determination-study strategy what a student decides to study of the new word in order to learn it 3 29/6a say the new word aloud a consolidation-memory what a student does to 50 50 68 50 Strategy 8/3a graph 4 - increase, decrease then unchanged grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 rarely rarely rarely never The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 124 2013
several times strategy memorise the new word 4 52/7f test the new words with classmates a consolidation-review strategy what a student does to establish the new word in memory
The above graph shows the highest percentage of students in each grade using strategy 15/4a, its pronunciation, a determination-study strategy. The strategy concerns what a student decides to study of the new word in order to learn it. Grade 1 students often do this, grade 2 students often and always do it, while grade 3 and 4 students always do it.
This grouping appears perhaps because the focus on the pronunciation of English does change; it increases from grade 1 to grade 2, decreases from grade 2 to 3 and is unchanged from grade 3 to grade 4. Knowing the pronunciation of English vocabulary helps to make the connection between written words and spoken, or their syllabic nature.
50 50 45 41 Strategy 15/4a its pronunciation graph 5 - increase, then unchanged grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 often often/always always always The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 125 2013
Increase, unchanged then increase (1) in percentage of students using a strategy
In the above graph the highest percentage of students in each grade using strategy 53/8a, remember the new word the way I learned it, a consolidation-remember strategy, is shown. The strategy concerns how a student remembers a new word they have tried to learn. We see grade 1 students sometimes and often do this, while grade 2 to 4 students sometimes do this.
This grouping appears perhaps because the focus changes on English language learning and students do not have much time to do revision; it increases from grade 1 to grade 2, decreases from grade 2 to 3 and is unchanged from grade 3 to grade 4. The result seems to suggest that students progressively reduced the use of this strategy.
58 50 50 32 Strategy 53/8a remember the new word the way I learned it graph 6 - increase, unchanged then increase grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes/often sometimes sometimes sometimes The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 126 2013
Increase, unchanged then decrease (1) in percentage of students using a strategy
In the above graph the highest percentage of students in each grade using strategy 6/1f, when singing English songs and watching English movies/TV, a discovery-place strategy, is shown. The strategy concerns where students meet new words. We see that grade 1, 3 and 4 students often meet new words in entertainment, whereas grade 2 students sometimes do.
This grouping appears perhaps because the focus changes on English language learning but students desire variety in their classroom and learning activities; it increases from grade 1 to grade 2, decreases from grade 2 to 3 and is unchanged from grade 3 to grade 4. The result seems to suggest that students progressively reduced the use of this strategy.
5.2.2 2) Decrease grouping
In the decrease group, the trend in strategy use decreased from grade 1 and either kept decreasing or experienced one of several other trends (e.g., increase; increase then decrease; increase then unchanged). There are 19 strategies is this grouping.
42 50 50 41 Strategy 6/1f when singing English songs & watching movies & TV graph 7 - increase, unchanged then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 often sometimes often often The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 127 2013
Decrease (1) in percentage of students using a strategy
In the above graph the highest percentage of students in each grade using strategy 23/4i, the new words part of speech, a determination-study strategy, is shown. The strategy concerns what a student will study of the new word in order to learn it. Grade 1 and 3 students sometimes do this, while grade 2 and 4 students often do it.
This grouping appears perhaps because the focus changes on English language learning but students tend not to do this by grade 3; it increases from grade 1 to grade 2, decreases from grade 2 to 3 and is unchanged from grade 3 to grade 4. The result seems to suggest that students progressively reduced the use of this strategy.
Decrease then increase (4) in percentage of students using a strategy
There are four strategies highlighted in this section. #: Code: Strategy used: Type of strategy: Occurrence of strategy: 1 3/1c in vocabulary lists arranged by meaning a discovery-place strategy where students meet new words 2 32/6d memorise Chinese- English and English- Chinese lists a consolidation-memory strategy what students do to memorise a new words 3 34/6f link new word to similar meaning words or opposite meaning words a consolidation-memory strategy what students do to memorise new words 4 57/8e try to remember where I a consolidation-remember what students do to 33 38 41 45 Strategy 23/4i the new word's part of speech graph 8 - decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes often sometimes often The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 128 2013
first met the word strategy remember a word they are trying to learn
In the example graph the highest percentage of students in each grade using strategy 3/1c, in vocabulary lists arranged by meaning, a discovery-place strategy, is shown. The strategy concerns where students meet new words. We see grade 1 to 3 students sometimes meet new words, whereas grade 4 students often do.
This grouping appears perhaps because the focus changes on English language learning but students dont meet this type of list until grade 4, decreasing from grade 1 to grade 3, and then increasing from grade 3 to 4. The result seems to suggest that students increasingly use these strategies.
Decrease, increase then decrease (9) in percentage of students using a strategy
There are nine strategies highlighted in this section. #: Code: Strategy used: Type of strategy: Occurrence of strategy: 1 2/1b in vocabulary lists arranged in alphabetical order a discovery-place strategy the place where students meet new words 2 4/1d during English conversations with others a discovery-place strategy the place where students meet new words 3 11/3d study the words prefixes, suffixes and root word for meaning a determination initial response strategy what students do when they meet a new word for the first time 50 33 41 50 Strategy 3/1c in vocabulary lists arranged by meaning graph 9 - decrease then increase grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes sometimes sometimes often The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 129 2013
4 22/4h the new words relationship with other words a determination-study strategy what students do when the meet a new word, what they will do to study it 5 44/6p draw pictures to illustrate the meaning of new words a consolidation-memory strategy what students do to memorise a new word 6 45/6q try to imagine in my head what the new word looks like a consolidation-memory strategy what students do to memorise a new word 7 48/7b say the new words next time I read them, and again after that a consolidation-review strategy what students do to review new words they are trying to learn 8 55/8c remember the new word by its meaning when read again a consolidation-remember strategy what students do to remember a new word they are trying to learn 9 56/8d remember the new words meaning first, then think about its meaningful parts e.g. prefixes, suffixes and root word a consolidation-remember strategy what students do to remember a new word they are trying to learn
In the example graph the highest percentage of students in each grade using strategy 2/1b, in vocabulary lists arranged in alphabetical order, a discovery-place strategy, is shown. The strategy concerns the place where students meet new words. Grades 1, 3 and 4 sometimes meet new words in these lists, but grade 2 students often do.
This grouping appears perhaps because the focus changes on English language learning and such lists are found in textbooks and vocabulary books used for exams, decreasing from grade 1 to grade 2, then increases from grade 2 to 3 and then decreases from grade 3 to grade 4. The 33 54 36 45 Strateg 2/1b in vocabulary lists arranged in alphabetical order graph 10 - decrease, increase then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes often sometimes sometimes The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 130 2013
result seems to suggest that students increasingly used the strategy in grade 2, but in other grades less so, perhaps due to the time pressure to focus on other aspects of language.
Decrease, increase then unchanged (2)
There are two strategies highlighted in this section. #: Code: Strategy used: Type of strategy: Occurrence of strategy: 1 12/3e ask a classmate or teacher for the meaning of a new word a determination initial response strategy what students do when they meet a new word for the first time 2 62/9e try to e-chat on the internet using communication tools like QQ, MSN Messenger a consolidation-production strategy what students do to try to use the new vocabulary they are trying to learn
In the example graph the highest percentage of students in each grade using strategy 62/9e, try to e-chat on the internet using communication tools like QQ, MSN Messenger, a consolidation- production strategy, is shown. The strategy concerns what students do to try to use the new vocabulary they are trying to learn. Students in all grades rarely do this.
This grouping appears perhaps because the focus changes on English language learning but students rarely have time to chat in English on QQ as they use it to chat with their parents and friends; it decreases from grade 1 to 2, then increases from grade 2 to 3 and then decreases from grade 3 to 4. The result seems to suggest that students rarely used the strategies due to 50 50 41 55 Strategy 62/9e try to e-chat on the internet graph 11 - decrease, increase then unchanged grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 rarely rarely rarely rarely The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 131 2013
rarely meeting English speakers on QQ but perhaps increased their use of it in grade 2.
Decrease then unchanged (1)
In the above graph the highest percentage of students in each grade using strategy 37/6i, group words in order, for example, by meaning, a consolidation-memory strategy, is shown. The strategy concerns what students do with new vocabulary in order to memorise it. We can see students in grades 1, 2 and 4 rarely do this, while students in grade 3 sometimes do this.
This grouping appears perhaps because the focus changes on English language learning but their focus is on translation rather than the English meaning; it decreases from grade 1 to 3, and then is unchanged from grade 3 to 4. The result seems to suggest that students rarely used the strategy in grade 1 but perhaps increased their use of it by grade 3, due to a focus on translation.
5.2.3 3) Unchanged grouping
In the unchanged group, the trend in strategy use was unchanged from grade 1 and either remained unchanged or experienced one of several other trends (e.g., increase; decrease; increase then decrease; decrease then increase). There are seven strategies is this grouping.
42 42 45 55 Strategy 37/6i group words in order eg meaning graph 12 - decrease then unchanged grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 rarely rarely sometimes rarely The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 132 2013
Unchanged, increase then decrease (4)
There are four strategies highlighted in this section. #: Code: Strategy used: Type of strategy: Occurrence of strategy: 1 16/4b the spelling a determination-study strategy what students do when studying the new word to learn it 2 31/6c look at the word several times a consolidation-memory strategy what students do to memorise a new word 3 42/6n practise new words by acting them out e.g. verbs a consolidation-memory strategy what students do to memorise a new word 4 47/7a say the new word 2 or 3 times the first day a consolidation-review strategy what students do to review new vocabulary they are trying to learn
In the example graph the highest percentage of students in each grade using strategy 16/4b, the spelling, a determination-study strategy, is shown. The strategy concerns what students do when studying the new word to learn it. Grade 1 students often do this, grade 2 and 4 students often and always do this, while grade 3 students always do this.
This grouping appears perhaps because the focus changes on English language learning but aspects like 16/4b, 31/6c and 47/6c and 47/7a are often a focus; it was unchanged from grade 1 to 2, increased from grade 2 to 3 and then decreased from grade 3 to 4. The result seems to suggest that students increased their use of these strategies by grade 3 then decreased their use 33 63 45 45 Strategy 16/4b the spelling graph 13 - unchanged, increase then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 often/always always often/always often The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 133 2013
in grade 4, due to the constant focus.
Unchanged, decrease then increase (2)
There are two strategies highlighted in this section. #: Code: Strategy used: Type of strategy: Occurrence of strategy: 1 14/3g read an English-only dictionary a determination initial response strategy what students do when they meet a new word for the first time 2 50/7d read the new words 2 or 3 times first, then again a few days later, a week later, a month later a consolidation-review strategy what students do to review new vocabulary they are trying to learn
In the example graph the highest percentage of students in each grade using strategy 14/3g, read an English-only dictionary, a determination initial response strategy, is shown. The strategy concerns what students do when they meet a new word for the first time. Students in grade 1 and 2 rarely do this, students in grade 3 rarely and sometimes, while grade 4 sometimes do this, due to focus on translation and time pressure to review.
This grouping appears perhaps because the focus changes on English language learning but translation is common and was unchanged from grade 1 to 2, decreased from grade 2 to 3, and then increased from grade 3 to 4. The result seems to suggest that students increased their use of these strategies by grade 3. 50 29 45 45 Strategy 14/3g read an English-only dictionary graph 14 - unchanged, decrease then increase grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 rarely rarely rarely/sometimes sometimes The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 134 2013
Unchanged then decrease (1)
The graph above shows the highest percentage of students in each grade using strategy 40/6l, listen to tape-/CD recordings of words, a consolidation-memory strategy. The strategy concerns what students do to memorise new words. Students in grade 1 and 2 rarely do this, while students in grade 3 and 4 sometimes do this.
This grouping appears perhaps because the focus changes on English language learning but listening is not emphasised in grades 1 and 2, was unchanged from grade 1 to 2, then decreased from grade 2 to 4. The result seems to suggest that students increased their use of the strategy by grade 4.
Section summary
This section discussed three groupings of VLS use that appeared in the highest percentage of students using a strategy table (see Appendix 8): increasing strategy use, decreasing strategy use and unchanged strategy use. This patterning of strategy use not only reveals trends in strategy use but that at certain times during the CEMs education, strategy use either increased, decreased or was unchanged. This gives insights into student learning behaviour, vocabulary learning specifically that it is variable and may depend on the type of learning activity and tasks they engaged in during their four-year Bachelor degree, or the value and efficacy of using 33 42 45 45 Strategy 40/6l listen to tape and CD recordings of words graph 15 - unchanged then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 rarely rarely sometimes sometimes The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 135 2013
certain strategies. Perhaps it shows that vocabulary learning is not a constant activity, a steady increasing activity, but a variable one that experiences bouts of action and lulls (e.g., preparing for exams).
5.3 Questionnaire data compared with interview data
This section presents the interview data by each question about strategy use: 1) Where do you meet new words?; 2) What do usually do when you meet a new vocabulary? 3) Do you practise new vocabulary? What strategies do you use?; 4) How do you memorise new words?; and, 9) Do you think VLSs should be taught? (see Chapter 4, section 4.6.1.6). It then compares it with the questionnaire data a single percentage is calculated from the four grades data. Students responses to the interview questions are provided in each of the sections below in support of the strategies elaborated in the data.
Interview data was collated and placed in tables. The tables show how the students responded to the questions, and the analysis of interview data involved extracting the nominals nouns, noun phrases and other indicators. The information is summarised and the most popular answers presented (see Appendix 3). For convenience and anonymity, students names have been changed to English names but the number before the name, e.g. 1) Susan, indicates their ranking in the data. Students responses have been edited for reading convenience.
5.3.1 Question #1: Where do you meet new vocabulary?
The first question asked in the interview Where do you meet new vocabulary? is the same as the first question on the questionnaire (see Appendix 8, Table 2). The answers were presented as discovery themes because they concern where students meet new words, and were classified as discovery-place strategies.
Seven discovery strategies were asked about on the Ma VLSQ (see Tables 5.3 to 5.11 above), however, interviews were open about where students might meet new vocabulary. Thirty-three places were gleaned from the interview answers. The list highlights 27 more than the Ma questionnaire. The strategies repeated in both interview and the questionnaire are: #2: in textbooks, #9: in vocabulary books assumed to contain lists; #16: in conversation; #1 to 10: English materials; #32: in songs; #30: in movies; #22: on radio; #20 and 21: on the internet and The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 136 2013
news websites. The interview result showed additional places where new vocabulary may be encountered. The most popular strategies coming from the interview were #2: in textbooks; #22: on TV; #30: in movies; #3: newspapers; #4: magazines; #7: novels; #20: on the internet; and then #28: in advertising.
Here are some examples from the electronic interview from two of the students mentioning the source of new vocabulary are novels, newspapers and magazines.
student Age Major grade CET score gender YoELE 1) SUSAN 21 English 3 111 f 12 Question: Answer: 1) Where do you meet/encounter new English words? English text books, and newspapers and magazi nes. Ok Anywhere else? On the internet Anywhere else? In any place around where live; life. Yeah, and on billboards, on the street, in the product Introductions. When you meet them in your textbook, are they by themselves in a list or in sentences and passages? When I am in grade 1 and grade 2. There is a new word list, but now, there is no word list in text books, and we learn it in the sentences. Why is there no word list now? Because when we are freshmen, we need to learn new words to be the foundation. Now I'm a junior, so the textbooks focus on other abilities, like rhetorical devices. Which abilities? What the author wants to tell the readers. What kind of words do you learn as a freshman? Many kinds of words, in our text books, each lesson will have a word list; they belong to the lesson. They belong to the lesson? What kind of lesson will you have Maybe some essays and novels. So the new words are in the essays and novels? Yeah. Are the words you learn as a freshman different from the words you learn now Yeah, the words I learn now are longer and m ore difficult to remember.
student Age Major grade CET score gender YoELE 2) CHRISTINE 22 English 3 124 f 10 Question: Answer: 1) Where do you meet/encounter new English words? In some English magazines or movies. Can you name some of the magazines? and movies Too many to mention. Just one or two is enough Readers' taste; the movie ... such as Oliver twist. Anywhere else? No.
Student 1 is more verbose than student 2. Students 1 mentions more places than 2 where new vocabulary is met. The contrast is interesting because 1) student 2 is older than 1 (by one year), The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 137 2013
student 2 achieved a higher CET score than 1, but student 2 has 2 years less English language education. Years of English language education may account for the difference but temperament may better account for 2s response.
The 27 potentially new strategies emerging from the interview are: 1) in books; 2) in newspapers; 3) in magazines; 4) in extensive readers; 5) in passages; 6) in novels; 7) in educational books; 8) in vocabulary books; 9) in listening resources; 10) in tests; 11) in exams; 12) in school; 13) in class; 14) in conversation; 15) on computer; 16) in computer games; 17) in libraries; 18) on the internet; 19) on news websites; 20) on TV; 21) on radio; 22) in public; 23) on trains; 24) in hotels; 25) restaurant menus; 26) in advertising; and, 27) in posters. The most popular of these were #2, in books, 64 per cent; #22, on TV, 40 per cent; #30, in movies, 36 per cent; #3, in newspapers, 32 per cent; and #4, in magazines, 32 per cent.
5.3.2 Question #2: What do you usually do when you meet a new word?
The themed interview data from Question 2 is found in Appendix 8, Table 3. Determination strategies concern a learners initial response to meeting a new word and what theyll do to study it.
Seven determination strategies were asked about on the Ma VLSQ (see Tables 5.3 to 5.11 above) (e.g. Schmitt, 1997). There were more responses about the initial response of students when meeting new vocabulary in the interview than for the questionnaire. Forty-eight responses to the question were listed, and that is 41 more VLSs than the Ma questionnaire. Some of the responses were similar to the Ma questionnaire: #48: ignore it; #1: guess its meaning; #18: notice its suffixes; #31 to 32, ask a teacher or classmate; #9 and 10: look up Chinese-English and English-Chinese dictionary; #6: look up English dictionary.
The 41 potentially new strategies were: #5: look up dictionary; #11: look up phone/pc dictionary; #12: search the internet for it; #13: note its meaning; #14: note its background history; #15: note its history; #16: find its function; #20: separate short from long words; #21: read it; #22: try to read it; #23: learn how to read it; #24: read it aloud; #27: recite it; #28: recite its syllables; #29: recite it when I meet it again; #33: ask friends about it; #34: use it in daily life; #37: connect sentences with new word in it; #38: make a phrase with it; #41: memorise it; and #44: remember it through its context. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 138 2013
The most popular strategies from the interview were: #5: look up dictionary; 72 per cent; #1: guess its meaning, 32 per cent; #27: recite it, 24 per cent; #6: look up English dictionary, 20 per cent; #8: look up internet dictionary, 20 per cent; #26: know its pronunciation, 20 per cent; #35: write it down, 20 per cent; #9: look up English-Chinese dictionary, 16 per cent; and #17: know its usage, 16 per cent. The responses from the two students below demonstrate their preference for guessing the meaning and revision and recital as their most popular strategies.
student Age Major grade CET score gender YoELE 3) SHEILA 23 English 3 130 f 10 Question: Answer: 2) What do you usually do when you meet a new vocabulary item? First, I will guess, and then look up the new word in the dictionary. Do you often guess correctly? Sometimes. What helps you guess correctly? The context. What is usually the context? Whats the meaning? Oh, you said the context helps sometimes guess correctly, what is the context? Do you mean the sentence the word is in? According to the context, maybe you can understand the general idea; yes? Maybe the paragraph too? Yes So the other words in the sentence help you make a good guess, yes? Yes; that is it. Anything else? Maybe sometimes the background information. What is usually the background information? There are so many, I cant say them all now. Can you name one of them? Maybe a historical event.
student Age Major grade CET score gender YoELE 4) FREDIKA 20 English 2 120 f 8 Question: Answer: 2) What do you usually do when you meet a new vocabulary item? I usually write it down and recite it when I have free time. What else do you do? I use it when I have a chance to speak English. Anything else? Nothing else.
Student 3 is more verbose than student 4. Student 3 is older than 4, is in a grade higher than 4, student 3 achieved a higher CET score than 4, and student 4 has had 2 years less English language education. Again, temperament maybe account better for 4s response.
5.3.3 Question #3: Do you practise the new vocabulary? What strategies do you use?
The themed interview answers yielded a number of consolidation-practice strategies, used to practise a new word (see Appendix 8, Table 4). Student 5 below discusses his preference for using example sentences to remember new words and student 5 suggests he rehearses it. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 139 2013
student Age Major grade CET score gender YoELE 5) KAREN 22 English 3 121 f 10 Question: Answer: 3) Do you practice vocabulary items? What strategies do you use? Im sorry, what do you mean by "practice"? Practice means what you do with the new word to learn it or remember it. First, I will remember the pronunciation; then the spelling; finally, how to use it. What do you do when you use it? I mean grammar. Can you explain this more? For example, I have to know how to use the word to form a sentence correctly. So you make sentences using the new word? No; let me think. If the new word is a verb, I should know some phrases that can be made with that word. What other ways do you practice new words? I also look at some example sentences. Ok anything else? That's all.
student Age Major grade CET score gender YoELE 6) JESSICA 23 English 3 121 f 13 Question: Answer: 3) Do you practice vocabulary items? What strategies do you use? Yeah; write and remember. How else do you practice new words? Listen to new words. How do you practice new words when listening? I imitate the audio; to read in it. So imitating the new word is practicing its pronunciation, yes? Yes, I think it is important. What other ways do practice new words? Language is a tool, no? You mean you don't practice new words other ways? Those are all the ways I practice new words.
Student 5 is slightly more verbose than student 6. However, student 5 does not catch the meaning of the question immediately and requires it to be restated. Student 5 mentions more ways to practice new words than 6 though 5 did not initially catch the meaning of the question, both have the same CET score, though 6 is one year older (though both are in the same grade), and 6 has three years more English language education. Again, temperament may better account for 6s response to the question.
Students provided 62 consolidation-practice strategies not asked about on the Ma VLSQ (see Table 5.3 to 5.11 above) (e.g. Schmitt, 1997); however, interviews were open about how students might practise new vocabulary. Sixty-two ways to practise new words were gleaned from the data. Given that Ma (2009) and Schmitt (1997) did not explicitly ask their respondents about how they practise new words, the responses therefore extend research into VLS use.
However, some of the practice strategies do appear on Mas questionnaire classified as other strategies with other uses, for example, consolidation-memorisation, consolidation-review, and The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 140 2013
consolidation-study strategies (see Table 5.3 to 5.11 above or Appendix 2). Some of the themes are repeated on the questionnaire: #1: write it down; #8: vocabulary notebook; #20: vocabulary book; #45: by reciting; #2: write it many times; #22: look at it; #10: doing exercises; #32: noticing synonyms and comparing; #4, 5 and 6: making phrases, sentences and composition (with the new word); #54, 56, 58, 59 and 60: talk about it, using in essays, in class, in dialogues, in life; #49 and 50: listening to new words, pronunciation; #40: using imagery (in the mind); #41: drawing pictures; #38: memorising suffixes; #14: reading new words again; #53: practise with classmates; #25 and 26: know its meaning (first), know its Chinese meaning; #15, 17 and 18: reading paragraph (with new word in it), reading books, reading English books; #55 and 56: sing along to a song, watch and recite lyrics; #62: leaving it alone; #28: guessing meaning; #34: studying; #23 & 24: look up dictionary, look up internet dictionary; #44: its pronunciation; #12: with spelling; #27: remember English and Chinese meanings; #11: using examples; and #31: noting usage.
Students provided an additional 24 practise strategies compared to Mas list: #6: write composition; #9: writing it in a diary; #13: reading it; #15: reading a paragraph with the new word in it; #16: read it while I write it; #17: reading books; #18: reading English books; #19: re-read word lists; #23: look up a dictionary; #24: look up internet dictionary: #25: know its meaning first; #29: reviewing for exams; #30: noting sentence context; #37: learning high frequency words; #39: memorising sentences; #43: knowing its phonetic symbols; #51: imitating audio; #52: through dictation; #54: talk about it; #56: watch and recite lyrics; #57: using in essays; #58: using in class; #59: using in dialogues; and #60: using in life.
The most popular strategies from the interview were: #45: by reciting, 28 per cent; #1: writing down, 20 per cent; #20: vocabulary book, 20 per cent; #36: memorising words, 20 per cent; #49: listening to new words, 20 per cent; #12: with spelling, 16 per cent; #53: practising with classmates, 16 per cent. Sixteen students said they meet new words in textbooks. Only one student said they meet new words in class. Students indicated they meet new words in English materials (for example, textbooks, newspapers, magazines, extensive readers, educational books, vocabulary books, computer games, libraries, TV, radio advertising, movies and songs). Students consolidated learning through a new words pronunciation, its spelling, through translation, by writing the new word down, by looking at the new word and by remembering the new word when read again. Determining whether interview participants strategy use is grade specific could not be ascertained given the majority were grade 3 students. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 141 2013
5.3.4 Question #4: How do you memorise new words?
The interview answers to question 4 show consolidation-memorization strategies for memorising a new word. Student 7 and 8 below explain their preference for learning the new words pronunciation, and sometimes getting help from other students.
student Age Major grade CET score gender YoELE 7) THELMA 22 English 3 128 f 11 Question: Answer: 4) How do you memorize the new words? It seems that I have already finished question 4. Maybe ... but practicing new words isn't the same as memorizing them, yes? I memorize new words by practicing them. So reciting and writing them down from dictation, etc, this is your way of memorizing the new words? Yes.
student Age Major grade CET score gender YoELE 8) THERESA 23 English 3 120 f 10 Question: Answer: 4) How do you memorize the new words? NA You said before that you memorized the word, how did you do it? I memorize mechanically. How do you do that? According to the pronunciation of the new word to be memorized. So reciting is your way of memorizing? No; according to the pronunciation of the word. Yes, but you will have to say the word to know its pr onunciation? I look at its phonetics. Ah so you learn the phonetics and just read the word according to the phonetics, yes? Sometimes I am uncertain how to read, so I will listen to the mobile phone about how to read it. Did you do anything else? Ask another student. Did you ever ask the teacher in class? Yes, of course. Did you do anything else No, I only ask other people or listen to the phone.
Student 7 is less verbose than student 8. Student 8 provides more ways to memorize new words compared to 7, though 7 achieved a higher CET score and has one more year of English language education. Perhaps temperament may account for the difference.
Students provided 57 memorisation strategies, also asked about on the Ma VLSQ (see Tables 5.1 to 5.11 above or Appendix 2, Table 5) (e.g. Schmitt, 1997). Fifty-seven ways to memorise new words were suggested in the interview answers. Although Ma (2009) and Schmitt (1997) asked their respondents how they memorise new words, the interview responses extend the research into VLS use. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 142 2013
However, some of the memorisation strategies do appear on Mas questionnaire (and Schmitts list (1997)) as other strategies with other uses. The repeated strategies were #1: by looking at the word many times; #10 and 11: by reciting, by reciting many times; #12: by reciting in my head; #14: by reciting sentences; #15: by imaging new word; #17: by linking known words; #18: by constructing meronyms; #20: by using flash cards; #21: by using a vocabulary book (lists); #22: by guessing meaning (determination strategy); #23 and 24: look up dictionary, look up internet dictionary (determination strategy); #25: by thinking about meaning; #26: by learning its spelling; #27: by knowing its part of speech; #28: by learning its suffixes; #29: by learning synonyms; #30: by noticing similarity; #31: by knowing how to read it; #32: by reading while I write it; #33, 34 and 35: by reading, by reading aloud, by reading many times; #37: by learning roots; #38: by learning affixes; #39: by learning antonyms; #40 and 41: by writing it down, by writing it down many times; #42: by making sentences; #44: by learning usage; #45: by studying examples (determination-study strategy); #12: by doing exercises; #47: by repetition; #48: by reviewing for exams; #52 and 53: by listening to new words, by dictation; #54: by asking others (about it); #55: by practising with classmates; and #56: by thinking in English. Students provided an additional 18 memorisation strategies with accompanying sub- strategies. This is the largest contribution from the interviews, making it significant. The new strategies are: 1) by following the rules of memorisation; 2) by memorising; 3) by memorising frequently; 4) by remembering it; 5) by memorising high frequency words; 6) by memorising sentences; 7) by knowing phonetics; 8) by pronunciation; 9) by reciting many times; 10) by reciting in my head; 11) by reciting in class; 12) by reciting sentences; 13) by constructing meronyms; 14) by memorising large chunks of textbooks; 15) by looking up dictionary; 16) by looking up internet dictionary; 17) by thinking about meaning; 18) by knowing how to read it; 19) by reading it while I write it; 20) by reading; 21) by reading aloud; 22) by reading many times; 23) by reading books; 24) by writing down; 25) by remembering through grammar; 26) by repetition; 27) by reviewing for exams; 28) by answering questions; 29) by using it immediately; 30) by finding new words in newspapers; 31) by dictation; and 32) by paying more attention next time.
The additional 21 (or similar to Mas list) practice strategies are: #1: by following the rules of memorisation; #2: by memorising; #3: by memorising frequently; #4: by remembering it; #5: by memorising high frequency words; #6: by memorising sentences; #7: by knowing phonetics; #8: by pronunciation; #9: by reciting many times; #10: by reciting in my head; #11: by reciting The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 143 2013
in class; #12: by reciting sentences; #13: by constructing meronyms; #14: by memorising large chunks of textbooks; #15: by looking up dictionary; #16: by looking up internet dictionary; #17: by thinking about meaning; #18: by knowing how to read it; #19: by reading it while I write it; #20: by reading; #21: by reading aloud; #22: by reading many times; #23: by reading books; #24: by writing down; #25: by remembering through grammar; #26: by repetition; #27: by reviewing exams; #28: by answering questions: #29: by using it immediately; #30: by finding new words in newspapers; #31: by dictation; and #32: by paying more attention next time.
The most popular strategies from the questionnaire were: #40: by writing down, 52 per cent; #9: by pronunciation, 28 per cent; #10: by reciting, 24 per cent; #47: by repetition, 20 per cent; #35: by reading many times, 16 per cent; #42: by making sentences, 16 per cent.
It should be noted that responses to interview questions do not show frequency of use because the questionnaire provides a range of frequencies, ordinal data, whereas the interview did not ask students to indicate frequency of use, it just asked what was done (nominal data). So no comparison can be made about frequency of use between the questionnaire data and the interview, except on a very general level: interviews indicate used whereas questionnaire data indicates used/not used and frequency of use.
5.3.5 Question #5: Should vocabulary learning strategies be taught?
In Table 5.12 below, the interview answers from Question 9 are presented.
Table 5.12: Should VLSs be taught? #: Answer: Number of students 1 Yes 18 2 Not sure 1 3 No 3 4 Not at all 2 5 Maybe 1
This question was not asked on the Ma VLSQ (see Tables 5.3 to 5.11 above) (e.g. Schmitt, 1997), but was asked in this research as previous research advocated strategy training. Out of The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 144 2013
25 students, 18 said Yes, while 5 said No. The response highlights the need for strategy training. This provides further insight into Question 10 on the VLSQ, where students were asked where they get their strategies (see section 5.5.1 below). The majority of respondents on the questionnaire suggested they get their strategies from a teacher. Given the research that suggests strategy training enhances vocabulary learning, training is important. Implications for language teaching are discussed in Chapter 7: Discussion.
Section summary
When analysing the interview data, many strategies used were similar to Mas list, but some were new strategies. In terms of discovery-place strategies, the place where new words are met, 26 other places were found in the interview data. In terms of determination initial response strategies, initial response to the new word and what to do with it, 41 other ways to respond and deal with the new word were found. In terms of consolidation-practice strategies, how to practise new vocabulary, 21 other ways to practise were found. In terms of consolidation- memorisation strategies, how to memorise new vocabulary, 18 other ways were found. This result extends the range of strategies involved in English vocabulary learning and gives us insights into CEMs English vocabulary learning.
Sometimes a strategy was not used (see Appendix 8) in grade 1 (for instance, 8e: try to remember where I first met the word), the first 2 grades (for instance, 3g: read an English-only dictionary), or the first 3 grades (for instance, 9d: try having conversations using the new words with English speakers for instance, teachers). Sometimes a strategy was not used in grade 2 (for instance, 6l: listen to tape- / CD recordings of words), grade 3 (for instance, 3b: pay no attention to it but go back to it later), or grade 4 (for instance, 5d: use the vocabulary lists in a textbook). Sometimes a strategy was not used in grade 1 and 4 (for instance, 9b: try to use idioms when I speak).
At least one strategy was not used in all grades: 4f: the example sentences; one was not used in two grades: 6q: try to imagine in my head what the new world looks like; one was not used in three grades 1d: during English conversations; and one was not used in any of the four grades: 9e: try to e-chat on the internet using QQ, Messenger. Why students indicated on the questionnaire that they tended not to use these strategies in all grades or one or two grades is unclear. The interview did not elaborate on this, and students provided answers that suggest The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 145 2013
that they did use these strategies.
5.3.6 A range of strategies were rarely or never used
The following 26 strategies, roughly 42 per cent, were not used in a grade or all grades, based on the highest percentage of use on the questionnaire.
Key to Table 5.13: left-hand column just indicates a number, not ranking; the second column is the code representing the strategy, for example, 1d, the number 1 represents the question it belongs to on the questionnaire, and the letter d represents its subpart in the question; the third column is the strategy; the last column is the briefing on it not being used by a grade or in all grades.
Table 5.13: rarely or never used VLSs S#: Vocabulary learning strategy name: Meaning: 1 1d during English conversations with others was not used in most grades, meaning that the majority of students indicated that they did not meet new vocabulary during English conversations with others 2 3a pay no attention to it, and never go back to it was not used in all four grades, meaning that the majority of students indicated that they did not pay no attention to new vocabulary and never go back to it 3 3b pay no attention to it, but go back to it later was not used in most grades, meaning that the majority of students indicated that they did not ask a classmate or a teacher for the meaning of a new word when they first met it 4 3e ask a classmate or teacher for the meaning was not used in most grades, meaning that the majority of students indicated that they did not meet new words during English conversation with others 5 3g read an English-only dictionary was not used in most grades, meaning that the majority of students indicated that they did not read an English-only dictionary 6 4f the example sentence was not used in most grades, meaning that the majority of students indicated that they generally dont use the example sentences 7 5c make vocabulary cards was not used in all four grades, meaning that the majority of students indicated that they did not make vocabulary cards 8 5d use the vocabulary lists in a textbook was not used in most grades, meaning that most students said they did not use the vocabulary lists found in textbooks to order new vocabulary 9 6e do vocabulary exercises was not used in most grades, meaning that the majority of students indicated that they The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 146 2013
did not do the vocabulary exercises 10 6i group words in order e.g. meaning, part of speech was not used in most grades, meaning that the majority of students indicated that they did not group words in order (e.g. meaning, part of speech) 11 6k use the new word to make up a sentence was not used in most grades, meaning that the majority of students indicated that they do not use the new word to make up a sentence 12 6l listen to tape-/CD recordings of words was not used in most grades, meaning that the majority of students indicated that they did not listen to tape-/CD recordings of new words 13 6m make up rhymes to link new words together was not used in most grades, meaning that the majority of students indicted that they did not make up rhymes to link new words 14 6n practise new words by acting them out i.e. verbs was not used in most grades, meaning that the majority of students did not practise new words by acting them out (i.e. verbs) 15 6p draw pictures to illustrate the meaning of the new word was not used in most grades, meaning that the majority of students did not draw pictures to illustrate meaning of the new words 16 6q try to imagine in my head what the new word looks like was not used in most grades, meaning that the majority of students did not try to imagine in their head what the new word looks like 17 7a use word to make up a sentence/phrase was not used in most grades, meaning that the majority of students tend not to use words in this way 18 7c read the new words the first day, but not after that was not used in all four grades, meaning that the majority of students indicated that they did not read new words the first day, and rarely after that 19 7d read the new words 2 or 3 times first, again a few days later, a week later, a month later was not used in most grades, meaning that most students indicated that they did not read the new words 3 or 3 times the first day, a few days later, a week later, a month later 20 7e test the new words on my own was not used in most grades, meaning that the majority of students indicated that did not test new words on their own 21 7f test the new words with a classmate was not used in all grades, meaning that the majority of students indicated that they did not test new words with classmates 22 8e try to remember where I first met the word was not used in most grades, meaning that the majority of students indicated that they did not try to remember where they first met the new word 23 9a try to use new words in speaking and writing was not used in some grades, meaning that the majority of students indicated that they did not try to use the new words in speaking and writing 24 9b try to use idioms when I speak was not used in most grades, meaning that the majority of students indicated that they did not try to use idioms when they speak 25 9d try having conversation using the new words with English speakers e.g. teachers was not used in most grades, meaning that the majority of students indicated that they did not try having conversation using the The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 147 2013
new words with English speakers (e.g. teachers) 26 9c try to think in English with the new vocabulary was not used in all grades, meaning that the majority of students indicated that they did not try to e-chat on the internet using an internet communication tool such as QQ, MSN Messenger
Table 5.13 shows which strategies were either rarely or never used. This information is important because it is the other side of the coin. Why students tended not to use the above strategies is puzzling. There is a range of strategies in this group: 1d is a discovery-place strategy; 3a, 3b, 3e, 3g, are determination initial response strategies; 4f, is a determination- study strategy; 5c, 5d, are consolidation-organisation strategies; 6e, 6i, 6k, 6l, 6m, 6n, 6p, 6q are consolidation-memory strategies; 7a, 7c, 7d, 7e, 7f are consolidation-review strategies; 8e is a consolidation-remember strategy; and 9a, 9b, 9d and 9e are consolidation-production strategies. The highest number of never or rarely used strategies are the consolidation-memory strategies, 8 in all. The tendency not to use these suggests students spend less time on memorisation strategies. Most of the consolidation-review strategies were never or rarely used, 5 in all. The result suggests students tend not to engage in revision of vocabulary. Most of the consolidation-production strategies were never or rarely used, and suggests a tendency not to use what is being learned.
Appendix 8 Table 2 shows the often used VLSs of all students by percentage. Often used reflects the often response choice. The 62 strategies were ranked according to the percentage of students using it. The 10 with the highest percentages were: 1) 8c: remember a new word by its meaning (when read again) (consolidation-remember strategy); 2) 1a: in textbooks and classroom activities (discovery-place strategy); 3) when reading English materials (discovery- place strategy); 4) 8b: remember a new word by its meaning (when heard again) (consolidation- remember strategy); 5) 4g: the way the new word is used (determination-study); 6) 3c: I try to guess the words meaning from the context (determination-response strategy); 7) 6b: write the word several times (consolidation-memorisation strategy); 8) 3f: read a Chinese-English or an English-Chinese dictionary (determination-response strategy); 9) 4d: the Chinese translation (determination-study strategy); and 10) 6c: look at the new word several times (consolidation- memorisation strategy).
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 148 2013
5.3.7 The percentage of students often using a strategy
The number of VLSs often used in each grade can be found in Appendix 8 Table 2. The often used strategies are highlighted to provide a clearer picture of strategy use among the surveyed students.
The listing provided a clearer picture of students often using a strategy and a deeper picture of the most often to the least often used strategy than the analysis of grade means did. The most often used strategy was 8c: remember a new word by its meaning (when read again), with 63 per cent of students; the least often used strategy was 3a: pay no attention to it, and never go back to it, with 3 per cent of students. The 10 most often used strategies are found in Table 5.14:
Table 5.14: Top 10 ranked VLSs over all: Rank: S#: Strategies % 1 8c Remember a new word by its meaning (when read again) 63% 2 1a In textbooks and classroom learning activities 55% 3 1e When reading English materials 50% 4 8b Remember a new word by its meaning (when heard again) 49% 5 4g The way the new word is used 48% 6 3c I try to guess the words meaning from the context 48% 7 6b Write the word several times 46% 8 3f Read a Chinese-English or an English-Chinese dictionary 45% 9 4d The Chinese translation 41% 10 6c Look at the word several times 40%
The percentage of students often using a strategy drops by 20 per cent by number 10, strategy 6c. However, the top 10 most often used strategies hint at something significant: the favoured approach to learning English vocabulary. This idea is elaborated in section 5.4.1 below.
Section summary
Analysing the grade means of strategies produced a more generalised observation of strategy use than percentages. Fifteen strategies had more use according to the mean analysis, with most experiencing average use and a few experiencing low use if means are interpreted through this measure: 1.00 to 2.49 is low use, 2.50 to 3.49 is medium use, and 3.50 to 5.00 is high use The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 149 2013
(see Wahyuni, 2013) while 13 were often/always used, and 10 often/sometimes. The average mean score was 3.17 for the whole group and suggests medium use. Roughly 26 strategies were found to be rarely or never used. The percentage of students using the remaining strategies decreased from 39 per cent to 3 per cent see Appendix 8. This result and other findings are discussed further in the Discussion chapter.
5.4 Research question No. 2:
What is the difference in VLS use among the four grades of CEMs?
This section discusses the observation of trends in the data not seen in the formal statistical tests in Chapter 6. The discussion begins with the finding that there is a difference, variability in individual students VLS frequency of use and in the percentage of students using a VLS. Then strategy clustering is highlighted to provide further evidence of variability within a grade and between grades.
5.4.0 Is there a difference?
There is variability in VLS use in each of the four grades (as shown in Tables 5.3 to 5.11). The students in each grade indicated they use VLSs. Frequency of use of a VLS is discussed in terms of unchanged (e.g., all students in all grades rarely use the VLS), or changed, in terms of either increased use (e.g., most students in grade 2 often use the VLS though students in grade 1 rarely used it) or decreased use (e.g., most students in grade 2 rarely use the VLS though students in grade 1 often use it). A major finding was the VLS clustering in each grade (for instance, a small set of VLSs were used in each grade), and this is discussed next. Interview data is only used to affirm use but not to add to the discussion of frequency of use (see section 5.3 above and Chapter 7).
5.4.1 Vocabulary learning strategy clustering
A particular patterning of strategy use was observed in each grade.
Table 5.15 below shows the number of VLSs regularly used and the type of VLSs used in each The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 150 2013
grade. Key to Table 5.15: each column lists the strategy often or always used in a grade; at the top of each column representing the grade in which the strategy is used; colour is used to highlight a repeated strategy, for example, strategy 1a is used in all four grades; use is determined by often and always frequencies.
Table 5.15: VLSs regularly used per grade g1 g2 g3 g4 1a 1a 1a 1a 1e 1b 1b 1c 1f 1e 1e 1d 3b 1f 1f 1e 3c 3c 3c 1g 4a 3f 3f 4a 4b 4a 4a 4b 4d 4b 4b 4d 4f 4d 4d 4e 5b 4g 4g 4f 5d 4i 5b 4g 5e 6b 5d 4i 6a 6c 6b 6b 6b 6d 6c 6c 6c 6g 7b 6d 6d 8b 7d 6e 6j 8c 8b 6f 6k 8e 8c 6j 6o 9a 8e 6k 7e 9a 6o 8a 6r 8c 7a 9b 7b 9c 8b 8c 8d 8e 9a 24 19 20 28
Students in grade 1 regularly used 24 VLSs; students in grade 2 regularly used 19 VLSs; students in grade 3 regularly used 20 VLSs; students in grade 4 regularly used 28 VLSs an average of 22 VLSs. The number of regularly used VLSs was different in each grade, and the type of VLS regularly used in each grade was generally different. Except for the repeats in at The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 151 2013
least two grades, eight VLSs experienced repeated use in all four grades. Eight VLSs were used in all four grades:
1) 1a: in textbooks and classroom learning activities (discovery-place strategy); 2) 1e: when reading English materials (discovery-place strategy); 3) 4a: its pronunciation (determination-study strategy); 4) 4b: the spelling (determination-study strategy); 5) 4d: the Chinese translation (determination-study strategy); 6) 6b: write the word several times (consolidation-memory strategy); 7) 6c: look at the word several times (consolidation-memory strategy); and 8) 8c: remember a new word by its meaning (when read again) (consolidation-remember strategy).
This strategy clustering suggests that the trend is to focus on reading and writing rather than speaking and listening.
The eight VLSs above are a process or route to vocabulary gain. The data showed that 36 other strategies complemented the eight. Some of these strategies were used in one grade, while others were used in three. Key to Table 5:16: the far left-hand column just numbers the range of strategies; the middle column lists the name of the strategy; the far right-hand column shows the grade in which the strategy was used.
Table 5.16: strategies that complemented the eight #: Complementary strategies: grade: 1 1b: I meet new words in vocabulary lists arranged in alphabetical order 2, 3 2 1c: I meet new words in vocabulary lists arranged by meaning 4 3 1d: I meet new words during English conversations with others 4 4 1g: I meet new words when using/surfing the internet 4 5 1f: I meet new words when singing English songs and watching English movies/TV 1, 2, 3 6 3b: I meet new a word, pay no attention to it, but go back to it later 1 7 3c: I try to guess the words meaning for the context 1, 2, 3 8 3f: read a Chinese-English or English-Chinese dictionary 2, 3 9 4e: study the English explanations 4 10 4f: study the example sentences 1, 4 11 4g: study the way the new word is used 2, 3, 4 12 4i: study the new words part of speech 2, 4 13 5b: I order the information about the new word in a vocabulary notebook 1, 3 14 5d: I order the information about the new word by using the 1, 3 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 152 2013
vocabulary lists in the textbooks 15 5e: I order the information about new words by using the vocabulary lists in vocabulary books like VOCABULARY 5000 and TEM4EasyTEST 1 16 6a: I memorise the new word by saying the new word aloud several times 1 17 6d: I memorise the new word by memorising Chinese-English and/or English/Chinese lists 1, 2, 4 18 6e: I memorise the new word by doing vocabulary exercises 4 19 6f: I memorise the new word by linking it with similar meaning words or opposite meaning words 4 20 6g: I memorise the new word by linking it with already known words and have similarities 2 21 6j: I memorise the new word by placing the new word in a context e.g. a sentence, conversation 1, 4 22 6k: I memorise the new word by using the it to make up a sentence 1, 4 23 6o: I memorise the new word by trying to imagine what it looks like (in a sentence) 1, 4 24 6r: I memorise the new word by remembering its prefix, suffix and root word 4 25 7a: I review new vocabulary by saying the new word 2 or 3 times the first day 4 26 7b: I review new vocabulary by saying the new words the next time I read them, and again after that 3, 4 27 7d: I review new vocabulary by reading the new words 2 or 3 times first, then a few days later, a week later, a month later 3 29 7e: I review new vocabulary by testing the new words on my own 1 30 8a: I remember words I have memorised by remembering it by the way I learned it 1 31 8b: I remember words I have memorised by remembering it by its meaning (when heard again) 2, 3, 4 32 8d: I remember words I have memorised by remembering its meaning first, then think about its meaningful parts e.g. prefixes 4 33 8e: I remember words I have memorised by trying to remember where I first met them 2, 3, 4 34 9a: I use new words by trying to use them in speaking and writing 2, 3, 4 35 9b: I use new words by trying to use idioms when I speak 1 36 9c: I use new words by trying to think in English with them 1
The range of use of a particular strategy is from 1 to 3. Sixteen strategies were used in grade 1; 11 were used in grade 2; 12 in grade 3; and 20 were used in grade 4. So 44 per cent were used in grade 1, 30 per cent were used in grade 2, 33 per cent in grade 3, and 55 per cent were used in grade 4. Sixteen strategies were used to complement the eight in grade 1 (8 + 16 = 24); 11 were used to complement the eight in grade 2 (8 + 11 = 19); 12 were used to complement the eight in grade 3 (8 + 12 = 20); and, 17 used in grade 4 to complement the eight (8 + 20 = 26).
While VLS clustering was observed in VLS use in four grades (Macaro, 2006; and discussion in Chapter 7), it was not observed in either general BALLL or specific CCL (see Part 2 below). The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 153 2013
Section summary
While 26 VLSs were never or rarely used in each grade, 36 were often/always or sometimes or rarely/never or a combination of these used in each grade. While 63 per cent of all students often remembered a new word by its meaning (when read again), 55 per cent often met new words in textbooks and classroom activities. All other strategies experienced a decrease from 50 to 3 per cent. VLS use clustered in each grade. Eight VLSs were repeatedly used in each grade. 1) 1a: in textbooks and classroom learning activities (discovery-place); 2) 1e: when reading English materials (discovery-place); 3) 4a: its pronunciation (determination-study); 4) 4b: the spelling (determination-study); 5) 4d: the Chinese translation (determination-study); 6) 6b: write the word several times (consolidation-memory); 7) 6c: look at the word several times (consolidation-memory); and 8) 8c: remember a new word by its meaning (when read again) (consolidation-remember). This suggested a core set of VLSs a plus strategy group according to Griffiths (2013). The eight core set of VLSs was complemented with a range of VLSs among the 36 often/always used VLSs (see Table 5.17 above). Grade 1 students often/always used 24 VLSs, grade 2 used 19, grade 3 used 20, and grade 4 used 28.
5.5 Additional questions (No. 2 and No. 10 on the VLSQ):
Q.2: Where do you often learn vocabulary during the semester? Q.10: Of four possible sources to obtain VLSs, which do CEMs source the most?
Two questions that did not appear on Mas (2009) questionnaire or Schmitts (1997) list were added to the VLSQ, Questions no. 2 and no. 10 (see Appendix 2), and concerned the location or space in which students tend to learn vocabulary. The questions reflect the expanded definition of the formal learning context used in the present research to include the entire university campus. The questions are asked because learning also happens in the library and even in the students dormitory room. These are major features of the formal learning environment in higher education because most if not all undergraduate students live on campus.
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 154 2013
5.5.1 Q.2: Where do you often learn vocabulary during the semester?
Table 5.17 below shows the highest percentage of students per grade who indicated that they learned vocabulary in one of three general locations within a broad definition of the formal learning context of a university, as well as how frequently they learned vocabulary in these locations.
Key to Table 5.17: the far-left column shows the code for the question asked about (Question 2 and subparts a to c); column two shows the issue or place of learning; column three shows the grade and percentages of students; and the final column shows the response item and frequency with which students choose the item as a place of learning.
Table 5.17: Percentage of students per grade who chose a place and frequency of use Place of vocabulary learning % of student who chose place Frequency Q2 Discovery-space strategies: the physical space in which word learning takes place g1 g2 g3 g4 Response item 2a In my classroom 45* 41* 46* 42^"* sometimes/often 2b In the library 32" 32" 46* 42* sometimes/often 2c In my dormitory room 41* 41" 46" 42* sometimes/often Key: * means frequency of use was often; means always; means sometimes; means rarely; means never; ^ means frequency of use was split, shared with another frequency
P#2a: In my classroom
The small variation in the frequency of use of place of vocabulary learning #2a (sometimes/often) indicates that students supported the idea. However, the percentage of students indicating they often learn in the classroom is lower than expected. The result suggests that most students tend not to learn in the classroom, which is puzzling.
P#2b: In the library
The small variation in the frequency of use of place of vocabulary learning #2b (sometimes/often) indicates that students generally supported the idea. However, grade 1 and 2 students said they only sometimes do learning in the library. Perhaps grade 1 and 2 students are too busy or have less time for English than with other subjects in the library.
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 155 2013
P#2c: In my dormitory room
The small variation in the frequency of use of place of vocabulary learning #2c (sometimes/often) indicates that students generally supported it. Only certain grades do learning in the dormitory, for example, grades 1 and 4. Perhaps this reflects the needs of exam preparation. That is, the extra learning done in the dormitory may reflect the fact that grade 1 and 4 students are preparing for English exams and make use of their dormitory space at such times in their education.
5.5.2 Q.10: Where did you acquire the VLSs you use?
Table 5.18 below shows where the highest percentage of students acquired the VLSs they use. This is another question that does not appear in the Ma (2009) version of the questionnaire (see Chapter 3, section 3.7.2). The question was included because it is believed important to the research focus, and because it is often only implied or assumed in the research literature that either EFL learners already possess VLSs before they embark on learning a foreign language (for instance, unconscious mechanisms), or acquire VLSs from an external source over the course of FLL or at the time they engage in it (for instance, consciously employed strategies). For instance, strategies are either 1) assumed to exist inside the learners brain and automatically engage when the learner learns another language (e.g., second/foreign language learning is the same as first language learning), as in the innatist view, or 2) VLSs are not assumed to exist inside the learners brain and therefore will be obtained from an external source (e.g., a teacher, a classmate, a textbook, or elsewhere), but not in the first instance from inside the learner. Of course, the fact that a language learner could conceivably use a learning strategy honed in the process of learning some other knowledge or skill is not discounted.
The view taken in the present study is that, if the literature does not explicitly state whether VLSs are already present in the learner before they engage in learning or are acquired from an external source, then the literature must be assuming one of the positions above, and therefore the literature offers an unclear position on the issue. However, if the literature does explicitly state where VLSs come from, then the literature is not making any explicit assumptions about the origin of VLSs, and therefore implicitly holds one of the positions above. The present research does not empirically explore whether VLSs are naturally occurring phenomena that exist inside an EFL learners brain prior to beginning to learn a foreign language, but takes the The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 156 2013
view that learners use a combination of acquired learning skills (see Chapter 2, section 2.2). The EFL learner simply uses what s/he already knows (prior learned general learning and language learning skills) or acquires strategies through the process of learning a foreign language modifying existing strategies. In either case, the view taken here is that the learner consciously employs a strategy to learn English vocabulary.
Table 5.18 highlights grade differences regarding where students think they got or get their VLSs. Key to Table 5.18: the far-left column shows the code for the question asked about (Question 10 and subparts a to d); column two shows the issue or source of strategies (e.g., my teacher, my classmates); column three shows the grade and percentages of students choosing item; and the final column shows the response item and frequency of experience with which students choose the item as a source of strategies.
Table 5.18: Percentage of students per grade who chose a source of VLS and frequency of choice Source of VLS % of students choosing source of strategy Frequency Q10 Do you remember who taught you how to learn new words? g1 g2 g3 g4 Response item 10a My Chinese English teacher 36 41 38 67 always 10b My classmates 32^" 36^" 50" 50" rarely/sometimes 10c My textbooks 36" 32* 50* 42" sometimes/often 10d I taught myself/seemed natural to learn words this way 50* 36* 38* 42* often Key: * means frequency of use was often; means always; means sometimes; means rarely; means never; ^ means frequency of use was split shared with another frequency
SS#10a: My Chinese English teacher
The lack of variation in the frequency of source #10a (sometimes/often/always) indicates that students strongly supported the idea. Given that this asked specifically about strategies for learning English vocabulary, the result seems reasonable. One would expect that students would learn how to learn English vocabulary from a teacher.
SS#10b: My classmates
The small variation in the frequency of choice of #10b (rarely/sometimes) indicates that The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 157 2013
students generally supported the idea. This does not seem unreasonable given that these students indicate above in #10a that they always learn them from their teachers. One would not expect them to automatically know VLSs for learning English, though they would know plenty for learning Chinese and may modify them to meet the demands of learning English.
SS#10c: My textbooks
The small variation in the frequency of choice of #10c (sometimes/often) suggests that students generally supported the idea. There is low support for the idea of strategies for learning English vocabulary from a textbook. Given English is being taught in a foreign language context, one would expect to find strategies for learning, generally, if not specifically, in a textbook.
SS#10d: I taught myself/seemed natural to learn words this way
The lack of variation in the frequency of use of #10d (sometimes/often), though in the percentage of students experiencing it (3650%), suggests that students tended to support the idea. This is not so surprising; students, if motivated enough and left to their own devices to learn English vocabulary, should be quite capable of devising VLSs for learning English vocabulary given that they already possess a range of VLSs for learning Chinese vocabulary. It is conceivable that some strategies for learning Chinese vocabulary can be used, even modified, to learn English vocabulary.
Section summary
The raw data indicates that students tended to learn new words mostly in the classroom, sometimes in their dormitory and rarely in the library. Students indicated they always get VLSs from their English teacher and that they often get them from themselves, less so from a textbook and even less so from a classmate.
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 158 2013
Part 2: Beliefs about language and language learning
5.6 Research question No. 3:
What are CEMs general Western beliefs about language and language learning and Chinese culture of learning BALLL?
The BALLLQ questionnaire asked about 34 beliefs (see Chapter 3, section 3.7.3), and the CCLQ asked about 18 general beliefs with accompanying sub-parts, 57 beliefs in total (see Chapter 3, section 3.7.4). Respondents indicated on the questionnaires whether they agreed with the particular belief by circling a number from 1 to 5, where 1 represents Strongly disagree, 2 represents Disagree, 3 represents Neither disagree or agree, 4 represents Agree, and 5 represents Strongly agree. The results from the BALLLQ (5.6.1) are highlighted first, followed by the results from the CCLQ (5.7). Interview participants were asked nine general questions and the data was themed three concerned beliefs.
5.6.1 Beliefs about language and language learning
The data generated by the BALLLQ questionnaire is presented first using percentages, frequencies and means, then the data generated by the CCLQ (section 5.7). The data indicate 1) that the surveyed CEMs hold BALLL, and 2) that they tend to maintain their beliefs about the issues, rarely deviating from them in each of the four grades of a four-year undergraduate degree.
Tables 5.19 to 5.21 below show by grade the percentage, frequency and mean of students indicating a preference for a belief statement, the strength of agreement with it and the grade mean (see Appendix 9 for just means and SDs). The mean provides a general measure of agreement strength. Subsection 5.6.2, highlights an observed patterning of the data, three general groupings: strongly agree/agree, strongly disagree/disagree and neither disagree or agree. Interpreting mean scores as 1.00 to 2.49 as low agreement, 2.50 to 3.49 as medium agreement, and 3.50 to 5.00 as high agreement (see Wahyuni, 2013), gives a general idea of CEMs agreement with these general Western BALLL. The tables have been divided into smaller tables to create a more manageable table. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 159 2013
Key to the tables: the left-hand column lists the number of the belief statement as it appears on the questionnaire; the second column lists the grade; the third column lists the highest percentage of students in the grade indicating a position on the belief; the fourth column lists frequency of the belief in terms of agreement; the fifth column lists the grade mean; the sixth column lists the SD; and the final column lists the number of students in each grade; shorthand indicators: NDoA = neither disagree or agree, and s.agree = strongly agree.
The above tables show the highest percentage of students indicating a position with respect to each of 34 general BALLL. Eighteen beliefs were generally agreed with; roughly 53 per cent. This suggests that CEMs do not exclusively hold beliefs belonging to the CCL, and that Western BALLL have infiltrated their belief systems. These and other groupings of positions on the beliefs are presented next.
5.6.2 Three general groupings
Three general groupings appear in the questionnaire data (seen in the tables above), based on the highest percentage of students in each grade (see Appendix 9). Two belief statements concern the time taken to become fluent in English (BS#14: If you spent 1 hour a day speaking/learning English, how long would it take for you to become fluent? 1/1 year; 2/12 years; 3/35 years; 4/510 years; 5/you cant), and the level of difficulty learning English (BS#4: the English I am learning is: 1/very difficult, 2/difficult, 3/medium difficulty, 4/easy, 5/very easy), and are separated from the rest. A brief running analysis will appear for each The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 163 2013
belief discussed and expanded in the discussion chapter. The following beliefs are in relation to learning behaviour and how they might affect behaviour.
Section 5.6.2.1: Agree and strongly agree
There are 18 general beliefs highlighted in this section. #: Code: Belief statement: Type of belief: 1 #1 its easier for children than adults to learn a foreign language foreign language aptitude 2 #2 some people are born with a special ability which helps them learn a foreign language foreign language aptitude 3 #3 some languages are easier to learn than others the difficulty of language 4 #6 I believe I will ultimately speak English very well the difficulty of language 5 #7 its important to speak English with an excellent accent learning and communication strategies 6 #8 English culture should be known to speak English very well the nature of language 7 #11 its better to learn English in an English-speaking country like the United States the nature of language 8 #12 if I heard someone speaking English, the language I am trying to learn, I would try to speak with them in order to practise my English learning and communication strategies 9 #13 its ok to guess the meaning of an English word if you dont know it learning and communication strategies 10 #17 its important to repeat English words and practise often learning and communication strategies 11 #18 I feel self-conscious speaking English in front of others learning and communication strategies 12 #21 its important to practise in a language lab learning and communication strategies 13 #23 if I speak English very well I will have many opportunities to use it motivation and expectations 14 #25 learning English is different from learning other university subjects the nature of language 15 #27 if learn to speak English very well it will help me get a good job motivation and expectations 16 #28 its easier to read and write English than it is to speak it/listen to it and understand it the difficulty of language 17 #30 Chinese think it is important to speak English motivation and expectations 18 #34 everyone can learn to speak English foreign language aptitude
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 164 2013
The above example graph shows the highest percentage of students in each grade indicating agreement with belief statement BS#1 its easier for children than adults to learn a foreign language, a general BALLL. A certain percentage of students in all grades agreed with it (see Appendix 9 for the full spread of percentages). Five categories of beliefs were agreed with: 1) foreign language aptitude, 2) the difficulty of language learning, 3) learning and communication strategies, 4) the nature of language, and 5) motivation and expectations.
Perhaps the agreement in this grouping appears because CEMs English language learning experience changes with each passing grade, so maturity and experience are a factor. Also, because their English teachers, in university at least, can be native speakers from English- speaking countries like the USA and Australia they bring their beliefs with them into the classroom. Access to the internet may well play a role too. The logical assumption was to assume that agreement would increase as well, because CEMs are interested in English culture and English-speaking countries generally.
50 50 45 45 B#1 it's easier for children than adults to learn a foreign language graph 1 - agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 165 2013
Section 5.6.2.2: Strongly disagree and disagree
There are four general beliefs highlighted in this section.
#: Code: Belief statement: Type of belief: 1 #5 English is structured in the same way as Chinese the nature of language learning 2 #9 you should not speak English until you can speak it correctly learning and communication 3 #26 learning English is mostly a matter of translating English into Chinese the nature of language learning 4 #29 people who are good at maths and science are good at learning English foreign language aptitude
The above graph shows the highest percentage of students indicating a preference for beliefs statement BS#5 English is structured in the same way as Chinese. A certain percentage of students in all grades disagree with it. However, the disagreement increases from grade 1 to grade 2 then decreases from grade 2 to grade 4. Three categories of beliefs were disagreed with: 1) the nature of language, 2) learning and communication strategies, and 3) foreign language aptitude.
This disagreement grouping appears perhaps because CEMs can recognise certain differences in different languages, for example, Chinese vs. English structure. Other beliefs are more perceptions about learning not necessarily based on experience. The logical assumption was to assume that agreement would increase or decrease with additional experience, for instance, if 50 71 82 54 B#5 English is structured in the same way as Chinese graph 2 - disagree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 166 2013
CEMs begin learning maths and science subjects and discover no difference or difference. Three categories of beliefs experienced mixed preference: 1) foreign language aptitude, 2) the nature of language learning, and 3) motivation and expectations.
Section 5.6.2.3: Neither disagree or agree/agree plus
There are six general beliefs highlighted in this section. #: Code: Belief statement: Type of belief: 1 #15 I have foreign language aptitude foreign language aptitude 2 #20 learning English is mostly a matter of its many grammar rules the nature of language learning 3 #22 males are better than females at learning English foreign language aptitude 4 #31 I would like to speak English so I can learn more about English people motivation and expectations 5 #32 people who can speak more than one foreign language are intelligent people foreign language aptitude 6 #33 Chinese are good at learning foreign languages foreign language aptitude
The above graph shows the highest percentage of students in each grade indicating a preference for belief statement BS#20 learning English is mostly a matter of its many grammar rules. Students in grades 1 and 2 agree with this, while students in grades 3 and 4 neither disagree or agree [NDoA] with it. Four categories experienced mixed preference: 1) foreign language aptitude, 2) the nature of language learning, 3) learning and communication strategies, and 4) the difficulty of language. 58 37 45 36 B#20 learning English is mostly a matter of its many grammar rules graph 3 - neither disagree or agree/agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 agree agree NDoA NDoA The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 167 2013
This mix of agree and neither disagree or agree appears perhaps because CEMs focus on grammar early. Other beliefs are more perceptions about learning not necessarily based on experience. The logical assumption was to assume that agreement would increase or decrease with additional experience, for instance, if CEMs begin learning grammar early and then drift away to focus on other aspects of English.
Section 5.6.2.4: Disagree, neither disagree or agree, agree
There are four general beliefs highlighted in this section. #: Code: Belief statement: Type of belief: 1 #10 its easier to learn another foreign language if you already know one foreign language foreign language aptitude 2 #16 learning English is a mostly a matter of learning many new English vocabulary items the nature of language learning 3 #19 if you are allowed to make mistakes they will be hard to get rid of later learning and communication strategies 4 #24 its easier to speak English than it is to understand it the difficulty of language
The above graph shows the highest percentage of students in each grade indicating a preference for belief statement BS#10 its easier to learn another foreign language if you already know one foreign language. Grade 1 students neither disagree or agree [NDoA] with it, grade 2 and 4 students agree with it, and grade 3 students disagree and agree with it.
50 37 50 41 B#10 it's easier to learn another foreign language if you already know one foreign language graph 4 - disagree/neither disagree or agree/agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 NDoA agree disagree/agree agree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 168 2013
This mix of agree and neither disagree or agree and disagree appears perhaps because CEMs must learn more than one foreign language as part of their degree program for example, English and Russian. Other beliefs are more perceptions about learning not necessarily based on experience. The logical assumption was to assume that agreement would increase or decrease with additional experience, for instance, if CEMs begin learning another foreign language in a four-year degree program, in languages as diverse as English and Russian, this may be a unachievable challenge for everyone.
Section 5.6.2.5: English learning difficulty and time till fluency (2 beliefs)
The above graph shows the highest percentage of students in each grade indicating the level of difficulty learning English. Students in all grades indicate the level is medium (by choosing neither disagree or agree [NDoA]). Students indicated their agreement on a 5-point Likert scale where 1=strongly disagree; 2=disagree; 3=neither disagree or agree; 4=agree; 5=strongly agree.
58 75 45 68 B#4 the English I am trying to learn is a certain level of difficulty graph 5 - level of difficulty grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 NDoA NDoA NDoA NDoA The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 169 2013
The above graph shows the highest percentage of students indicating agreement with belief statement BS#14 if you spent 1 hour a day speaking/ learning English, how long would it take you to become fluent? We can see that students in grades 1 to 3 indicated that they disagree, meaning they believed it would take them between 1 to 2 years to become fluent if they acted on the belief statement, while grade 4 students indicated that they neither disagree or agree [NDoA], meaning they believed it would take 3 to 5 years to become fluent if they acted on the belief statement.
Section summary
Some general groupings appeared in the data: 1) strongly agree/agree, 2) disagree/strongly disagree, 3) neither disagree or agree plus something else, and 4) disagree/neither disagree or agree (NDoA)/agree. Eighteen general BALLL were strongly agreed/agreed with, roughly 53 per cent. Four beliefs were disagree/strongly disagreed with, roughly 12 per cent. Six were NDoA with, roughly 18 per cent. Four were disagree/neither disagree or agree/agree, 12 per cent. Two beliefs concerned English learning difficulty and time till fluency. For level of difficulty, students indicated English was generally medium difficulty, while time till fluency for grades 1, 2 and 3 would take 1 to 2 years, but grade 4 students generally thought it would take 3 to 5 years to achieve fluency in English.
50 46 41 64 B#14 if you spent 1 hour a day speaking learning English how long would it take to become fluent graph 6 - time till fluency grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 disagree disagree disagree NDoA The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 170 2013
5.7 The Chinese culture of learning (CCL) BALLL
The CCLQ was conducted to ascertain, firstly, whether CEMs hold beliefs consistent with the CCL, and, secondly, whether those beliefs correlate with general BALLL and VLS use. Whether beliefs actually influence strategy choice is inferred from the data.
Tables 5.22 to 5.26 show by grade, percentage, frequency, means and SDs for CCL beliefs (see Appendix 10 for just the means). The total number of responses per belief statement (for instance, strongly disagree (1), disagree (2), neither disagree or agree (3), agree (4), and strongly agree (5)) have been tallied and converted to a percentage to illustrate general trends in both the percentage of students indicating a position on the belief and the strength of the beliefs in terms of frequency. Section 5.7.1 below discusses three general groupings found in the data: 1) strongly agree/agree, 2) strongly disagree/disagree, and 3) neither disagree or agree.
Key to the tables: the left-hand column lists the number of the belief statement as it appears on the questionnaire; the second column lists the grade; the third column lists the highest percentage of students in the grade indicating a position on the belief; the fourth column lists frequency of the belief in terms of agreement; the fifth column lists the grade mean; the sixth column lists the SD; and the final column lists the number of students in each grade; shorthand indicators: NDoA = neither disagree or agree, and s.agree = strongly agree.
Table 5.24: By grade, percentages, frequency and mean #: grade % freq. mean SD n 9a 1 41 NDoA 3.23 1.07 22 2 32 agree 3.64 1.09 22 3 37 NDoA 3.17 1.17 24 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 173 2013
As with general beliefs, the results were presented using the highest percentage of students to show a preference with respect to each of the 57 CCL BALLL. Agreement is suggested by the highest percentage of students agreeing with it. Thirty-three beliefs were generally agreed with, roughly 58 per cent. Therefore CEMs tended to agree with many beliefs of the CCL BALLL. These and other groupings of positions held on the above beliefs are presented next.
Section 5.7.1: Some general groupings in the data
Some general groupings appear in the questionnaire data and categorised: 1) strongly agree/agree, 2) strongly disagree and disagree, 3) neither disagree or agree (NDoA) and agree, and 3) disagree, NDoA, agree. Two single findings were 1) NDoA, and 2) disagree/NDoA. This finding is not merely a position on a range of beliefs about relations between two phenomena but about the effect on learning behaviour.
Section 5.7.2: Beliefs statements students strongly agree/agree with
There are 33 CCL beliefs highlighted in this section. #: Code: Belief statement: Type of belief: 1 #1 I enjoy learning English attitude to learning English 2 #2/2a I learn English to find a good job in the future learners aims for learning English 3 #5/2d I learn English to pass exams learners aims for learning English 4 #8/3a a good teacher of English should be knowledgeable about their area criteria for being a good teacher 5 #10/3c a good teacher of English should be light-hearted when teaching criteria for being a good teacher 6 #12/3e a good teacher of English should provide clear and comprehensive notes criteria for being a good teacher 7 #14/3g a good teacher of English should improve my English skills e.g. reading, writing, speaking, listening criteria for being a good teacher 8 #16/4b I prefer the teacher-student relationship to be like teacher-student The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 177 2013
a friend-friend relationship relationship 9 #18/5b how much do you agree with the statement, I love my teacher but love the truth more perceptions of teachers attitudes towards students questions in the classroom 10 #20/6b if you do not agree with the teachers teaching in the classroom do you ask the teacher after class perceptions of teachers attitudes towards students questions in the classroom 11 #22/7 my English teacher likes me asking questions in the classroom perceptions of teachers attitudes towards students questions in the classroom 12 #23/8 my English teacher likes me asking questions after class perceptions of teachers attitudes towards students questions in the classroom 13 #25/9b I prefer the teacher to encourage me to learn favoured teaching method 14 #26/9c I prefer the teacher use different activities to help me learn favoured teaching method 15 #28/10b I think the contents of textbooks are not totally correct attitudes to the content of textbooks 16 #31/12a I memorize vocabulary by rehearsal strategies like word lists, oral and visual repetition memorising vocabulary 17 #33/13a I practice reading English by reading the materials in the textbooks practising reading skills 18 #34/13b I practice reading in English by reading the materials in other textbooks practising reading skills 19 #35/13c I practice reading in English by reading newspaper practising reading skills 20 #37/14a I practice speaking in English by reading aloud or reciting the texts in books practising speaking skills 21 #39/14c I practice speaking in English by talking with native English speakers practising speaking skills 22 #41/15a I practice listening to English by listening to the tapes that accompany the textbook practising listening skills 23 #42/15b I practice listening to English by watching English movies and TV shows practising listening skills 24 #43/15c I practice listening to English by listening to English radio practising listening skills 25 #46/16b I practice writing in English by finishing the writing tasks assigned by my teachers of English practising writing skills 26 #47/16c I practice writing in English by writing in my diary in English practising writing skills 27 #49/17a the main barrier to improving my English is I do not work hard enough barriers to learning English 28 #51/17c the main barrier to improving my English is I do not have a good English learning environment barriers to learning English 29 #53/18a a good learner of English should work hard what makes a good learner? The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 178 2013
30 #54/18b a good learner of English should respect teachers what makes a good learner? 31 #55/18c a good learner of English should practise using English all the time what makes a good learner? 32 #56/18d a good learner of English should never give up learning English what makes a good learner? 33 #57/18e a good learner of English should have their own opinion about language and language learning what makes a good learner?
The above example graph shows the highest percentage of students in each grade indicating a position on the belief BS#1 I enjoy learning English. Students in all grades agreed with it.
Agreement with the CCL beliefs is because they are held by CEMs, Chinese nationals, and therefore reflective of the belief systems of the Chinese culture. There are 11 categories of beliefs agreed with: 1) attitude to learning English, 2) learners aims for learning English, 3) criteria for being a good teacher of English, 4) teacher-student relationship, 5) perceptions of teachers attitudes towards students questions in the classroom, 6) favoured teaching method, 7) attitude to the content of textbooks, 8) memorising vocabulary, 9) practising reading skills, speaking skills, listening skills and writing skills, 10) barriers to learning English, and 11) what makes a good learner? The logical assumption was to assume that this range of beliefs is fairly normal for Chinese foreign language learners, but more so because these are specific cultural BALLL.
67 42 59 41 B#1 I enjoy learning English graph 1 - agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 179 2013
Section 5.7.3: Beliefs students strongly disagree and disagree with
There are eight CCL beliefs highlighted in this section. #: Code: Belief statement: Type of belief: 1 #14/4a I prefer the teacher-student relationship to be like a parent-child relationship teacher-student relationship 2 #19/6a If you do not agree with what the teacher is teaching, do you still follow the teachers idea? perceptions of teachers attitudes towards students questions in the classroom 3 #27/10a I think the contents of textbooks are totally correct attitudes to the content of the textbooks 4 #36/13d I practise reading in English by reading nothing practising reading skills 5 #40/14d I practise speaking in English by doing nothing practising speaking skills 6 #44/15d I practise listening to English by listening to nothing practising listening skills 7 #48/16d I practise writing in English by doing nothing practising writing skills 8 #50/17b The main barrier to improving my English is that my teacher of English does not teach well barriers to learning English
The above example graph shows the highest percentage of students in each grade indicating a position on belief statement BS#14/4a I prefer the teacher-student relationship to be like a parent-child relationship. Students in grades 1 to 3 disagree with it, while students in grade 4 disagree and agree with it.
33 46 54 32 B#14/4a I prefer the teacher student relationship to be like a parent child relationship graph 2 - disagree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 disagree disagree disagree disagree/agree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 180 2013
Agreement with the CCL beliefs are because they are held by CEMs, Chinese nationals, and therefore reflective of the belief systems of the Chinese culture. There are five categories of beliefs: 1) teacher-student relationship, 2) perceptions of teachers attitudes towards students questions in the classroom, 3) attitude to the content of textbooks, 4) practising reading skills, speaking skills, listening skills and writing skills, and 5) barriers to learning English. The logical assumption was to assume that this range of beliefs is fairly normal for Chinese foreign language learners; they are negatives, beliefs they disagree with. However, a reason for B#27/10a: I think the content of textbooks are totally correct is challenging. Students are suggesting that the contents of their textbooks are not totally correct, which seems counterintuitive.
Section 5.7.4: Belief statements students disagree, neither disagree or agree, agree with
There are six CCL beliefs highlighted in this section. #: Code: Belief statement: Type of belief: 1 #4/2c I learn English for the honour of my family learners aims for learning English 2 #7/2f I learn English because it is compulsory learners aims for learning English 3 #11/3d a good teacher of English should be a serious teacher criteria for being a good teacher 4 #30/11b the knowledge from textbooks is not useful in real life attitudes to the content of textbooks 5 #45/16a I practise writing in English by exchanging letters with a my pen pals in English practising writing skills 6 #52/17d the main barrier to improving my English is that our learning materials are already out of date barriers to learning English
33 50 45 36 B#11/3d a good teacher of English should be serious graph 3 - disagree, NDoA, agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 NDoA agree agree disagree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 181 2013
The above example graph shows the highest percentage of students in each grade indicating a position on belief statement BS#11/3d a good teacher of English should be a serious teacher. Students in grade 1 neither disagree or agree with it, students in grades 2 and 3 agree with it, and students in grade 4 disagree with it.
The mixed agreement of the CCL beliefs appears because they are held by CEMs, Chinese nationals, and therefore reflective of the belief systems of the Chinese culture. There are five categories of beliefs: 1) learners aims for learning English, 2) criteria for being a good teacher of English, 3) attitude to the content of textbooks, 4) practising writing skills and 5) barriers to learning English. The first two concern a CCL belief that a foreign language might be learned to honour the family, but there are mixed feelings about it, perhaps because Western beliefs have displaced this traditional belief. There are mixed feelings about learning English being compulsory, which is puzzling: students should be able to say whether learning English is compulsory or not. Perhaps students developing experience of FLL is a reason for mixed feelings about this small group of issues.
Section 5.7.5: Beliefs statements students neither disagree or agree/ agree with
There are seven CCL beliefs highlighted in this section. #: Code: Belief statement: Type of belief: 1 #6/2e I learn English for daily communication learners aims for learning English 2 #9/3b a good teacher of English should often use games and other activities when teaching criteria for being a good teacher 3 #17/5a being a teacher for a day entitles them to lifelong respect from students in the same way students respect their fathers perceptions of teachers attitudes towards students question in the classroom 4 #24/9a I prefer the teacher to tell me everything I should learn favoured teaching method 5 #29/11a I think the knowledge from the textbooks is useful in real life attitudes to the content of textbooks 6 #32/12b I memorise vocabulary by using other mnemonic techniques memorising vocabulary 7 #38/14b I practise speaking in English by talking with my classmates in English practising speaking skills
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The above example graph shows the highest percentage of students in each grade indicating a position on belief statement BS#6/2e I learn English for daily communication. Students in grades 1, 3 and 4 agreed with it, and students in grade 2 neither disagreed or agreed and agreed with it.
The mixed agreement and neither disagree or agreement of the CCL beliefs appears because increasingly they perceive the need to communicate using the new language, gaining confidence every year. There are seven categories of beliefs: 1) learners aims for learning English; 2) criteria for being a good teacher of English; 3) perceptions of students question in the classroom; 4) favoured teaching method; 5) attitude to the content of textbooks; 6) memorising vocabulary; and 7) practising speaking skills. Finding a reason for the mixed feelings about these issues is challenging. Perhaps #32/12b is a complex topic, a mnemonic being a strategy for improving their memory of English vocabulary apart from those already being used (see section 5.1.2.1 above on VLSs), using cognitive phenomena like visual, audio and semantic aspects of English vocabulary. Students may have been hard pressed to think of other strategies they may have been using at the time they were surveyed. However, during the interviews (see section 5.8) many students were able to offer alternatives to those on the questionnaire. Students developing experience of FLL may be a reason for these mixed feelings about this small group of issues.
58 46 41 36 B#6/2e I learn English for daily communication graph 4 - agree/NDoA grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 agree NDoA/agree agree agree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 183 2013
Section 5.7.6: Beliefs statements students neither disagree or agree
The above example graph shows the highest percentage of students in each grade indicating a position on belief statement BS#13/3f a good teacher of English should help me pass exams. Students in grades 1, 3 and 4 neither disagree or agree with it, while students in grade 2 neither disagree or agree and agree with it.
The mixed feelings about this issue is interesting because students should pass exams to progress given that learning a foreign language is their major, and learning English is what they are trying to achieve as part of their degree program. There is some agreement with it so there are some students who think this is something a teacher should help them with.
67 50 36 41 B#13/3f a good teacher of English should help me pass exams graph 5 - neither disagree or agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 NDoA NDoA/agree NDoA NDoA The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 184 2013
Section 5.7.8: Disagree/neither disagree or agree
The above example graph shows the highest percentage of students in each grade indicating a position on belief statement BS#21/6c if you do not agree with what the teaching is teaching, do you ask the teacher immediately in the classroom? Students in grades 1 and 3 disagree with it, students in grade 2 neither disagree or agree with it, and students in grade 4 disagree and neither disagree or agree with it.
The mixed feelings, though mostly disagreement on this issue, are hard to account for. Students are suggesting that if they disagree with what the teacher teaches, they will not ask about it in the class. Perhaps this is a form of respect for the teacher. Perhaps doing this is a face-saving action.
Section summary
This subsection presented the data generated by the exploration of CEMs beliefs about the CCL. The data suggests that 1) CEMs hold beliefs that belong to the CCL, and 2) CEMs CCL beliefs are consistent across the four grades. The section on general BALLL shows that 18 beliefs were agreed with, roughly 53 per cent, while of CCL beliefs 33 beliefs were agreed with, roughly 59 per cent. This suggests that CEMs have a preference for CCL beliefs, understandable given that they are Chinese nationals living in China. They are learning English, so the appearance of general Western beliefs among their preferences suggests they have 33 46 45 45 B#21/6c if you do not agree with the teacher's teaching do you ask the teacher immediately in the classroom graph 6 - disagree/NDoA grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 disagree NDoA disagree disagree/NDoA The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 185 2013
picked them up as a result of an influx of native English speaker teachers and the internet, as well as Chinas general opening up to the West. The result is discussed further in Chapter 7.
5.8 BALLLQ and CCLQ data compared with interview data
Interview data is presented next. The data is themed and contrasted with, where possible, the same questions on the questionnaire. General BALLL and CCL beliefs are generalised here because the interviews did not ask about culturally specific beliefs, but the questions aimed to draw out those beliefs. The interview data was placed in tables. The tables show how the student responded to the question, and the analysis involved extracting the nominals nouns, noun phrases and indicators.
5.8.1: Question 5: How would you rate your English competence?
Thirteen interviewees said their English competence was medium (see Appendix 11, Table 1). This question was also asked on the BALLLQ and got a similar response. Perhaps just so so, average are variations on medium, and poor is similar to bad. Below are some students responses for this answer.
student Age Major grade CET score gender YoELE 9) CLARE 21 English 3 122 f 12 Question: Answer: 5) How would you rate your English competence? In China, I am rated medium. What does that mean? I mean, I am medium just because I am not naive. What has naive got to do with your English ability? I am sorry, I typed wrongly again. No problem. I mean, I am not an American or English native speaker.
student Age Major grade CET score gender YoELE 10) ANNA 23 English 3 128 f 10 Question: Answer: 5) How would you rate your English competence? Of course, poor. Why? NA
Student 9 rated their English competence at medium, while student 10 rated it poor. Student 9 is 2 years younger than student 10, but in the same grade, yet student 10s CET score was 128, higher than student 9, but student 10 rates their English competence as poor. The difference in years of English education may provide some insight into the self-rating, may The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 186 2013
account for the confidence to rate English competence but needs further investigation. The fact that student 9 says the rating in China is medium, and based on the fact that she is not a native English speaker suggests the rating of CEMs English competence, at least, in China is not how EFL learners may suggest answers for confidence in self-rating.
In the interview responses (see Appendix 11, Table 1), the student that said bad did not really display English competence commensurate with the belief. The student that said not sure can be viewed as not unconfident in rating her competence, just not sure about how to rate it. The student that said through exams, is suggesting that this is how her English competence is normally rated in her context of learning.
5.8.2: Question 6: What do you think makes a good teacher of English?
Personality traits and teacher qualities have been separated for what makes a good teacher? (e.g. responsible, humorous, patient) because they are viewed as separate though linked issues, the first are personal qualities whereas the other a specific teacher quality (see Appendix 11, Table, 2). Separating person qualities from those that the teacher really should possess seemed logical and useful. From reading this list of teacher qualities, perhaps students sometimes imagine teachers are more than professional educators, or wish them to be. The highest percentage of students (32%) who offered an opinion was for has knowledge of English. Under other traits, some interesting expectations were observed, for example, makes English sound beautiful. This may be more an aesthetic expectation, besides a simple preference. What is meant by sound beautiful was not explored. This might be a reflection of Chinese calligraphy in which students learn to write and are assessed on ideographs as part of their schooling.
Students 11 and 12 explain their preference for teachers to have good knowledge of English but make learning enjoyable. This is an interesting addition and will be explained later in the discussion.
student Age Major grade CET score gender YoELE 11) DEBBIE 23 English 3 115 f 13 Question: Answer: 6) What do you think makes a good teacher of English? First of all, a good English teacher must have the conscious that they need to know th e students well. Ok anything else? Logical and considerate. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 187 2013
Ok anything else? That's all I can figure. Ok If you are going to teach English, what would y ou teach first? According to myself, I will teach speaking first. What else? Or the English cultural. If you teach speaking first, how will you begin? First, tell the students to not be shy when they speak English aloud. Ok anything else? Just enjoy themselves during the learning process. Then maybe teach the vowels and consonants. Ok anything else? That's all.
student Age Major grade CET score gender YoELE 12) LESLIE 22 English 3 NA f 8 Question: Answer: 6) What do you think makes a good teacher of English? He should be kind and knowledgeable; skilful. Kind and knowledgeable? Yes. What else? Open. What do you mean, open? Know many things, and understand students. Anything else? Be devoted to his job; careful. Anything else? That's all.
Student 11 made more suggestion about what makes a good teacher of English than student 12. Perhaps this can be accounted for in the years of English education each has received: student 11 has had 13 years of English education while student 12 has had 8 years of English education.
The most popular beliefs about what makes a good teacher of English were #68: has knowledge of English, #17: responsible, #15: patient, #18: humorous, #34: helps students pass exams, #46: understands students, #51: makes English sound beautiful, #61: has good English pronunciation, #66: has high level of English, #69: knows English culture, #77: has good teaching skill, #86: teaches culture, and #96: teaches grammar.
5.8.3: Question 7: What should the student-teacher relationship be like? Table 5.27: What should the student-teacher relationship be like? #: Answer: Interview percentages BALLL percentages CCL percentages 1 friends 48 - 54 2 respect 40 - 25 3 harmony 4 - -
The student-teacher relationship is emphasised in traditional Chinese culture. Traditionally it has been one where students must show respect for the teacher. Forty-eight per cent of students said they wanted the relationship to be a friend-friend relationship. From some of the The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 188 2013
interviews, it seemed that this was rarely the case. The fact that 40 per cent of students said the relationship should be students respecting the teacher suggests that this traditional view of the relationship is still a preference for some.
5.8.4: Question 8: What does learning another language involve in your opinion?
Asking what is involved in learning another language? seemed to be a challenge for students. Many seemed to struggle to articulate the process they go through, though they had had an average nine years of English language education by the time they answered the research questions (see Appendix 11, Table 3). The examples below demonstrate this uncertainty.
student Age Major grade CET score gender YoELE 14) SALLY 23 English 3 131 f 6 Question: Answer: 8) What does learning another language involve in your opinion? What? I mean, if you learn another language, what must you learn? Vocabulary; grammar. Ok anything else? The culture. Ok anything else? No.
student Age Major grade CET score gender YoELE 13) LUCY 20 English 1 131 f 10 Question: Answer: 8) What does learning another language involve in your opinion? I do not know how to answer it well; could you explain it to me? Ok, imagine you will learn English from the beginning, what will you learn first? Aa, Bb, Cc. What next? Words. Then what? Then grammar; and next I will learn to write a short passage. Ok, then what? Then I will say the words aloud. Ok and after that? After that, I will try to communicate with others as much as possible; in English. Ok so you read the passage aloud, or you will memorize it and say it aloud from memory? Yeah. Both? Yes. Anything else? No.
Student 14 provided fewer suggestions than student 15 about what is involved in learning another language. Student 14 achieved the same CET score as student 15, yet student 14 has had fewer (6) years of English language education than student 15 (10). This is puzzling because she is grade 3 whereas student 15 is in grade 1. The difference in responses may be The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 189 2013
accounted for by temperament rather than the difference in years of English education, because they both achieved the same CET score.
Some students simply said that learning English was the same as learning any other foreign language. But they were quick to point out that learning English wasnt the same as learning their native Chinese. The highest percentage response was 56 per cent, for culture. Students seemed to suggest that learning another language also involved learning the culture of the other language. This may suggest students interest in learning about the culture of L2.
The most popular beliefs regarding what is involved in learning another language were, #13: culture, #4: words, #7: grammar, #12: pronunciation, #11: speaking English, #10: writing English, #2: alphabet, #6: phrases, #15: reading English, #21: history, #3: phonetic symbols, and #19: listening in English.
5.8.5: Question 9: Should vocabulary learning strategies be taught? Table 5.28: Should VLSs be taught? #: Answer: Interview percentages 1 yes 72 2 not sure 4 3 no 12 4 not all 8 5 maybe 4
An important question with reference to the nature of the research (should vocabulary learning strategies be taught? (Table 5.28 above)) was asked, and 72 per cent of students agreed that it should. This is a strong show of support for the idea, given that these students are not explicitly taught English VLSs. However, despite the strong support, 12 per cent of students said no. When students were asked to clarify their response, they generally said every student has his own way. See section 5.5.
This suggests that CEMs have a range of views on the above issues, some creative and innovative. Many of these views have not been offered in previous research. The interviews gave deeper insight into CEMs beliefs and preferences, not so much on the issue of what is involved in learning another language but that learning the culture of the foreign language is The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 190 2013
an aspect that should also be learned. The importance of strategy training, however, should not be understated.
From the analysis of interview data, a range of new beliefs was found. In terms of English competence, 52 per cent of students rated theirs as medium, while 28 per cent rated it as poor. In terms of what makes a good English teacher?, there was a range of new beliefs. Five general groupings of beliefs appeared: personality traits, other traits, teacher qualities, teaching tools and what the teacher should teach. For personality traits, 20 per cent of students said the teacher should be responsible, 16 per cent each for patient and humorous. For other traits, 12 per cent each for helps students pass exams, understands students and makes English sound beautiful; 8 per cent each for helps students enjoy English and makes classes interesting. For teaching qualities, 32 per cent said must have knowledge of English; 12 per cent each for has good English pronunciation, has high level of English, knows English culture and has good teaching skills; 8 per cent each for understands textbooks, has good English skills, uses professional skills, has good teaching method and has good teaching technique. For teaching tools, 8 per cent said uses dialogues. For what the teacher should teach, 12 per cent each for teaches culture and teaches grammar. For what the student- teacher relationship should be like, 48 per cent said friend-friend and 40 per cent said respect, which equates to a parent-child relationship. For what is involved in learning another language, 56 per cent said culture, 44 per cent each for words and grammar, 32 per cent for pronunciation, 28 per cent for speaking English, and 24 per cent for writing English.
Section summary
By converting raw data to percentages, trends and patterns were observed in the data. Of the 34 general BALLL asked about, 18 were agreed with approximately 53 per cent. Of the 57 CCL beliefs asked about, 33 beliefs were agreed with approximately 58 per cent. Three general groupings were observed in the data: 1) strongly agree/agree, 2) strongly disagree/disagree, and 3) neither disagree or agree.
However, few comparisons were found between the questionnaire data and the interview. For English competence, a possible 60 per cent of interviewees said medium compared to 61 per cent of BALLLQ respondents. For the student-teacher relationship, while 48 per cent of interviewees said the relationship should be friend-friend, 54 per cent of CCLQ respondents The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 191 2013
said it should be friend-friend. While 40 per cent of interviewees said the relationship should be one of respect, 25 per cent of students said it should be like a parent-child relationship. No comparisons were found for what is involved in learning another language. On the question of whether VLSs should be taught, 72 per cent of interviewees said it should be, while 12 per cent said no.
Chapter summary
On the question of which VLSs CEMs use, 58 per cent were found to be often/always used. This suggested medium use of VLSs. The finding that strategy use clustered in each grade was significant. From this clustering, it was inferred that it was a core set of VLSs and a strong indicator of a PVL followed by CEMs. The interview data revealed a range of new VLSs from discovery-place and determination initial response and study strategies to consolidation- memorisation and consolidation-practice strategies. On the question of differences in VLS use among the four grades, it was variable. The difference was observed in percentages of students using a strategy in each grade. Three general groupings appeared in the data: 1) increasing strategy use, 2) decreasing strategy use and 3) unchanged strategy use. These groupings revealed trends in strategy use in each grade and reasons offered for the trend. Comparison of questionnaire data and interview data provided some significant confirmation of the questionnaire data. For instance, that students discover new vocabulary in textbooks was comparable percentage-wise; discovering new vocabulary while watching English TV/movies were both comparable. Determination strategies were comparable for guess the meaning of a new word, look up English dictionary, know its pronunciation, and write the new word down. For consolidation-practice strategies, they were comparable on write the new word down, use a vocabulary book and practise new words with classmates. For consolidation-memorisation strategies, reciting new words and making sentences with new words were comparable.
The question of whether general BALLL correlate with CCL beliefs is answered in Chapter 6. The correlation was strong. However, in terms of agreement, students showed average agreement on both general and specific BALLL in terms of overall percentages of students agreeing. However, descriptive analysis revealed that CEMs CCL beliefs were stronger than their general beliefs. The formal statistical analysis revealed that beliefs and VLSs strongly correlated. Chapter 6 discusses the formal statistical analysis.
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CHAPTER 6: STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF VLS USE, CCL, BALLL AND VST
6.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the results of the statistical analysis of data gathered through three questionnaires and VSTs. Data was gathered through a VLS questionnaire, two belief questionnaires about language and language learning (BALLLQ and CCLQ), and four VSTs (VST 1000, VST 2000, VST 3000 and VST Academic). One of the aims of the research was to observe the statistical relationship between VLS use, beliefs and English VST scores, so the statistical analysis explored the strength of the relationship among these factors, and their statistical characteristics. This chapter answers research question No. 5 Do their specific beliefs about language and language learning correlate with vocabulary learning strategy use?. The discussion of the result is found in Chapter 7. The data was analysed in SPSS using Non- parametric Kruskal-Wallis Test and non-parametric correlations by Spearmans rho (see Chapter 4). The first section, 6.1, presents the non-parametric correlations by Spearmans rho on three main factors (VLSs and BALLL, general and specific). The second section, 6.2, presents the non-parametric analysis of differences within each grade on all factors and between five factors including age and years of English language within a grade. The third section, 6.3, presents the statistical results of the Non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis Test to observe differences in score-means on the three questionnaires and VST and to observe differences and/or similarity in mean differences.
6.1 The relationship between VLSs, general BALLL and CCL beliefs
Non-parametric correlation was run to observe the strength of the relationship among the main factors, VLS use, BALLL and CCL. The analysis Spearmans rho was run for VLS use and general BALLL, between VLS use and CCL beliefs, between general BALLL and CCL beliefs. The non-parametric correlation was run in SPSS on all factors for all grades.
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Table 6.1 shows the correlation test run for three factors.
Table 6.1: Three factors correlated
CCL TOTAL BALLL TOTAL VLS TOTAL CCLTOTAL 1.000 0.552** 0.420** BALLLTOTAL 1.000 0.298** VLSTOTAL 1.000 ** p < 0.01
Key to Table 6.1: the test was run separately on all three factors at the same time (e.g., VLS use matched with beliefs) and then highlighted in the one table; in the top row far right-hand cells, the factor coded, CCLTOTAL, BALLLTOTAL and VLSTOTAL, and below it, for each factor that was tested the name of the test, Spearmans rho, the correlation coefficient range, the significance (2-tailed), and number of samples (80); under Sig. (2-tailed), the value of greater significance here, the value of the significance or correlation, significant at p < 0.01 indicated by **, that the three factors strongly correlate.
The result of the analysis shows a strong and significant relationship among the three factors explored in the research. Knowing that there is a strong relationship between these three factors means that VLSs and beliefs work together during the process of vocabulary learning, among the other factors that come into play.
6.2 Within grade correlation by Spearmans rho of all categories and strategies against VST 1000 to 3000 and Academic scores
Tables 6.2 to 6.5 show the non-parametric correlation test run on category and strategies against VST and Academic test scores; the test was run because no correlation was observed between VLS and VST/Academic scores in Table 6.10 Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA test. Key to tables: the top row lists the items; the far left-column lists the test; the second column lists the category and strategies in it; the third column lists the labels items shown in the two right-hand columns, for example, correlation value, p value and number of samples; the two right-hand columns show the result of the Spearmans rho for VST 1000 to 3000 and Academic scores, and the strength of the correlation indicated by * or **.
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6.2.1 Grade 1
Table 6.2: Category and strategies against VST and Academic scores for grade 1 Test Category and strategies VST 1000 to 3000 Aca Spearmans rho discovery-place correlation 0.022 0.287 P value 0.923 0.195 N 22 22 determination-response correlation - 0.248 0.090 P value 0.265 0.689 N 22 22 determination-study correlation 0.068 0.104 P value 0.764 0.645 N 22 22 consolidation-organisation correlation 0.126 0.188 P value 0.578 0.402 N 22 22 consolidation-memory correlation -0.156 0.112 P value 0.487 0.621 N 22 22 consolidation-review correlation - 0.114 - 0.052 P value 0.613 0.819 N 22 22 consolidation-remember correlation 0.005 0.087 P value 0.982 0.701 N 22 22 consolidation-production correlation -0.084 0.110 P value 0.709 0.627 N 22 22 ** p < 0.01 * p < 0.05
Table 6.2 above is concerned with the relationship among VLSs explored and four VSTs. The aim was to observe a relationship between scores on the tests and strategy use within a grade of undergraduates (grade 1). Past research (Gu & Johnson, 1996) observed a relationship between determination-study strategies and English proficiency scores for one large sample (850). The above table shows no statistically significant relationships.
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6.2.2 Grade 2
Table 6.3: Category and strategies against VST and Academic scores grade 2 Test Category and strategies VST 1000 to 3000 Aca Spearmans rho discovery-place correlation 0.039 - 0.066 P value 0.863 0.770 N 22 22 determination-response correlation 0.023 .011 P value 0.919 0.960 N 22 22 determination-study correlation 0.223 0.412 P value 0.319 0.057 N 22 22 consolidation-organisation correlation 0.325 0.111 P value 0.140 0.623 N 22 22 consolidation-memory correlation 0.209 0.296 P value 0.351 0.181 N 22 22 consolidation-review correlation 0.221 0.325 P value 0.323 0.140 N 22 22 consolidation-remember correlation 0.115 0.276 P value 0.610 0.214 N 22 22 consolidation-production correlation - 0.152 0.084 P value 0.500 0.709 N 22 22 ** p < 0.01 * p < 0.05
Table 6.3 above shows the result of exploring statistically significant relationships among scores on four VSTs and strategy use. A relationship has been observed in the past between determination-study strategies and proficiency scores. For grade 2 undergraduate CEMs, no statistically significant relationships were observed.
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6.2.3 Grade 3
Table 6.4: Category and strategies against VST and Academic scores grade 3 Test Category and strategies VST 1000 to 3000 Aca Spearmans rho discovery-place correlation - 0.388 - 0.118 P value 0.061 0.584 N 24 24 determination-response correlation - 0.382 - 0.260 P value 0.065 0.220 N 24 24 determination-study correlation 0.104 0.433 *
P value 0.627 0.034 N 24 24 consolidation-organisation correlation 0.151 0.089 P value 0.482 0.679 N 24 24 consolidation-memory correlation - 0.462* - 0.110 P value 0.023 0.608 N 24 24 consolidation-review correlation - 0.277 - 0.099 P value 0.189 0.646 N 24 24 consolidation-remember correlation -0.125 0.067 P value 0.562 0.757 N 24 24 consolidation-production correlation - 0.113 - 0.091 P value 0.598 0.673 N 24 24 ** p < 0.01 * p < 0.05
In Table 6.4 above, the relationship between grade 3 undergraduate CEMs scores on four VSTs and strategy use were explored. A statistically significant relationship was observed between determination-study strategies and scores on the Academic VST. A statistically significant relationship was also observed between consolidation-memory strategies and scores on three VSTs (1000, 2000, and 3000). This finding is significant and confirms previous research (e.g. Gu & Johnson, 1996), that there is a relationship between VLS use and proficiency, at least, and is reflected on in Chapter 7, section 7.5, comparing more recent research by Ma (2009) which focused on VLS categories.
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6.2.4 Grade 4
Table 6.5: Category and strategies against VST and Academic scores grade 4 Test Category & strategies VST 1000 to 3000 Aca Spearmans rho discovery-place correlation 0.446 0.513 P value 0.146 0.088 N 12 12 determination-response correlation - 0.427 - 0.007 P value 0.166 0.982 N 12 12 determination-study correlation 0.331 0.592* P value 0.293 0.042 N 12 12 consolidation-organisation correlation 0.196 0.141 P value 0.542 0.663 N 12 12 consolidation-memory correlation 0.605* 0.167 P value 0.037 0.603 N 12 12 consolidation-review correlation 0.312 - 0.123 P value 0.324 0.702 N 12 12 consolidation-remember correlation 0.576* 0.317 P value 0.050 0.315 N 12 12 consolidation-production correlation 0.542 0.076 P value 0.069 0.815 N 12 12 ** p < 0.01 * p < 0.05
Table 6.5 above is the analysis of grade 4 undergraduate CEMs strategy use and scores on VSTs. A statistically significant relationship was observed between determination-study strategies and Academic vocabulary size scores; between consolidation-memory strategies and scores on three VSTs (1000, 2000, 3000); between consolidation-remember strategies and scores on three VSTs.
The result of the correlational analysis shows a strong correlation between determination-study strategies and Academic scores in grade 3, between discovery-memory strategies and VST 1000 to 3000 in grade 4, between determination-memory strategies and VST 1000 to 3000 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 198 2013
scores in grade 4, and between consolidation-remember strategies and VST 1000 to 3000 scores in grade 4. The result is similar to Gus and Johnsons (1996) findings concerning determination-study strategies and English proficiency scores. More research of a larger scope may be needed to verify these results.
Section summary
While the aim was a deeper analysis of the VLSs against VST/Academic scores at the categories level (8) on the questionnaire, few correlations were found. Grades 1 and 2 did not show any correlations, however, grade 3 showed a correlation determination-study strategies and Academic scores and between consolidation-memory strategies and scores on the VST 1000 to 3000, and in grade 4 between determination-study strategies and Academic vocabulary size scores, between consolidation-memory strategies and scores on the VST 1000 to 3000 scores and between determination-remember strategies and scores on the VST 1000 to 3000.
6.3 Differences within each grade on all factors including age and years of English language education
6.3.1 Correlations within grade 1 for all factors
The correlations were run first, then the ANOVA-type test. The ANOVA-type test has been run by previous researchers on all these factors. The test was run on all factors at the same time and then the result put with the other test results in one table.
Table 6.6 shows the Non-parametric Correlation test run on all factors. Table 6.6: Analysis of all factors for grade 1 CCL BALLL VLS Academic VST 1 to 3 Age YoELE CCL 1.000 0.558** 0.520* 0.197 0.155 0.548* 0.354 BALLL 1.000 0.385 0.367 0.246 0.272 -0.128 VLS 1.000 0.090 -0.085 -0.029 0.249 Academic 1.000 0.680** -0.178 0.085 VST 1 to 3 1.000 0.042 -0.114 Age 1.000 0.027 YoELE 1.000 ** p < 0.01 * p < 0.05
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Key to Table 6.6: in the top row far left-hand cell, the test, then the factor tested, then the correlation coefficient, the significance (2-tailed), and then value of the correlation; for the correlation coefficient, the value of greater significance here, the value of the relationship between the factors, some of those factors have strong correlations at p < 0.05 and p < 0.01 indicated by * and **.
The three factors explored in the research were also analysed for correlations against each other and with two other factors, age and years of English language education. This analysis explored correlations within a grade (grade 1, grade 2, grade 3 and grade 4). Table 6.6 shows correlations in grade 1 were observed between cultural beliefs (CCL) and general BALLL. A relationship was also observed between the beliefs of the CCL and age. This suggests a relationship between age and beliefs.
6.3.2 Correlations within grade 2 for all factors
The test was run on all factors at the same time and then the result put with the other test results in the one table. Table 6.7 shows the non-parametric correlation test run on all factors.
Table 6.7: Analysis of all factors for grade 2 CCL BALLL VLS Academic VST 1 to 3 Age YoELE CCL 1.000 0.636** 0.321 0.086 0.029 0.046 0.170 BALLL 1.000 -0.045 -0.077 -0.282 -0.412 0.187 VLS 1.000 0.344 0.172 0.029 -0.201 Academic 1.000 0.483* 0.106 0.140 VST 1 to 3 1.000 0.206 -0.036 Age 1.000 0.136 YoELE 1.000 ** p < 0.01 * p < 0.05
Key to Table 6.7; in the top row far left-hand cell, the test, then the factor tested, then the correlation coefficient, the significance (2-tailed), and then value of the correlation; under correlation coefficient, the value of greater significance here, the value of the relationship between the factors, some of those factors have strong correlations at p < 0.05 and p < 0.01 indicated by * and **.
The three factors explored in the research were analysed for relationships with each other and The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 200 2013
two other factors, age and years of English language education in grade 2. Few statistically significant relationships were observed. Similar to grade 1, a strong relationship was observed between general beliefs (BALLL) and cultural beliefs (CCL), and between scores on the Academic VST and three other VSTs (1000 to 3000).
6.3.3 Correlations within grade 3 for all factors
The test was run on all factors at same time and then the result put with the other test results in the one table. Table 6.8 shows the non-parametric correlation test run on all factors.
Table 6.8: Analysis of all factors for grade 3 CCL BALLL VLS Academic VST 1 to 3 Age YoELE CCL 1.000 0.463* 0.281 0.092 -0.392 0.176 0.339 BALLL 1.000 0.492* -0.115 -0.161 -0.057 0.060 VLS 1.000 0.109 -0.262 -0.167 0.145 Academic 1.000 0.398 0.133 -0.471* VST 1 to 3 1.000 -0.206 -0.267 Age 1.000 -0.070 YoELE 1.000 ** p < 0.01 * p < 0.05
Key to Table 6.8; in the top row far left-hand cell, the test, then the factor tested, then the correlation coefficient, the significance (2-tailed), and then value of the correlation; under correlation coefficient, the value of greater significance here, the value of the relationship between the factors, some of those factors have strong correlations at p < 0.05 and p < 0.01 indicated by * and **.
Within grade 3, significant correlations were observed between cultural beliefs (CCL) and general beliefs (BALLL), between general beliefs (BALLL) and VLS use, and between scores on the Academic VST and years of English language education (YoELE).
6.3.4 Correlations within grade 4 for all factors
The test was run on all factors at same time and then the result put with the other test results in the one table. Table 6.9 shows the non-parametric correlation test run on all factors.
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Table 6.9: Analysis of all factors for grade 4 CCL BALLL VLS Academic VST 1 to 3 Age YoELE CCL 1.000 0.506 0.667* 0.248 0.520 0.130 -0.039 BALLL 1.000 -0.011 0.263 0.603* 0.180 0.433 VLS 1.000 0.217 0.386 -0.334 -0.329 Academic 1.000 0.529 -0.271 0.364 VST 1 to 3 1.000 -0.253 0.202 Age 1.000 0.458 YoELE 1.000 ** p < 0.01 * p < 0.05
Key to Table 6.9; in the top row far left-hand cell, the test, then the factor tested, then the correlation coefficient, the significance (2-tailed), and then value of the correlation; under correlation coefficient, the value of greater significance here, the value of the relationship between the factors, some of those factors have strong correlations at p < 0.05 and p < 0.01 indicated by * and **.
For grade 4, correlations were observed between cultural beliefs (CCL) and VLS, and between general beliefs (BALLL) and scores on three VSTs (1000 to 3000).
CCL beliefs against other factors
Grade 1 CCL beliefs correlated strongly with BALLL and VLS use and age. The strong correlation with BALLL and VLS use confirms they work together. The strong correlation with age and not YoELE, however, is interesting. Age maybe a stronger factor in the process of vocabulary learning than hitherto imagined, and needs further research to reveal its role.
Grade 2 CCL beliefs strongly correlated with only BALLL. Grade 3 CCL beliefs correlated with only BALLL. Grade 4 CCL beliefs correlated with only VLS use.
General BALLL against other factors
Grade 1 general BALLL did not correlate with other factors. Grade 2 general BALLL did not correlate with other factors. Grade 3 general BALLL correlated strongly with VLS use. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 202 2013
Grade 4 general BALLL correlated strongly with VST 1000 to 3000 scores.
VLS use against other factors
Grade 1 VLS use did not correlate with other factors. Grade 2 VLS use did not correlate with other factors. Grade 3 VLS use did not correlate with other factors. Grade 4 VLS use did not correlate with other factors.
Academic vocabulary size scores against other factors
Grade 1 Academic scores correlated with VST 1000 to 3000 scores. Grade 2 Academic scores correlated with VST 1000 to 3000 scores. Grade 3 Academic scores correlated with years of English education. Grade 4 Academic scores did not correlate with other factors.
VSTs 1000 to 3000 scores against other factors
Grade 1 VST scores did not correlate with any other scores. Grade 2 VST scores did not correlate with any other scores. Grade 3 VST scores did not correlate with any other scores. Grade 4 VST scores did not correlate with any other scores.
Age against other factors
Grade 1 Age did not correlate with any other scores. Grade 2 Age did not correlate with any other scores. Grade 3 Age did not correlate with any other scores. Grade 4 Age did not correlate with any other scores.
Years of English education against other factors
Grade 1 YoELE did not correlate with any other scores. Grade 2 YoELE did not correlate with any other scores. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 203 2013
Grade 3 YoELE did not correlate with any other scores. Grade 4 YoELE did not correlate with any other scores.
Section summary
Despite significant differences in scores within a grade being observed with Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA showing strong relationships among three factors (BALLL, CCL, VLS use), there were few correlations found among seven factors. Correlations were observed among three factors (BALLL, CCL, VLS use) providing further evidence of their relationship. Correlations were observed between grade 1 CCL and age, and Academic and VST 1000 to 3000; for grade 2, between CCL and BALLL, and between Academic and VST 1000 to 3000; for grade 3, between CCL and BALLL, between BALLL and VLS use, and between Academic and years of English language education; and for grade 4, between CCL and VLS use, and between BALLL and VST 1000 and 3000. This suggests a more consistent relationship between CCL and BALLL, but more research is required on the other factors.
6.4 Statistically significant difference in the three factors and four tests in terms of highest, middle and lowest scores
To see if scores are the same/similar or different, because vocabulary size (e.g. Academic vocabulary size) is dependent on the process of vocabulary learning, the independent variable (e.g. strategies and beliefs), an alternative approach was used to observe significant difference not observed in the Spearmans rho analysis. If students have strong beliefs, for example, they will get a high score on the questionnaires; likewise, if students have strong regular strategy use, it will show as a high score on the questionnaire. When looking at three groups of score- means, a difference will be seen depending on the three groups Upper, Middle and Lower.
Table 6.10 shows the Kruskal-Wallis Test (an ANOVA-type test) mean ranks of the scores in three ranges, Upper, Middle and Lower.
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Table 6.10: Difference in score-means to show difference or no difference
Key to Table 6.10; in the far left-hand column is factor tested against VST scores; in the second and third column is the mean rank of the scores in the range of Upper, Middle and Lower on each of the factors matched against VST scores. There was a significant difference in the means of CCL, BALLL and VLS, but not against the Academic VST. There was a significant difference in BALLL/CCL scores and Academic scores, restricting analysis at a deeper level. The assumption was that the Upper scores would be the highest scores, but the Middle score were the highest. There was, however, no significant difference between VLS use and Academic scores among three levels of Academic scores. The result provides an opportunity for more analysis on at least the two beliefs factors (see section 6.5 below). This Kruskal-Wallis Test was run after the correlations because no significant correlation was found between VLS use and scores on the VST 1000 to 3000 and Academic size tests.
Among the three mean score groupings, there is significant difference on each factor. Interestingly, of the three groups, the Middle showed the highest score, for example, the Middle group showed more agreement with CCL beliefs than the Upper group, though they showed stronger belief agreement (see Appendix 5). For instance, the minimum score was 6 while the highest was 36 on the Academic VST; so within this range of scores were three distinct groupings of scores: Upper, from 36 to 33; Middle, from 32 to 23; Lower, from 22 to 6. However, given that non-parametric tests were used, no generalisation about the findings can be made. Non-parametric tests were run because 1) the sample size was below 100, and 2) because normal distribution cannot be determined with this size sample.
For a clearer picture of changes in vocabulary size from one grade to the next over the four The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 205 2013
years of a Bachelor degree, see Appendix 1. The method of analysis is found in Appendix 7.
6.5 A closer look at the relationship between two belief factors against Academic scores
To observe the difference in mean scores in Table 6.10 above at a deeper level MannWhitney was run. It begins with a deeper analysis of CCL against Academic size test mean scores.
In the above boxplot a difference can be seen in the scores in the Middle range and the Lower range (shown by these indicators O 72 and O 51 ) they were the same between the Middle and Upper range. This means that on the CCLQ there were more higher scores regarding agreement than at the Lower range. This makes sense. The Lower range concerns agreement in this case no agreement with the beliefs asked about. So the difference on three ranges of mean scores observed in Table 6.10 above is found between the Middle range and the Lower range. The mean scores were similar between the Middle and Upper range, meaning there were more agreement with CCL beliefs than not. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 206 2013
The boxplot below explores the difference observed in Table 6.10 regarding general beliefs (BALLL) and Academic scores.
In the boxplot above a difference can be seen in mean scores between the Middle and Upper range they were the same between the Middle and Lower range. The difference means that there was less agreement in the Upper range than in the Middle. This might make sense if Chinese students CCL beliefs are stronger than general beliefs held elsewhere in the world about language and how to learn it. The Upper range for the BALLLQ is less than the Upper range for the CCLQ, and suggests that CEMs agreed more with these beliefs than with the general BALLL.
Section summary
A statistically significant difference was observed between individuals VLS use, BALLL, CCL, but not for the VST. VLSs and general and specific beliefs were strongly related. This The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 207 2013
provides strong evidence that they are part of the process of vocabulary learning, but that their impact on vocabulary size is uncertain. Looking further into the difference observed between two beliefs questionnaire results and Academic VST mean scores suggests CEMs CCL beliefs were stronger than general BALLL. The strength of general BALLL, commonly referred to as Western beliefs, suggests they have infiltrated CCL beliefs.
Chapter summary
Few strong correlations were observed using Spearmans rho to observe correlations between VLSs and VST scores. Previous research had found correlation between VLSs, a different range and College Entrance Test scores, so was inspirational to the present research. Correlations were not observed between some strategies and VST scores, and this is logical given their function, for example, some strategies do not relate to actual learning. Strong correlations were observed among the three main factors, providing evidence that they are related. There were significant correlations observed within a grade on some of seven factors explored but not all, for example, between strategies and beliefs, between beliefs and age, and between beliefs and years of English language education.
The results of the present research are discussed in Chapter 7 and then compared with the literature.
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CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION
The chapter discusses the main results of the research. There are three sections: Section 1 discusses vocabulary strategies and strategy use, research question No. 1 (7.0) and then research question No. 2 in subsection 7.8; Section 2 discusses beliefs, research question No. 3, Horwitzs general beliefs (7.10.1) and then Shis CCL beliefs (7.11). Each section discusses the results in terms of whether the research question was answered or not and the main findings from each as well as unexpected findings. Finally, section 3 (7.12.1) discusses the process of vocabulary learning, the theme of the research.
Section 1: Vocabulary Learning Strategies
7.0 Which VLSs do CEMs tend to use?
Despite the fact the research was limited to Mas (2009) list of 62 VLSs, the purpose was not to determine a priori which strategies CEMs might use, but to observe which strategies they may use of Mas substantial list. Of the 62 VLSs presented for consideration, 8 were often/always used in the four grades (see Chapter 5, section 5.4.1, Table 5.15), roughly 11 per cent. The percentage suggests VLS use was medium. Only 37 VLSs were regularly used; others were used but not so regularly regularly meaning either in the four grades or only in some grades (for example, grades 3 and 4) (see Chapter 5, section 5.4.1, Table 5.16). This finding is different from previous research (e.g. Gu & Johnson, 1996), which will be discussed in 7.2.
While roughly 60 per cent of VLSs belonging to Mas list were variably used across the four grades, variable VLS use was greatest at the individual level, which is also significant because, once again, the individuality of CEMs is observed as well as their collective group character as Chinese EFL learners. Variable use means strategy use fluctuated between rarely/never and often/always, and the percentage of students using the strategy also fluctuated (see Appendix 8). The reason for fluctuating strategy use is argued to be related to learning activities and tasks, and perhaps motivation and time. For instance, while 5 discovery strategies (determination and social strategies) were used in grade 1, 6 in grade 2 and grade 3, and 5 in grade 4, the strategies included in a cluster of discovery strategies (social, memory, cognitive and metacognitive) varied between grades (see Chapter 2, section 2.3.2.1, Table 2.2). This suggests students spent The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 209 2013
more time discovering new vocabulary than consolidating their learning of it. This could also be a reflection of what a host of researchers have found about language learners employment of a cluster of strategies in relation to successful reading integrating meaning in preference to surface text-based strategies (e.g. Anderson, 1991; Block, 1986; Carrell, 1989). It also may be understood if we take into account that strategy use can vary depending on the cultural group (Kim, 1999; Koda, 1990; Levine et al., 1996; LoCastro, 1994), that inexperienced L2 learners use different strategies compared to experienced L2 learners (e.g. De Larios et al., 1999; van Hell & Mahn, 1997), and that individual learners may use an ineffective subset of strategies (e.g. Kember & Gow, 1994; Porte, 1997).
The average mean of 3.2 (see Appendix 8, Table 1) for scores on the VLSQ (see Chapter 5, section 5.1.2.2, Tables 5.1 and 5.2), using a 5-point Likert scale, suggests average strategy use using this measure: 1.00 to 2.49, low use, 2.50 to 3.49, medium use, and 3.50 to 5.0, high use. Generally CEMs rarely or never used between 12 and 19 (in each grade and 26 in total) of the 62 VLSs from Mas general list (see Chapter 5, section 5.3.6, Table 5.13). Four discovery strategies and 21 consolidation strategies were never or rarely used (see Appendix 8, Table 4): 1 discovery-place strategy, 6 determination strategies (4 determination initial response strategies and 1 determination-study strategy), 20 consolidation strategies (2 consolidation- organisation strategies, 8 consolidation-memory strategies, 5 consolidation-review strategies, 1 consolidation-remember strategy and 4 consolidation-production strategies). The average mean is shown in Appendix 8, Table 1. This average of VLSs perhaps means CEMs dont know about VLSs or arent taught about VLSs so arent aware of their existence, or it is a cultural preference to use the strategies used.
The interview supported the questionnaire result on a number of strategies (see Chapter 5, section 5.3.1). The discovery-place strategy, in textbooks, was used by 64 per cent of students (55% on the questionnaire), on TV was used by 40 per cent (38% on the questionnaire), in movies was used by 36 per cent, and in newspapers and in magazines were both used by 32 per cent of students. The determination initial response strategies in the interview were look up a dictionary (72%) (English-Chinese dictionary, 45% on the questionnaire; Chinese-only dictionary, 45% on the questionnaire), guess its meaning (32%) (48% on the questionnaire), recite it (24%). The new category of consolidation-practice strategies observed in the interview saw reciting (not a new strategy) used by 28 per cent of students. Others were recite words in a vocabulary book, write it down (write it down many times, 46% on the The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 210 2013
questionnaire) and listening to new words. In terms of consolidation-memory strategies, 52 per cent of students said they memorise new words by writing them down, by learning the pronunciation (28%), by using repetition (20%) and practising with classmates (16%) (15% on the questionnaire). Perhaps the interview was a better method than the questionnaire because strategy use could be discussed with a person rather than being restricted to ticking boxes.
This finding suggests that not all strategies are used by every CEM. They rarely seem to use the discovery-place strategy (1d: during English conversations with others to meet new vocabulary) and this may be attributed to the fact that they do not often have conversations in English. They also show preference for specific consolidation strategies, these include vocabulary exercises, grouping words together, making up sentences, listening to recordings of vocabulary, making up rhymes, less physical connection with verbs, visual connection with word meaning and little visualising new words in the mind.
A range of strategies (on the questionnaire) was rarely/never used (highlighted in soft pink in Appendix 8, Table 4). The strategies are written in full below (3a, 5c, 7c, 7f and 9e) (see Chapter 5, Table 5.15): 1. the discovery-determination strategy 3a, pay no attention to it and never go back to it; 2. the consolidation-organisation strategy, 5c, make vocabulary cards; 3. the consolidation-review strategy 7c, read the new word the first day, but not after that; 4. the consolidation-review strategy 7f, test the new words with classmates; and, 5. the consolidation-production strategy 9e, try to e-chat on the internet using QQ, MSN Messenger.
Why the above strategies were not used may depend on several reasons and they make sense from a learning perspective. Strategy 3a is highly likely not used if students are determined to learn, especially CEMs who might be interested in learning English as they are going to be teachers. Strategy 5c was rarely used; perhaps students didnt see the value of it. Strategy 7c, again if students are determined to learn vocabulary, then they will make an effort to spend time with new words. For English Majors, the absence of strategy 7f is puzzling; perhaps students felt too shy to practise new words with classmates. Not using strategy 9e may be due to a lack of opportunities to chat in English on chat software; they tend to chat in Chinese on QQ rather than in English with English speakers, so perhaps again a lack of opportunity.
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The result that CEMs VLS use is variable is not unexpected, perhaps because of issues like the types of learning activities and tasks done, and time and motivation to learn. There are probably other barriers to learning not revealed in this research. What is not asked in previous and the present research is whether vocabulary learning is a constant activity. Perhaps it wasnt for CEMs. While Cohen and Aphek (1981) suggested memorisation one of the best VLSs, memorisation isnt a single strategy, it involves several strategies (see Chapter 5, Tables 5.7 and 5.8, Question 6) and CEMs indicate mixed frequency of use for many memorisation strategies (see Appendix 8), which was surprising given previous research had found that Chinese EFL learners strongly use them (see Chapter 2, section 2.4.2.1). Only one strategy, 6b: write the new word several times, was often used in the four grades. However, of the 18 memorisation strategies listed in Chapter 5, Table 5.7, 15 were affirmed as used in the interview data (see Chapter 5, section 5.3.4). The results are unexpected, given that these are CEMs and more strategy use was expected.
The four grades indicated (on the questionnaire) that they often use the strategy look at the word several times, but one grade (grade 4) split the frequency of use between sometimes and often (33% each); 36 per cent of both grade 1 and grade 2 students indicated that they used the strategy often; and 50 per cent of grade 3 students indicated that they used it often.
Link the word to similar meaning words or opposite meaning words and compare words with similar meaning and study together were also used consistently: an average 36 per cent of grade 2 students and 37 per cent of grade 4 students indicated that they sometimes used the strategy.
Memorise Chinese-English/English-Chinese lists was often used by 45 per cent of grade 1 students and 36 per cent of grade 2 students, and sometimes by 41 per cent of grade 3 students and 50 per cent of grade 4 students (see Chapter 5, section 5.1, Table 5.6). There was strong support for using memorisation strategies as an aspect of the CCL, even though they werent highly used by students in the present research. The idea of using rehearsal strategies (e.g., using word lists, oral repetition and visual repetition) to memorise vocabulary was agreed to by 59 per cent of grade 1 students, 73 per cent of grade 2 students, 58 per cent of grade 3 students and 58 per cent of grade 4 students. The idea of using other mnemonic techniques (e.g., linking the word with something known or remembering the context of its use) to learn vocabulary was agreed to by 50 per cent of grade 1 students, 45 per cent of grade The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 212 2013
2 students, 58 per cent of grade 3 students and 42 per cent of grade 4 students. CEMs were average in their overall use of memorisation strategies, which was surprising given its prevalence in previous research (e.g. Gu & Johnson, 1996).
7.1 CEMs memorisation strategies compared to Schmitt (1997)
The CEMs in the present research were asked approximately 18 questions about how they memorise vocabulary (see Chapter 5, Tables 5.6 and 5.7), which were used by about 44 per cent of CEMs (see Appendix 8, Table 2).
In Schmitts (1997) research, students rated use a bilingual dictionary No. 1, with 85 per cent using it, whereas CEMs rated it No. 10, with 45 per cent using it. Verbal repetition was rated second by Schmitts sample, with 76 per cent using it, whereas CEMs rated it No. 34, with 25 per cent indicating they used it. Schmitts sample rated ask classmates for the meaning of a vocabulary item No. 6, with 73 per cent of the sample indicating they used it, whereas CEMs rated it No. 50, with only 16 per cent indicating they used it. This probably suggests that CEMs are different from Schmitts sample, but the difference cannot be viewed as better or worse simply because CEMs tended not to use a bilingual dictionary, engage in verbal repetition, or ask classmates for the meaning of a word.
7.2 VLS use compared with Gu and Johnson (1996)
Like Schmitt, Gu and Johnson (1996) found oral repetition was highly used by Chinese EFL learners. However, CEMs were very different in their use of VLSs compared with Gu and Johnsons sample, rating say the word aloud several times No. 25, with only 25 per cent using it (by reciting, 28% in the interview; know its pronunciation, 39% in the interview). Gu and Johnsons sample rated use vocabulary lists the lowest, whereas it was rated highly, (No. 16) for CEMs, with 36 per cent of CEMs indicating they use it. The Gu and Johnson sample rated contextual encoding (e.g., associate the new word with its context of use) highly, whereas was ranked No. 21 and 22 respectively for CEMs (e.g., try to remember where I first met the word, try to imagine what the new word looks like in a sentence), with 34 per cent of CEMs using it.
What can be learned from this is that CEMs are different from other Chinese students, or at The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 213 2013
least those in Gu and Johnsons study. And this is a strong clue that their learning activities and tasks may be different. The result suggests that their curriculum is perhaps different and the goal of learning English vocabulary may be different. They also rely heavily on the use of a bilingual dictionary. The use of such electronic media suggests the nature of some vocabulary learning strategies have changed, as a result of the internet age.
7.3 Patterning of VLS use compared to Gu & Johnson (1996)
Table 7.1 shows a comparison of certain strategies from the Gus and Johnsons (1996) study and the present research.
Key to Table 7.1: left hand column lists strategies; middle column lists research G&J = Gu & Johnson, CEMs = present research; M = mean, SD = standard deviation, and n = sample size.
Table 7.1: Guessing from context, dictionary and rehearsal strategies Strategies: Sample M SD n Guessing from context CEMs 3.67 0.80 80 G&J 4.47 0.84 824 Look up dictionary CEMs 3.37* 0.93 80
Rehearsal strategies 1 using word lists CEMs 3.44 0.97 80 G&J 3.15 0.99 824 2 oral repetition CEMs 3.17 0.96 80 G&J 4.20 1.07 840 3 visual repetition CEMs 2.85* 1.06 80 G&J 3.92 1.17 833 Beliefs 1 Words should be memorised G&J 3.04 0.83 849 **Using rehearsal strategies (e.g. using word lists, oral repetition, visual repetition) CEMs 3.64* 0.85 80 2 Acquire vocabulary in context G&J 4.94 0.78 850 **Learning English is mostly a matter of learning many new English vocabulary items CEMs 3.06 0.94 80 3 Learn vocabulary and put it to use G&J 5.74 0.62 847 **Its important to repeat English words and practise often CEMs 4.19 0.70 80 * combined with another look-up dictionary strategy The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 214 2013
** Because the same statements were not asked about in the current research, the highlighted examples are the closest ones and used for comparative purposes only
There is a difference on all strategies, and this suggests Chinese EFL learners are not all the same, particularly in their strategy use when learning English vocabulary.
7.4 Use of discovery and consolidation strategies compared to Griffiths (2013)
Key to Table 7.2: left-hand column lists strategies by category; middle column lists research G = Griffiths, CEMs = present research; M = mean and n = sample size.
Table 7.2: Discovery and consolidation strategies compared to Oxfords SILL Discovery and consolidation strategies sample M n Determination initial response strategies 3c I try to guess the new words meaning from the context CEMs 3.8 80 Griffiths compensation strategies (SILL) Elementary learners G, 2013 3.1 44 Advanced learners G, 2013 3.3 34
3e ask a classmate or teacher for the meaning CEMs 2.6 80 Griffiths social strategies (SILL) I ask for help from English speakers
Consolidation-organisation strategies 5c make vocabulary cards/flashcards CEMs 2.3 80 Griffiths memory strategies (SILL) I use flashcards to remember words
Consolidation-memorisation strategies 6a say the word aloud several times CEMs 3.5 80 Griffiths cognitive strategies (SILL) I say or write the word several times
Consolidation-remember strategies 8e try to remember where I first met the word CEMs 3.2 80 Griffiths memory strategies (SILL) I use location to remember new words
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 216 2013
Consolidation-production strategies 9a try to use words in speaking and writing CEMs 3.6 80 Griffiths cognitive strategies (SILL) I start conversations in English
Being unable to compare many strategies with Schmitt (1997), a comparison was made with Griffiths (2013) analysis of LLSs, particularly those that Schmitt re-categorised and re- classified as specific VLSs. The comparison shows that CEMs are similar to Griffiths sample on some strategies but not on others. Griffiths has highlighted the means for Elementary and Advanced learners, which allows comparison of CEMs with these two groups. CEMs are comparable, but often between Elementary and Advanced learners, yet they appear to be classified by their university as intermediate level learners. CEMs were found to have higher use of pronunciation and translation strategies and lower use of drawing strategies.
The fact that CEMs use these VLSs is significant, however; though there may be variable use, it is significant. Variable use compared to other Chinese EFL learners (e.g. Gu & Johnson, 1996; Gu, 2010; Yang, 1999; Tsai & Chang, 2009) is significant because it shows something different was happening in the higher education context where CEMs were enrolled regarding English vocabulary learning compared to research at other research sites in China (e.g. Ahmed, 1989; Kok & Canbay, 2011; Subekti & Lawson, 2007). The following discussion of clustering of VLSs (see section 7.6 below) in each grade may suggest more clues. Tsai and Chang (2009) found an average frequency of use mean of 3.04, indicating overall medium strategy use for Taiwan undergraduates, whereas the present research found an average overall frequency of use mean of 3.15 for CEMs. This suggests CEMs strategy use is comparable to Tsais and Changs study, and perhaps that the nature of learning might have changed, as these two studies, the current and Tsais and Changs, report different findings to those of Gus and Johnsons (1996).
7.5 The present research compared to Ma (2009)
Table 7.3 below highlights the means for strategy use and frequency of use compared to Mas (2009). Key to Table 7.3: the frequency of use is indicated by the F, and the frequency ranges The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 217 2013
the first letter of each frequency: n = never; r = rarely; s = sometimes; o = often; a = always; the Ma data is shown in the last 3 columns.
Table 7.3: Categories and strategies for whole group of CEMs and Ma (2009) Categories and strategies M SD n F Ma n F Discovery: place to find 1a in textbooks and classroom activities 1b in vocabulary lists arranged alphabetical order 1c in vocabulary lists arranged by meaning 1d during English conversation with others 1e when reading English materials 1f when singing English songs and watching English movies/TV 1g when using/surfing the internet
3.89 3.33
3.15 2.71 3.75
3.55 3.31
0.72 0.95
0.94 0.75 0.79
0.92 0.97
80
o s/o
s/o r/s/o o
s/o s/o
4.13 2.76
2.38 2.17 2.95
2.78 2.33
109
o s
r r s
s r Determination: initial response 3a pay no attention to and never go back to it 3b pay no attention to it, but go back to later 3c I try to guess the new words meaning from the context 3d study the words prefixes, suffixes and root word for meaning 3e ask a classmate or teacher for the meaning 3f read a Chinese-English or an English- Chinese dictionary 3g read an English-only dictionary
1.92
2.94
3.67
3.28
2.65
3.98 2.76
0.74
1.00
0.80
0.82
0.91
0.82 1.03 80
r/s/o
r/s/o
s/o
s/o
r/s
s/o/a r/s
2.81
3.63
3.62
3.03
2.64
3.63 1.99
109
s
o
o
s
s
o r Determination: study 4a its pronunciation 4b the spelling 4c the prefixes, suffixes and root words 4d the Chinese translation 4e the English explanations 4f the example sentences 4g the way the new word is used 4h the new words relationship with other words 4i the new words part of speech
4.27 4.21 3.13 4.29 3.32 3.23 3.69
3.05 3.59
0.78 0.87 0.89 0.71 0.99 0.97 0.83
0.88 1.08
80
o/a o/a s o/a s/o r/s/o s/o
s s/o
4.28 4.36 3.47 4.45 2.76 2.73 3.50
3.82 3.47 109
o o s s s s s
o s Consolidation: organisation 5a write it down 5b order the information in a vocabulary notebook 5c make vocabulary cards 5d use the vocabulary lists in the textbooks 5e use a vocabulary list like those in the VOCABULARY 5000 and TEM4EasyTest
2.98
3.43 2.26 3.44
3.19
0.91
1.09 1.04 0.97
1.00
80
s
s/o r r/s
s/o
2.48
3.28 2.14 2.67
2.23 109
r
s r s
r Consolidation: memorisation 6a say the word aloud several times 6b write the word several times 6c look at the word several times 6d memorise Chines-English/English- Chinese lists 6e do vocabulary exercises 6f link the word to similar meaning words or opposite meaning words
3.17 3.81 3.27
3.50 3.01
3.04
0.96 0.92 1.03
0.99 0.91
0.91
80
s/o o s/o
s/o r/s/o
s
3.88 3.54 3.34
2.49 2.60
2.78 109
o o s
r s
s The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 218 2013
6g link the word with already known words and have similarities 6h compare words with similar meaning and study together 6i group words in order e.g. meaning, part of speech 6j place word in a context e.g. sentence, conversation 6k use the new word to make up a sentence 6l listen to tape-/CD recordings of words 6m make up rhymes to link new words together 6n practise new words by acting them out e.g. verbs 6o try to imagine what the new word looks like (in a sentence) 6p draw pictures to illustrate the meaning of the new words 6q try to imagine in my head what the new word looks like 6r remember the prefix, suffix and root word of the new word
3.21
3.02
2.76
3.32 2.89 2.64
2.45
2.44
3.05
1.85
2.64
3.09
0.79
0.92
0.92
0.83 1.05 0.98
0.92
1.01
1.01
0.83
1.10
0.95
s/o
s
r/s
s/o r/s/o r/s
r/s
r/s
s/o
n/r/s
n/r/s
s/o
2.83
3.14
2.61
3.32 2.42 2.71
2.23
2.05
2.95
2.01
3.78
3.02
s
s
s
s r s
r
r
s
r
o
s Consolidation: review 7a say the new word 2 or 3 times the first day 7b say the new words the next time I read them, and again after that 7c read the new words the first day, but not after that 7d read the new words 2 or 3 times first, then again a few days later, a week later, a month later 7e test the new words on my own 7f test the new words with classmates
3.09
3.13
2.55
2.98
3.19 2.61
0.93
0.84
1.12
1.08
1.12 0.98
80
r/s/o
s/o
n/r
r/s/o
r/s/o r
3.42
NA
NA
NA
2.72 2.22 109
s
NA
NA
NA
s r Consolidation: remember 8a remember the new word the way I learned it 8b remember the new word by its meaning (when heard again) 8c remember the new word by its meaning (when read again) 8d remember the new words meaning first, then think about its meaningful parts e.g. prefix, suffix and root word 8e try to remember where I first met the word
3.41
3.63
3.87
3.23
3.17
0.73
0.88
0.62
0.81
1.08
80
s/o
s/o
o
s/o
r/s/o
NA
NA
NA
3.02
3.58 109
NA
NA
NA
s
o Consolidation: production 9a try to use words in speaking and writing 9b try to use idioms when I speak 9c try to think in English with the new vocabulary 9d try having conversations using the new words with English speakers e.g. teachers 9e try to e-chat on the internet using QQ, MSN Messenger
3.60 2.83
3.18
2.76
2.30
0.89 0.92
1.00
0.90
0.95
80
s/o/a s/o/a
s/o
r/s
r
3.25 2.88
2.48
1.98
NA 109
s s
r
r
NA
Although some of the data for Mas research is absent, a comparison can be made. The most similar strategy means are 3c (3.67/3.62), 3e (2.65/2.64), 4a (4.27/4.28), 6c (3.27/3.34), 6j The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 219 2013
(3.32/3.32), 6r (3.09/3.02) and 9b (2.83/2.88). This suggests only a few similarities with Mas sample. The most dissimilar frequency of use is highlighted in green; otherwise frequency of use is comparable. Some dissimilarity can be attributed to data from four grades in the present research and Mas being a single sample, so other factors may affect use for example, maturity, experience, education, proficiency.
Key to Table 7.4: left-hand column lists strategies by category; M = mean, SD = standard deviation, and n = sample size, and Ma = Mas mean.
Table 7.4: Categories and strategies and means suggesting use by CEMs and Ma (2009) Categories and strategies M SD n Ma 1. Discovery: place to find 3.39 0.57 80 2.79 2. Determination: initial response 3.03 0.64 80 3.05 3. Determination: study 3.64 0.60 80 3.65 4. Consolidation: organisation 3.06 0.71 80 2.56 5. Consolidation: memorisation 2.95 0.56 80 2.87 6. Consolidation: review 2.92 0.63 80 2.79 7. Consolidation: remember 3.46 0.49 80 3.30 8. Consolidation: production 2.93 0.57 80 2.65
The similarities in means on the strategy categories were #2 (3.03/3.05) and #3 (3.64/3.65). This suggests CEMs were similar in initial response to new vocabulary and in determining how to study the new vocabulary. Otherwise, CEMs were different on other strategy categories compared to Mas sample. Perhaps its no surprise that the two results are similar on #3; this was also found by Gu and Johnson in 1996. This average use may be the result of not only differing learning activities and tasks, but the nature and efficacy of the category of strategies (from the learners perspective), and suggests further research on this issue. Consolidation strategies seemed to be more prominent in this group and may be due to their motivation to learn English to be able to teach it.
7.6 Clustering of VLSs in the four grades
VLS use was found to cluster in each grade (see Chapter 5, section 5.4.1, Table 5.15), with a small group of VLSs used within each grades cluster varying from the VLSs often/always used in a previous or subsequent grade for example, used in grade 2 and 3 but not in grade The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 220 2013
1 and 4.
The raw data indicated that grade 4 students used more VLSs than the other grades (see Chapter 5, section 5.4.1, Table 5.15). Grade 1 students mostly used 24 VLSs, grade 2 students mostly used 19 VLSs, grade 3 students mostly used 20 VLSs and grade 4 students mostly used 28 VLSs. This may be attributed to them developing as a learner of language and learning more strategies along the way. The fact that grade 4 used more VLSs might be because theyve developed strategies over the 4 years of their degree.
Although some VLSs were used in a previous grade (e.g., grade 1, if used in grade 2) or a following grade (e.g., grade 2, if used in grade 1), or in two or three grades, some were used in all four grades (from the questionnaire) (see interview data, Appendix 11). For example, the following VLSs were used across all four grades (see Chapter 5, section 5.4.1, Table 5.15):
1a in textbooks and classroom learning activities (discovery-place strategy); 1e when reading English materials (discovery-place strategy); 4a its pronunciation (determination-study strategy); 4b the spelling (determination-study strategy); 4d the Chinese translation (determination-study strategy); 6b write the word several times (consolidation-memory strategy); and 8c remember a new word by its meaning (when read again) (consolidation-remember strategy).
Why the clustering of these particular strategies occurred requires further research, however it is thought to be related to learning activities and tasks, as well as to the learners BALLL (see Gu, 2003). Given that general and specific beliefs and strategies in the present research are strongly statistically related (see Chapter 6), we can understand there is a relationship between beliefs and strategies. Gu and Johnson (1997) found two categories of beliefs, acquire vocabulary in context, and learning vocabulary and put it to use, were emphasised less than a third: vocabulary should be memorised. These beliefs were not asked about in the present research. However, I memorise vocabulary by rehearsal strategies like word lists, oral and visual repetition, was asked about in the BALLI (see Appendix 9, Table 2), and in the interview (see Chapter 5, section 5.3.4). CEMs agreed strongly (a mean average between 3.49 and 5.00) with the BALLI belief statement. From the interview, repetition (though no elaboration on The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 221 2013
the type) was mentioned by 20 per cent of students (see Appendix 11). Many consolidation- memory strategies were mentioned too, but word lists were not directly mentioned. Oral and visual repetition were mentioned often. It is argued that the beliefs explored in the present research are related to the strategies explored, some, like those mentioned above, are directly linked, while others can also be directly linked (e.g., BALLI #33/13a I practise reading English by reading the materials in the textbooks was agreed with, and VLS #1/1a I meet new words in textbooks and VLS #5/1e I meet new words when reading English materials were both used often).
Other researchers have also observed the strategy clustering phenomenon (e.g. Horwitz, 1985; Green, 1971, cited in Richardson, 1996; Griffiths, 2013; Mohamed, 2006; Macaro, 2006). The main reason given was learner maturation. That is, the older and more experienced a language learner becomes, the more flexible they become, and the more strategies they tend to use at any given moment to learn aspects of another language. However, the present research might be the first to observe this phenomenon at the level of vocabulary learning, rather than at the level of general language learning or LLS use, which is a major contribution to vocabulary learning. This finding is discussed in section 7.12.
The implication for the Chinese EFL learners with respect to flexibility is improved language learning outcomes. However, it has not necessarily been observed in the present research. An alternative explanation for VLS clustering in the present research is task type and context of learning, which may be revealed through Gus (2003) Tetrahedral Model, but further research would be needed to confirm this. The main reason for the clustering in the present research is task type. In other words, CEMs employed a small cluster of strategies on a regular basis to learn English generally, and English vocabulary specifically. This is important in two ways: 1) it represents the core approach to learning vocabulary of these CEMs; and 2) it reveals something about the type of English language education these CEMs experienced over their average nine years of English language education. They tended to learn English vocabulary from textbooks and are generally taught English through textbooks. Further research is required.
7.7 Variable use of VLSs
The general variable use of approximately 60 per cent of Mas (2009) list of VLSs reveals The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 222 2013
something significant about VLS use by the CEMs sampled. The EFL context in China is not viewed as an ESL context but still one that affects VLS use, especially in the area of social strategies use. This variability is perhaps due to the lack of opportunity to engage strategies, or beliefs constraining their use, and productive use of English which is said to be necessary to facilitate better possession or acquisition.
For example, roughly 45 per cent of grade 1 students indicated (from the questionnaire) that they rarely to sometimes use the VLS ask a classmate or a teacher for the meaning of a new word, a determination initial response strategy what a learner might do the instant they meet a new word. This might be because they rely more on dictionaries. Large class sizes could also hinder them from asking questions in the classroom. They might have been too shy to ask in English BALLI belief #18 was agreed with (see Chapter 5, section 5.6.2.1) or are practicing face culture (Xie, 2009, p. 11). CEMs indicated that the VLS when singing English songs and watching English movies/TV (a discovery-place strategy) was also used little, with approximately 45 per cent of grade 2 students indicating they sometimes used it, 41 per cent of grade 1 students and 38 per cent of grade 3 students indicated they often used it, while 33 per cent of grade 4 indicated they both sometimes and often used it. CCL belief #26/9c I prefer the teacher use different activities to help me learn was a favoured teaching method (see Chapter 5, section 5.7.2), and #42/15b I practise listening to English by watching English movies and TV shows was also agreed with. Whether this activity is part of the syllabus/curriculum or something students like to do in their own time is unclear. Belief #26/9c shows an indirect preference for variable strategy training and teachers use of activities in the classroom. This calls for strategy training in the classroom which will be discussed later.
Wei (2007) also found medium strategy use in a Chinese context but the rating of VLSs was different. Weis sample rated pay attention to the pronunciation of a new word (a determination initial response strategy) with the highest percentage, with a mean of 4.15, whereas it was No. 12 for CEMs, with 36 per cent of students indicating they used it, generating a mean of 4.27, a little stronger than Weis sample. (Wei sampled 60 students whereas the present research sampled 80.) However, pay attention to the pronunciation of a new word (a determination- study strategy) would be rated No. 2 by CEMs if rated by mean, and pay attention to the Chinese translation (a determination-study strategy) would be rated first, with a mean of 4.29 high use. In the present study, VLS use was rated by percentage of students using it and the frequency of use, but not according to mean because it provides a less specific average of use. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 223 2013
Frequency of use was thought to be related to the language learning task generally, and the vocabulary learning task specifically.
Section summary
Although VLS use was medium, and variable, roughly 11 per cent were often/always used. Roughly 37 were used regularly and accounts for the variability, and a finding that is different from previous research. The variable use of strategies suggests CEMs spent more time discovering new vocabulary than they did consolidating their learning. A number of strategies were never/rarely used. Only one strategy (7f test the new words with classmates, a social strategy) was generally not used or used infrequently in three grades. They were generally aware of, and used, VLSs the interview affirmed this. The raw data indicates that CEMs generally used a certain number of strategies, depending on their grade (see Chapter 5, Tables 5.3 to 5.11 and Table 5.15). In addition, they used a core set of VLSs in the four grades. More consolidation strategies were used, which was not unexpected. The top 10 most used strategies included 2 discovery-place strategies, 2 determination initial response strategies, 2 determination-study strategies, 2 consolidation-memory strategies, and 2 consolidation- remember strategies.
Previous research found memorisation the best strategy, but the present research viewed memorisation as a range of strategies (e.g., consolidation-memory strategies) not a single strategy. CEMs were asked about approximately 18 memorisation strategies. There were clear differences between the findings and previous research (e.g. Schmitt, 1997; Gu & Johnson, 1997). The differences were observed in means and when strategy use is ranked by the percentage of students using it. This difference in strategy use suggests CEMs are different from students in previous research or that they experience a different type of English education. Research (Griffiths, 2013) that tried to observe type of learner (e.g., Elementary and Advanced) did not clearly show where CEMs were, sometimes elementary and at other times advanced learners in terms of mean scores for use of a particular category of strategy. One notable category was determination-study strategies (or cognitive strategies), where CEMs were similar with the previous research on studying the pronunciation and the Chinese translation. This finding again suggests CEMs were different from other Chinese English language learners. In terms of which strategy categories CEMs tended to used, they were comparable with previous research (e.g. Gu & Johnson, 1997) on the use of determination-study strategies. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 224 2013
A new category of consolidation-practice strategies was observed in the interview (see Appendix 11).
The unique finding was the clustering of VLSs in the four grades. Strategy clustering is touched on in previous research (e.g. Horwitz, 1985; Griffiths, 2013), but only generally at the level of language learning. Maturation is offered as the main reason for strategy clustering. The strategy clustering in the present research is thought to reflect the type of learning CEMs do, which suggests the type of learning activities and tasks they do, not necessarily maturation. The present research might be the first to observe it at the level of vocabulary learning. When students begin a new course of study or academic activity, they use a new set of learning strategies which they generally resume in each grade. This core set of strategies was complemented by a range of other strategies to assist them in learning English vocabulary (see Chapter 5, section 5.4.1). The data revealed that they had maintained their use of a particular set or cluster of strategies in the four grades, but the complementary strategies were often used in one or two or three grades at most. Eight strategies were used in the four grades. While contrasting with previous research, some instances of VLS use were similar. However, the findings require further research to affirm aspects of VLS use observed here.
7.8 Research Question No. 2:
What is the difference in VLS frequency of use among the four grades of CEMs?
The data to answer this question was drawn from the VLSQ (see Appendix 2). The raw data indicated that there was a difference both in the VLS frequency of use and the percentage of students using VLSs (see Chapter 5, Tables 5.3 to 5.11; Appendix 8). This aspect was not observed in the Non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis (ANOVA) and correlation by Spearmans rho analysis (see Chapter 6), but was observed in descriptive statistics (e.g., means, SDs and percentages).
Exploring the frequency of VLS use was useful in highlighting variability in students VLS use in order to see the trend of use in each grade, not just overall. Observing the trends in use through percentages shows the strength of VLS use at a particular time (for example, second semester) in each grade of a four-year Bachelor degree. Observing this patterning or trending The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 225 2013
also suggests reasons (e.g., beliefs, task), but also shows which strategies are frequently used in each grade to make inferences about such use and then attempt to explain the variability. While there was more variability between individuals, there was less variability between grades.
The use of percentages shows that CEMs used VLSs differently in each grade. While there is a difference in VLS use in each grade (see Chapter 5, section 5.1, Table 5.3 to 5.11), there is also some similarity. The specific difference, however, was within a grade between individuals; individually, students VLS use is different. Although individual difference isnt new, knowing about individual difference affirms that: 1) individual difference suggests individually different approaches to learning; and, 2) individually different approaches to learning suggest individually different learning outcomes (see Gu & Johnson, 1996). The data (see Chapter 5, section 5.4.1, Table 5.15) indicated that a core set of VLSs were regularly used, allowing the inference that there is a general CEM approach to the learning of English vocabulary, in a particular way as a group. But individually, each learner approaches learning slightly differently and complements their vocabulary learning, their core set of strategies, with a range of additional VLSs. Take for instance Xiao A and Xiao B, both grade 1 students. Tables 7.5 to 7.10 show the patterning of strategy use for Questions 2, 3 and 4 with respect to similarity and dissimilarity, shown here because there doesnt appear to be other research that covers this.
Key to Tables 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9 and 7.10: left-hand column lists students; column two lists the question and strategy asked about; the last five columns represent the scaling highlighted by a number, for example, 1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often, and 5 = always.
Table 7.5: Individual difference in VLS use Q2: Where do you often learn vocabulary during the semester? Student: Q2 parts: 1 2 3 4 5 Xiao A 2a: In the classroom Xiao B 2a: Xiao A 2b: In the library Xiao B 2b: Xiao A 2c: My dormitory room Xiao B 2c:
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 226 2013
Table 7.6: Individual difference in VLS use Q3: What do you do when you meet new vocabulary items? Student: Q3 parts: 1 2 3 4 5 Xiao A 3a: Pay no attention to it and never go back to it Xiao B 3a: Xiao A 3b: Pay no attention to it, but go back to it later Xiao B 3b: Xiao A 3c: Try to guess its meaning from the context Xiao B 3c: Xiao A 3d: Study its prefixes, suffixes and root word meaning Xiao B 3d: Xiao A 3e: Ask a classmate/teacher its meaning Xiao B 3e: Xiao A 3f: Read a Chinese-English or English-Chinese dictionary
Xiao B 3f: Xiao A 3g: Read an English-only dictionary Xiao B 3g:
Table 7.7: Individual difference in VLS use Q4: When learning new vocabulary, what aspects do you study? Student: Q4 parts: 1 2 3 4 5 Xiao H 4a: Its pronunciation Xiao I 4a: Xiao H 4b: The spelling Xiao I 4b: Xiao H 4c: The prefixes, suffixes and root-word Xiao I 4c: Xiao H 4d: The Chinese translation Xiao I 4d: Xiao H 4e: The English explanations Xiao I 4e: Xiao H 4f: The example sentences Xiao I 4f: Xiao H 4g: The way the new word is used Xiao I 4g: Xiao H 4h: The new words relationship with other words Xiao I 4h: Xiao H 4i: The new words part of speech Xiao I 4i:
On this analysis of three questions only, it can be seen that grade 1 students Xiao A and Xiao B answered different questions differently, or, in this case, indicated which strategy they used frequently or infrequently, as the case may be. While the patterning of VLS use was similar, the difference was obvious in some question parts. One notable difference was 3b (pay no attention to it, but go back to it), to which Xiao B indicated that she always does this, whereas Xiao A indicated that she sometimes did this.
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 227 2013
This differential learning approach continued in other grades and can be seen by looking at other students in a range of other questions.
Taken together, the data reveals a pattern of VLS use that suggests differences between individuals. This result suggests that CEMs are different at the individual level and suggests students have different learning styles (with respect to using VLSs) when it comes to learning English vocabulary. This may also reflect their motivations and expectations.
7.8.1 Gus Tetrahedral Model
Gu (2003) argues for a Tetrahedral Model of person, task, context and strategies, which should be considered when explaining VLS use. He acknowledges that context had received little if any research and it seems that little research has been done on this aspect since. Gus Tetrahedral Model provides a possible explanation for the results of the present research. He argues that, while learning vocabulary is a problem-solving task with different levels of complexity, VLS use and effectiveness depend on the learner him/herself (for example, attitudes, motivation, prior knowledge), the learning task at hand (for example, type, complexity, difficulty, and generality), and the learning environment (for example, the learning culture, the richness of input and output opportunities) (Gu, 2003, p. 2). The result of the present research suggests the task of learning vocabulary in each grade affected VLS choice, as well as the other factors of the learner and the learning environment (e.g., beliefs). More research will be needed to affirm this.
By observing the category of strategies used by at least two learners, Gus Tetrahedral Model is applied and the impact on outcomes is observed.
Key to Tables: left-hand column lists students; number columns question and parts, for example, Question 2, part a; the scaling item is represented by the letter, N, R, S, O, A, for example, N = never, R = rarely, S = sometimes, O = often, and A = always:
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Table 7.8: Discovery- place strategies Q2: Where do you meet new words? 2a: In the classroom 2b: In the library 2c: In my dormitory room Student: 2a 2b 2c Xiao A O R S Xiao B S R O
Table 7.9: Determination initial response strategies Q3: What do you do when you meet new vocabulary? 3a: Pay no attention to it and never go back to it 3b: Pay no attention to it, but go back to it later 3c: Try to guess its meaning from the context 3d: Study its prefixes, suffixes and root word meaning 3e: Ask a classmate/teacher its meaning 3f: Read a Chinese-English or English-Chinese dictionary 3g: Read an English-only dictionary Student: 3a 3b 3c 3d 3e 3f 3g Xiao A R S O O N O R Xiao B S A O S R S S
Table 7.10: Determination-study strategies Q4: When learning new vocabulary, what aspects do you study? 4a: Its pronunciation 4b: The spelling 4c: The prefixes, suffixes and root word 4d: The Chinese translation 4e: The English explanations 4f: The example sentences 4g: The way the new word is used 4h: The new words relationship with other words 4i: The new words part of speech Student: 4a 4b 4c 4d 4e 4f 4g 4h 4i Xiao A O O A S S R S S S Xiao B O O O O S S S S S
To see in more detail the number of strategies a student uses, all we need do is highlight which strategy was used, with respect to a given question. One might conclude that Xiao B used more strategies than Xiao A (17 to 14). Observing only counted often and always as definite strategy use, arguably they used an equal number of strategies. But there would be a difference in which ones they used. And another pattern emerges. They both used 3c, 4a, 4b and 4c. This means that they regularly used try to guess the words meaning from the context, its pronunciation, the spelling, the prefixes, suffixes and root word. Two of these, incidentally, were among the eight regularly used by all students across four grades (4a and 4b). It is argued that students used a core set of strategies and occasionally supplemented these with other strategies (depending on the learning task). The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 229 2013
This finding suggests individuals different approaches to learning. This may suggest individually different outcomes too which, as will soon be seen, is not as clear cut as it might appear. By looking at the vocabulary size, or learning outcome, of the students patterns of VLS use, there is a hint of what Gu (2003) was suggesting.
Key to Table 7.11: range = vocabulary size test; No. k = number known; No. nk = number not known; % nk = percentage of words not known. Key to reading Tables below: left-hand column lists students; second lists vocabulary size test by number, for example, 1000, 2000; third, fourth and fifth columns list score for the test indicated by whether they knew or didnt know all the range of words on the test, for example, No. k = number known, No. nk = not known, % nk = percentage not known:
Table 7.11: English vocabulary size in grade 2 Range, known and not known words, percentage not known and vocabulary size for 2 grade 1 students Student: range No. k No. nk % nk Xiao A 1000 900 100 10% Xiao B 1000 800 200 20% Xiao A 2000 700 300 30% Xiao B 2000 300 700 70% Xiao A 3000 600 400 40% Xiao B 3000 500 500 50% Xiao A Academic 3000 600 17% Xiao B Academic 1800 1800 50%
Xiao A EVS 5200 Xiao B EVS 3400
Starting with Xiao A and Xiao B, it can be seen that they regularly used an equal number of strategies. They both used 3c, 4a, 4b and 4c. They regularly used try to guess the words meaning from the context, its pronunciation, the spelling, the prefixes, suffixes and root word. Two of these, incidentally, were among the eight regularly used by all students across four grades (4a and 4b). However, this did not mean that they both learned an equal amount of vocabulary; in fact, the data shows a distinct difference in not only vocabulary size for each VST), but also for overall vocabulary size; Xiao A had a larger vocabulary. Perhaps the difference can be attributed to something else Xiao A did that Xiao B didnt do, resulting in the larger English vocabulary. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 230 2013
Finally, the difference in EVS of Xiao A and Xiao B compared to Xiao H and Xiao I is notable. Xiao As EVS is only slightly smaller (5200) than Xiao Is (5900) the data shows a dip in EVS for grade 2 generally (see Appendix 6). Xiao Hs EVS is larger (4500) than Xiao Bs (3400), which might be expected since more vocabulary should have been learned in grade 2. However, Schmitt (2012) argues that CEMs vocabulary size at entry to university has to be at least 3000 Xiao Bs EVS suggests then that her vocabulary didnt increase substantially in grade 1, with roughly only 400 more words added by second semester whether high frequency or Academic cannot be easily ascertained. Further research is required to get a clearer picture of what is happening.
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Section 2 Beliefs about Language and Language Learning
7.9 Research Question No. 3:
What are CEMs general Western beliefs about language and language learning and specific Chinese culture of learning beliefs about language and language learning?
7.9.0 Introduction
General BALLL are those suggested by Horwitz (1988) as Westernized beliefs and CCL beliefs are those suggested by Shi (2006). The analysis of beliefs is important for at least two reasons: 1) beliefs drive learning behaviour; and 2) beliefs drive VLS use specifically. Beliefs are defined as something that denotes an assertion about some aspect of the world or the relation between two such aspects (Open University, 1975, p. 16) the relation between two categories when neither defines the other. Richardson (1996, p. 103) says beliefs are psychological understandings, premises, or propositions about the world that are felt to be true, whose content is descriptive, evaluative or prescriptive (Rokeach, 1968). These definitions will underscore the discussion of beliefs, particularly that they are action oriented. Horwitz (1988) says BALLL are prevalent, with students bringing them into the classroom. Research has found a link between them and the learning task (e.g. Elbaum et al, 1993; Yang, 1999; Horwitz, 1987; Benson & Lor, 1999). This research found beliefs and VLSs strongly correlate they work together. The discussion begins with Horwitzs BALLI in 7.9.1, and then Shis beliefs of the CCL in 7.10.0, and comparisons are made with previous research where possible.
In Chapter 6 CEMs general BALLL were found to be statistically significantly different within a grade but similar between grades, and correlated strongly with CCL beliefs and VLS use. The mean range for beliefs on Horwitzs BALLI was 3.2 (see Chapter 5, section 5.6.1, Tables 5.19 to 5.21 and in Appendix 9), suggesting that the students beliefs were medium strength, and that they were close based on the measure: 1.00 to 2.49 weak, 2.50 to 3.49 medium and 3.50 to 5.00 strong. This medium strength of beliefs on the BALLI might suggest that these CEMs general beliefs were not strongly agreed with but many were (see Chapter 5, section 5.6.2.1) 18 were agreed with out of 34, roughly 53 per cent. This finding was unexpected it was The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 232 2013
thought fewer Western beliefs would be agreed with.
The mean range for beliefs on Shis inventory of CCL beliefs was about 3.3 (see Chapter 5, section 5.7, Tables 5.22 to 5.26), indicating that the students beliefs were medium strength based on the measure: 1.00 to 2.49 weak, 2.50 to 3.49 medium and 3.50 to 5.00 strong. This medium strength of beliefs on the Shi inventory might suggest that these CEMs did not strongly agree with the beliefs of the CCL, but many of them did (see Chapter 5, section 5.7.2) 33 out of 57 beliefs were agreed with. This finding was unexpected because more agreement was expected of the CCL beliefs (against the general BALLL). CEMs agreed with 33 out 57 CCL beliefs (see Chapter 5, section 5.7.1), roughly 58 per cent. Nearly twice as many CCL beliefs were agreed with compared with the general BALLL. There is a difference in the strength of beliefs between the BALLI and the CCL, with the CCL beliefs being stronger than the general BALLL beliefs (see Chapter 5, section 5.7, Tables 5.22 to 5.26 and Appendix 10). This suggests that Horwitzs general Western BALLI have made their way into Chinese culture and have mixed with or been added to the beliefs of the CCL.
7.9.1 Horwitzs BALLI
Horwitz (1987) classified general beliefs about language and language learning in a number of ways in the present research, into five groupings: 1) the difficulty of language, 2) foreign language aptitude, 3) the nature of language learning, 4) learning and communication strategies, and 5) motivations and expectations. The discussion will proceed according to each of Horwitzs categories, for brevity and convenience, making running comparisons between her findings and the findings of the present research and other research were applicable.
7.9.2 The difficulty of language
Compared with Horwitzs (1988) findings, CEMs were similar on most questions in terms of the difficulty of language see Appendix 9, Table 4. The similarity is uncanny in strength of belief between Horwitzs sample and CEMs; all except in BS#14. For BS#14, Horwitzs sample were asked about a foreign language rather than a specific foreign language, like the present research (English), Horwitzs sample was split between 1 to 2 years and 3 to 5 years to become fluent. Choosing disagree does not here mean disagree it means the time taken to become fluent. The belief must be viewed as prescriptive rather than evaluative since CEMs The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 233 2013
were not fluent. Prescriptive means students think fluency should take this much time whereas evaluative means their belief is that it should take this much time based on experience (Rokeach, 1968). It is interesting that after 9 to 11 years of EFL learning they still hadnt reached fluency.
7.9.3 Foreign language aptitude
Compared with Horwitzs (1988) findings, CEMs were similar on most questions in terms of foreign language aptitude see Appendix 9, Table 5. CEMs were similar on six of the beliefs, but not for BS#22, 29 and 32. Horwitzs sample seemed unsure whether males are better than females at learning a foreign language, CEMs seemed confident that males arent better than females at learning English. Horwitzs sample seemed unsure that people who are good at maths and science being good at learning a foreign language, CEMs seemed confident that they are not good. And while Horwitzs sample seemed unsure whether people who speak more than one foreign language are very intelligent, CEMs seemed confident that they are intelligent. This last finding may be attributed to the nature of students being interested in language teaching and thus valuing language more.
7.9.4 The nature of language learning
Compared with Horwitzs (1988) findings, CEMs were similar on most questions in terms of the nature of language learning see Appendix 9, Table 6. CEMs were similar on one belief compared with Horwitzs sample. CEMs were confident that its necessary to know English culture in order to speak English, whereas Horwitzs sample seemed unsure. In the interview (see Appendix 11, Table 7), 56 per cent of students (58% on the questionnaire) said learning culture was involved in learning another language, suggesting its importance. Students embracing of the culture might be because they recognised the inextricable relationship between language and culture. CEMs were very confident that its better to learn English in an English-speaking country like the United States, whereas Horwitzs sample strongly disagreed. CEMs were split between disagreeing and agreeing with the idea that learning English is mostly a matter of learning many new vocabulary items, whereas Horwitzs sample disagreed. In the interview (see Appendix 11, Table 7), 44 per cent of students said learning words was involved in learning another language, which suggests its importance. CEMs were confident that learning English is mostly a matter of many grammar rules, whereas Horwitzs The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 234 2013
sample seemed unsure or disagreed with the idea. Forty-four per cent in the interview said learning grammar was involved in learning another language, which suggests its importance (see Appendix 11, Table 7). Horwitzs sample was split between disagreeing and agreeing with the idea that learning a foreign language is mostly a matter of translating the foreign language, whereas CEMS were only asked about translating English into Chinese, and they disagreed. Again, notions of prescriptive, evaluative and descriptive beliefs must be invoked to explain the nature of beliefs. BS#8 is evaluative, BS#11 is prescriptive, BS#16 and BS#20 are descriptive, and BS#25 and BS#26 are evaluative. This result might be explained with the focus of language teaching in the Chinese classroom which is product and exam oriented. Students seem to value grammar rules and translation and this might be attributed to the teaching/learning style they are exposed to.
7.9.5 Learning and communication strategies
Compared with Horwitzs (1988) findings, CEMs were similar on most questions in terms of learning and communication strategies see Appendix 9, Table 7. There was a difference in strength of beliefs on BS#12 and 13. Horwitzs sample was mixed on the idea that if I heard someone speaking the foreign language I am trying to learn, I would try to speak with them in order to practise my foreign language, whereas CEMs were confident that they would. On BS#13, Horwitzs sample was split between NDoA and agree on the idea that its ok to guess the meaning of a foreign language word if I dont know it, whereas CEMs were confident that it was ok. BS#6, 9, 12, 13, 18 and 19 are evaluative beliefs, while BS#17 and 21 are prescriptive. In the interview (see Appendix 11, Tables 2 and 3), 48 per cent of students said guessing the meaning was both an initial response to new vocabulary and a way to practise new words. The differences may be because students are CEMs and interested in the language and interested in what they are learning.
7.9.6 Motivations and expectations
Compared with Horwitzs (1988) findings, CEMs were similar on most questions in terms of motivation and expectations see Appendix 9, Table 8. There was little similarity between Horwitzs sample and CEMs on beliefs about motivation and expectations. Horwitzs sample was split between unsure and agreeing with the idea that if I speak a foreign language very well, I will have many opportunities to use it, whereas CEMs were confident they would (if The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 235 2013
they spoke English very well). Horwitzs sample was unsure about the idea that if I learn to speak a foreign language very well, it would help me get a good job, whereas CEMs were confident that they would (if they learn to speak English very well). Horwitzs sample disagreed with the idea that Europeans, in particular, think it is important to speak a foreign language, whereas CEMs were confident that Chinese think it is important to speak English. And Horwitzs sample had mixed feelings about the idea that I would like to speak the foreign language so I can learn about those people, whereas CEMs were confident that learning to speak English was about learning about English people. This suggests students had extrinsic motivation to learn English (Liu, 2007). This confirms the value of learning about culture and becoming global citizens. BS#23, 27, 30 and 31 are evaluative. From the interview (see Appendix 11, Table 7), 28 per cent of students said learning to speak English was involved in learning another language.
This comparison shows that CEMs appear to hold Western beliefs more than Europeans do, which suggests that CEMs are more Western in their BALLL than Westerners. But that would be deceptive. While CEMs may have, in this instance, agreed with more Western BALLL than their European FLL friends, beliefs should be considered in Rokeachs (1968) terms, with respect to their content (descriptive, evaluative or prescriptive).
It is clear why CEMs didnt agree with some beliefs but Europeans did. CEMs strongly disagreed with their European friends on BS#22, males are better than females at learning a foreign language/English; the reason may be because the majority of participants in the present research were females, and they may have realised that females in many Western contexts are treated more equally. Therefore, their response is perhaps more about how they would like it to be thus the belief is a prescriptive one, prescribing how it should be. On BS#32, people who speak more than one language well are very intelligent, CEMs were confident that it is so. This confidence should be viewed as projecting beliefs in a prescriptive sense; that is, CEMs want this to be the case, and given that intelligent is vaguely defined. CEMs strongly agreed with BS#11, its better to learn English in an English speaking country like the United States. Given that most if not all the CEMs in the present research had never been to the United States, they werent relying on their experience to support the belief, therefore it is prescriptive. CEMs were confident about BS#13, its ok to guess the meaning of an English word if you dont know it, whereas Europeans were unsure.
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7.9.7 Additional research into the relationship between beliefs and language learning strategies generally
Research by Yang (1999) explored the relationship between EFL learners beliefs and learning strategy use. Yang specifically investigated the relationship between college EFL students BALLL and LLS use in a Chinese Taiwan context, sampling 505 university students. Using Horwitzs BALLI and Oxfords SILL, Yang collected data from 14 college English classes in the first two months of a new semester, sampled from six public and private universities (73% freshman (grade 1), 9% sophomores (grade 2), 11% juniors (grade 1 & 2),and 7% seniors (grade 3 and 4)). Yangs research is discussed because it is similar with the present research. However, there is some difference in the purpose and analysis of the research data.
Factor analysis of the BALLI by Yang identified four factors that constitute learners beliefs about language learning:
1) self-efficacy and expectations about learning English (0.71); 2) perceived value and nature of learning spoken English (0.63); 3) beliefs about foreign language aptitude (0.52); and, 4) beliefs about formal structural studies (0.55).
It should be pointed out that Yang (1999) used a modified version of the BALLI, shifting the place of beliefs on the BALLI (evidenced by the number in brackets after the number of the belief statement (BS#) in the left-hand column of each table see Appendix 10, Tables 3 to 7) which required some initial deciphering before comparison could be undertaken.
Factor 1: Self-efficacy and expectations about learning English
While there are some similarities between CEMs and Yangs sample, there are also some differences (see Appendix 10, Table 3). The difference is in BS#4 and 13. While Yangs (1999) students were unsure about English being a matter of learning many new vocabulary items, CEMs were confident that it was (see interview data, Appendix 11, Table 7). CEMs were not asked about practising English with Americans, they were asked about practising with their classmates and others who speak English generally. While Yangs students believed they enjoyed speaking English with the Americans they meet, CEMs were not asked to comment on The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 237 2013
a speaking with a specific English-speaking culture; they were asked if I heard someone speaking English, the language I am trying to learn, I would try to speak with them in order to practise my English, to which 71 per cent agreed that they would try. Applying Rokeachs (1968) tri-notion about the nature of beliefs, all except BS#4 are evaluative, BS#4 is descriptive.
Factor 2: Perceived value and nature of learning spoken English
In terms of perceived value and nature of learning English the two groups were similar (see Appendix 10 Table 4). Except on BS#31 and 32, there were no differences in perceived value and nature of English. Yang (1999) asked students if they wanted to speak English well, to which there was a strong positive response, which is not surprising. CEMs were not asked this. Yang also asked students if I would like to have American friends, to which there was a strong positive response. Applying Rokeachs notions, BS#31, 20, 12, 32, 7, 33 and 29 are evaluative, while BS#18 and 9 are prescriptive.
Factor 3: Beliefs about foreign language aptitude
CEMs beliefs about foreign language aptitude were similar on agreement but different percentage-wise compared to Yang (see Appendix 10, Table 5). The percentage difference was on BS#2, 8 and 24. While Yangs (1999) students seemed unsure whether people who speak more than one language are very intelligent, CEMS were confident they were. They are justifiably confident. While Yangs students were unsure about women being better than men at learning foreign languages, CEMs disagreed; and disagree, they should. One wonders if Taiwan students belief is evaluative more than descriptive. Of the 505 participants in Yangs research, 311 were female. Females constituted 61 per cent of the response and thus possibly may have been modest in their ability. Yang asked students if they would like to learn so that they could get to know Americans better, to which students surprisingly answered in the negative. CEMs were asked if they would like to speak English so they could learn more about English people, a more general question, to which 49 per cent of students agreed. CEMs response aligns with the value they place on learning culture and meeting people from other countries would assist them in this aim. They also may have realised the need to be global citizens and more international.
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Factor 4: Beliefs in formal structural studies
There were some differences in beliefs about formal structural studies (see Appendix 10, Table 6). The differences were on BS#23 and 35 the latter is because Yang asked a different question. On BS#23, the most important part of learning a foreign language is learning the grammar, Yangs students disagreed, whereas CEMs agreed. This is an interesting question and one that should be looked into further (see Appendix 11, Table 7). Why Yangs students disagreed that grammar was the most important is also interesting perhaps they experience a different type of ELT to mainland Chinese students (see research on Chinese students experience of communicative language teaching in China (Hu, 2002; Rao, 2001))? Just as interesting is CEMs agreement with the statement. It is possible that because CEMs are taught English grammar and see the value of it as English teachers. On #35, Yang asked students if language learning involves a lot of memorisation, to which they responded that it did. This is an empirical statement, and the question affirms it. In the interview (see Appendix 11, Table 3), students offered at least 14 aspects of memorisation (suggesting its popularity with CEMs). On #34, Yang asked students if it is easier to read and write English than to speak and understand it, to which students indicated that it was. This is a complex and puzzling question, given that understand English is premised on speaking English rather than reading and writing it. It is surprising that 45 per cent of students answered in the affirmative. In China, the emphasis seems to be on reading and writing rather than speaking English. CEMs, however, agreed with it too. So they are saying that it is easier to read and write and understand English, rather than speak/listen to it and understand it.
Yangs other:
Yang (1999) created this other list because these beliefs scored a loading below 0.30 (see Appendix 10, Table 7). However, they are just as significant as the four beliefs. There was no difference between Yangs students and CEMs on these beliefs, in terms of strength of belief. There were slight percentage differences on some of the beliefs, for example, 1, 3, 15 and 27, while the others were fairly close. BS#1 is descriptive, BS#15 and 26 are prescriptive and BS#3, 14 and 27 are evaluative.
Yangs (1999) research demonstrates that Taiwan students and CEMs are fairly similar for general BALLL. In addition, while Yangs research was similar to the present research, it is The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 239 2013
conceptually different and conducted for different reasons the present research was conducted to observe the PVL.
Section summary
CEMs agreed with 18 out of 34 general BALLL, roughly 53 per cent. Twenty-seven beliefs were concerned with what is involved in learning another language were offered in the interview. They agreed with 33 out of 57 CCL beliefs, roughly 58 per cent. This result is important on at least two levels: 1) CEMs possess BALLL that reflect EFL/ESL learners in Western contexts of EFL learning and suggests CEMs beliefs are not exclusively those of the CCL, that some cross-fertilisation has occurred, probably due to the opening up of China and the influx of Western teachers (in person and online); and 2), agreeing with roughly 58 per cent of CCL beliefs suggests CEMs still possess beliefs about language and language learning from this cultural perspective.
7.10 Shis CCL BALLL
Shi (2006), as far as is known, was the first to construct a taxonomy of 18 general Chinese BALLL (57 in all), and classified them the CCL beliefs. At the time of writing the thesis, there appeared to be no research in China using Shis questionnaire. Shi classified 14 categories of CCL beliefs: 1) attitude to learning English; 2) learner aims for learning English; 3) criteria for being a good teacher of English; 4) teacher-student relationship; 5) perceptions of teachers attitudes towards students questions in the classroom; 6) favoured teaching method (of teachers); 7) attitudes to the content of textbooks; 8) memorising vocabulary; 9) practising reading skill; 10) practising speaking skill; 11) practising listening skill; 12) practising writing skill; 13) barriers to learning English; and 14) what makes a good learner?
The average mean for the CCLQ was 3.46, indicating medium strength in these beliefs (see Chapter 5, section 5.7, Tables 5.22 to 5.26, and Appendix 5), following the measure: 1.00 to 2049 low, 2.50 to 3.49 medium, and 3.50 to 5.00 high. The Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA test (see Chapter 6, Table 6.10) found a statistically significant difference in mean scores.
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7.10.1 Attitude to learning English (Question 1)
Shi (2006) found that there was a steady decrease in the strength of beliefs/attitudes toward learning English or enjoying learning English, from 62 per cent in grade 6 to 26 per cent in grade 10. However, 41 per cent of grade 1 CEMs indicated that they agreed with enjoy learning English (see Chapter 5, section 5.7). The percentage increased from grade 1 to 59 per cent in grade 2, decreased to 42 per cent in grade 3, and then increased again in grade 4 to 67 per cent. Key to the graph below: the graph highlights the difference between CEMs and Shis sample.
As was observed above, beliefs cannot always be taken at face value; if students really did enjoy learning English, there should have been less fluctuation in their responses. Enjoyment must be viewed as contingent upon other factors for example, the fluctuating demands of the learning context, task and personal ambitions. Roughly 50 per cent of CEMs indicated they enjoy learning English, a little below Shis finding, probably because CEMs learning load increases in university.
7.10.2 Learners aims for learning English (Questions 2a to 2e)
Key to the graphs below: the graph visually highlights the difference between CEMs and Shis sample; the far left side shows the percentage of students agreeing with the belief in terms of grade, for example, grade 1/6 CEMs first then Shis sample; CEMs indicated in the left column in blue and the Shi sample brown.
0 20 40 60 80 CEMs Shi P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 1: I enjoy learning English The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 241 2013
Shi (2006) found that her student sample indicated self-improvement (Question 2a) as the main aim for learning English, as did CEMs in the present study, with 66 per cent of CEMs indicating they agreed with the idea. Students seem to be evaluating their lives with reference to the foreign language they have been learning.
While Shi (2006) found some fluctuation between grades on agreeing that finding a good job in the future (65% in grade 8 and 66% in grade 10) was important, there was little to no fluctuation between grades, with roughly 63 per cent of CEMs indicating that they agreed finding a good job in the future was a main reason for learning English the highest percentage of CEMs agreeing was grade 3 with 71 per cent. This belief was strong, because these particular CEMs were being trained as English language teachers.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 grade1/6 grade2/7 grade3/8 grade4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 2: I learn English to improve myself/self-development 0 20 40 60 80 grade 1/6 grade2/7 grade3/8 grade4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 3: I learn English to find a good job in the future The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 242 2013
Shi (2006) found that her sample rated learning English for daily communication as the third aim for learning English, and so did the present research, with 44 per cent of all CEMs agreeing with the idea. In the interview (see Appendix 11, Table 7), 8 per cent of students said learning to communicate was involved in learning another language.
While Shi (2006) found that her sample rated learn English for the honour of my family as the fourth aim (decreasing from 28% in grade 6 to 0% in grade 10), CEMs, however, were almost divided in their agreement about this issue. These students want to be English teachers, or are participating in teacher training, so their reason for learning English is different.
0 20 40 60 80 grade1/6 grade2/7 grade3/8 grade4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 4: I learn English for daily communication 0 10 20 30 40 50 grade1/6 grade2/7 grade3/8 grade4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 5: I learn English for the honour of my family The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 243 2013
Roughly 40 per cent of Shis (2006) sample supported this idea, with an increase in grade 10. CEMs where similar on learn to pass exams and was placed as the fourth aim (40% of all CEMs). This reinforces the role of exams in the students learning.
However, the present research finding was similar with Shis (2006) finding that learn English to pass exams belong in the realm of the CCL (one-third of Shis sample agreed with it), with 40 per cent of CEMs agreeing (see Chart 11 below) (but not conclusive evidence that it belongs to the CCL alone). On the other hand, while Shi found that 50 per cent of her students agreed that a good teacher of English should help me pass exams, the present research found that 46 per cent of CEMs neither disagreed or agreed with the idea, although 26 per cent of CEMs in the present research agreed. This supports other research which found language learning to be predominantly exam oriented in China (e.g. Cortazzi & Jin, 1996; Ma, 2009).
7.10.3 Criteria for being a good teacher of English (Questions 3a to 3g)
Shi (2006) found the top three criteria for a good teacher of English were to be knowledgeable, improving students language skills and using different activities or games when teaching. In 0 20 40 60 grade1/6 grade2/7 grade3/8 grade4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 6: I learn English to pass exams 0 20 40 60 80 100 grade1/6 grade2/7 grade3/8 grade4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 7: A good teacher of English should improve my English skills The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 244 2013
the present research CEMs placed improving my English skills at the top (graph 7 above), with 58 per cent of students (on the questionnaire) strongly agreeing with it. This belief would be prescriptive, meaning that students would want teachers to do this. Twelve per cent of students in the interview (see Appendix 11, Table 6) said teachers should help students pass exams.
The other criteria in the top three in the present research were knowledgeable (graph 8 above) and provide clear and comprehensible notes, with 53 per cent of CEMs agreeing with each. Again, a prescriptive belief, it is a quality students want in a teacher. Thirty-two per cent of students in the interview (see Appendix 11, Table 6) said English teachers should have knowledge of English, and suggests its importance to students.
While 88 per cent of grade 10 students in Shis (2006) study (an increase from 54% in grade 6% to 88% in grade 10) indicated that they agree with provide clear and comprehensible notes (graph 9 above), only 45 per cent of grade 1 CEMs in the present study agree with it fewer than the grade 6 students in Shis study. This is another prescriptive belief students want comprehensible notes to read after the class. In the interview (see Appendix 11, Table 6), 4 per 0 20 40 60 80 grade 1/6 grade 2/7 grade 3/8 grade 4/10 O e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 8: Good teachers should be knowlegeable 0 20 40 60 80 grade 1/6 grade 2/7 grade 3/8 grade 4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 9: A good teacher should provide comprehesible notes The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 245 2013
cent of students said teachers should use easy words when teaching.
While 88 per cent of grade 10 students in Shis study (an increase from 54% in grade 6% to 88% in grade 10) indicated that they agreed with improving students language skills (graph 10 above), only 45 per cent of grade 1 CEMs agreed with it fewer than the grade 6 students in Shis study. The percentage decreased from grade 1 (73%) to grade 2 (with 54% agreeing), in grade 3 (with 46% agreeing), and in grade 4 (with 58% agreeing). This prescriptive belief sees students wanting a teacher who can do this. A small percentage of students in the interview (see Appendix 11, Table 6) said teachers should teach the four skills (writing, reading, speaking, listening). This may suggest a strong belief in the teacher as knowledge owner and knowledge giver, and is consistent with most beliefs.
While 54 per cent of grade 10 students in Shis (2006) study agreed with help me pass exams (graph 11 above), only 22 per cent of grade 1 CEMs agreed. This is a prescriptive belief, which contrasts with the results of #6 above, but it seems obvious that students would expect a teacher to do this given the emphasis on completing exams to progress. In the interview (see Appendix 0 20 40 60 80 100 grade1/6 grade2/7 grade3/8 grade4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 10: A good teacher should improve students' language skills 0 20 40 60 grade1/6 grade2/7 grade3/8 grade4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 11: A good teacher should help students' pass exams The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 246 2013
11, Table 6), 12 per cent of students said teachers should help them pass tests.
Maybe the students realise their level of autonomy? Either CEMs felt confident enough not to rely on their teachers help or it contradicts their top three choices, the first being improve my English skills. Interestingly, only 26 per cent of the CEMs in the present research agreed with help me pass exams 46 per cent neither disagreed or agreed. Also, 40 per cent of CEMs agreed that they learn English to pass exams. They are CEMs, they should not just pass exams but be English teachers.
7.10.4 Teacherstudent relationship (Questions 4a to 4b)
Shi (2006) found that students preferred a friendfriend relationship (graph 12 above) rather than a parentchild relationship, as did the present research, with 50 per cent of grade 1 CEMs agreeing/strongly agreeing that a friendfriend relationship would be better with their teacher, but grade 4 lower than Shis grade 10 students. In the interview (see Chapter 5, section 5.8, Table 5.27), 48 per cent of students said they would prefer the teacher-student relationship to be a friend-friend relationship. While 4 per cent of students in the interview (see Appendix 11, Table 6) said teachers should be a friend of students, and 8 per cent said teachers should love students. This suggests they think this will improve their language education experience, and it is influenced by Western style of teaching.
0 20 40 60 80 100 grade1/6 grade2/7 grade3/8 grade4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 12: The teacher-student relationship should be friend-friend The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 247 2013
However, when CEMs answered the very next question about preferring a parentchild relationship (graph 13 above), approximately 25 per cent agreed, while 19 per cent neither disagreed nor agreed, and 4 per cent strongly agreed. In the interview (see Chapter 5, section 5.8, Table 5.27), 40 per cent of students said the teacher-student relationship should be one of respect; this is taken to mean that students feel teachers deserve respect.
This result suggests either strong contradiction or some confusion that they really werent sure how they should answer the question. Shi (2006) found a steady increase in the preference for a friendfriend relationship from grade 6 to grade 10, with 93 per cent of grade 10 students indicating that they preferred it. Approximately 70 per cent of grade 1 CEMs indicated that they preferred this type of relationship, which supports Shis findings, but approximately 37 per cent of grade 3 CEMs and 32 per cent of grade 4 CEMs indicated that they preferred the parentchild relationship, while grade 1 and grade 2 CEMs agreed at a lower percentage (12 18%).
This result tends to support the findings thus far, that some CEMs still hold certain beliefs of the CCL, otherwise their preference for a friend-friend relationship would have been more strongly indicated in the data. While there was no data to understand the preference for a friend- friend relationship with their Chinese teachers, it is speculated to be as a result of having been exposed to/having seen student-teacher relationships in Western contexts or their experience of being taught by English teachers from English countries, and wishing for the same. However, this wish to have such a relationship with their Chinese teachers does not imply that it is necessarily good; there may be some underlying attribute attracting CEMs to desire such a relationship given the strong parent-child relationships observed in middle school and higher education. CEMs are university students, which makes them different from Shis (2006) middle 0 10 20 30 40 50 grade1/6 grade2/7 grade3/8 grade4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 13: The teacher-student relationship should be parent-child The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 248 2013
school students (for example, in terms of maturity).
7.10.5 Perceptions of teachers attitudes towards students questions in the classroom (Questions 5a to 5b; 6a to 6c; 7 to 8)
Here, the present research findings were the opposite of Shis (2006), with 36 per cent of grade 1 CEMs and 33 per cent of grade 4 CEMs indicating that they believe in the teacher (graph 14 below), while 74 per cent of Shis grade 6 sample and 3 per cent of the grade 10 sample agreed.
Shis (2006) result shows a steep descent in believe in the teacher, whereas the present research found a steady increase, from 36 per cent in grade 1 to 58 per cent in grade 2, followed by a steep descent to 33 per cent in grade 4. Why CEMs agreement steadily increased is difficult to understand, because agreement with it then suddenly dipped in grade 4 to just below grade 1 levels.
In grade 6, 42 per cent of Shis (2006) sample agreed with believe in truth, rising to 98 per cent in grade 10. However, while 45 per cent of grade 1 and 68 per cent of grade 2 CEMs agreed with believe in truth, only 33 per cent of grade 4 CEMs agreed. Again, it is difficult to understand the variations. Generally speaking, 45 per cent of CEMs agreed with believe in the teacher but 39 per cent neither disagreed nor agreed; and 49 per cent agreed with believe in truth but 18 per cent strongly agreed.
0 20 40 60 80 100 grade1/6 grade2/7 grade3/8 grade4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 14: I love my teacher, but I love the truth more The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 249 2013
The result in the present research in terms of students reactions to teachers attitudes was similar to Shis (2006) finding. There was less support for still follow teachers idea (14%) (graph 15 above), ask the teacher immediately (19%) and ask the teacher after class (70%).
The result in terms of students perceptions of teachers attitudes toward students questions in the present research result was similar to Shis (2006) result. By grade 10, 96 per cent of Shis students indicated that their teachers preferred them to ask questions after class, and 67 per cent indicated that the teacher preferred them to ask questions in class. In the present research, 66 per cent of CEMs indicated that their teachers preferred them to ask questions in class, and 51 per cent agreed that the teacher preferred them to ask questions after class. However, unlike Shis students, while there was a steady increase in students agreeing from grade 1 (64 per cent) to grade 2 (82 per cent), the percentage of CEMs agreeing declined to 50 per cent in grade 4, with a similar pattern for asking questions after class.
7.10.6 Favoured teaching method (Questions 9a to 9c)
Once again the pattern of agreement differed between the present research result and Shis (2006). Using different activities (graph 16 above) was rated first by Shis students, with 98 0 20 40 grade1/6 grade2/7 grade3/8 grade4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 15: If not agreeing with teacher's teaching, still follow teacher 0 20 40 60 80 100 grade1/6 grade2/7 grade3/8 grade4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 16: I prefer the teacher use different teaching activites The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 250 2013
per cent of grade 10 students agreeing with it. This was hinted at in the interview (see Appendix 11, Table 6), where students said teachers should use multimedia, movies, dialogues, songs and easy words as teaching tools.
Encourage me to learn (58 per cent) was similar to use different activities (51 per cent) in the present research, and 24 per cent agreed with tell me everything I need to learn, which rated second for Shis (2006) students, with encourage me to learn rated third (graph 17 above). Some students in the interview (see Appendix 11, Table 6) said teachers should teach them how to learn. This highlights the issues importance. Students in this study may have realised the need for individual learning thus they didnt expect everything from the teacher, like Shis younger students.
7.10.7 Attitudes to the content of textbooks (Questions 10a to 10b)
Shi (2006) found a rough balance between total correctness (51%) and usefulness in real life (56%) of textbook content in grade 6, but this was strongly opposed by grade 10 (with 81% indicating textbook content not always right (graph 18 above) and 22% indicating textbook content was useful in real life), while the present research found approximately 41 per cent of 0 15 30 45 60 75 grade1/6 grade2/7 grade3/8 grade4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 17: I prefer the teacher to encourage me to learn 0 20 40 60 80 grade1/6 grade2/7 grade3/8 grade4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 18: I think textbook content is not totally correct The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 251 2013
grade 1 and 33 per cent of grade 4 CEMs did not agree that textbook content was totally correct. This is in line with Chinese students being more mature and critical (with age). In the interview (see Appendix 11, Table 2), students said teachers understand textbooks, which suggests students prefer it when the teachers understand the material they are trying to teach them.
Overall, approximately 61 per cent of CEMs agreed that textbook content was not always right. However, they were divided in their attitude to textbook content is useful in real life (graph 19 above), with 39 per cent agreeing, 25 per cent disagreeing and 26 per cent neither disagreeing or agreeing. This result was similar to Shis (2006) grade 6 students. While Shi concluded that her students developed a stronger negative attitude toward textbook content with age, such an attitude seems contradictory, given that students indicated on the one hand, that they thought textbook content was totally incorrect but on the other hand, thought textbook content was useful in real life.
7.10.8 Memorising vocabulary (Questions 12a to 12b)
Shi (2006) found an interesting trend upward from grade 6 to grade 10 in the use of rehearsal strategies and a trend downward in other mnemonic strategies to memorise vocabulary. A 0 15 30 45 60 grade 1/6 grade 2/7 grade 3/8 grade4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 19: I think textbook knowledge is useful in real life 0 15 30 45 60 75 grade1/6 grade2/7 grade3/8 grade4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 20: I memorise vocabulary using rehearsal strategies The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 252 2013
similar trend appeared in the present research. Use of rehearsal strategies (graph 20 above) increased from 59 per cent in grade 1 to 73 per cent in grade 2, but thereafter dropped to grade 1 levels in grade 3 (58%) and remained there in grade 4 (58%). However, Shis finding that the younger learners used more mnemonic strategies than rehearsal strategies was not supported by the present study. While the patterning is similar, the older CEMs continued using other mnemonic strategies equally to match rehearsal strategy use in grade 3 (58% for each), but then use of other mnemonic strategies dropped off. The present findings, in this last aspect, also matches Gus and Johnsons (1996) work.
7.10.9 Practising reading skill (Questions 13a to 13d)
Textbook material was also a source of reading practice for CEMs, as with Shis (2006) students. CEMs chose textbook material (graph 21 above) as the main source of reading material (70%), closely followed by other textbook material (68%), and newspapers (61%) (see Chapter 5, section 5.3.1). Interestingly, the trend in Shis sample was gradually downward from grade 6 (49%) to grade 10 (12%) for newspapers as a source of reading material. CEMs used newspapers increasingly from grade 1 (45% per cent) to grade 3 (79%), before use dropped to grade 2 levels (58% for grade 4). It is probably true to say, as Shi did, that increasing pressure to satisfy exams played a role in extensive reading. A range of reading issues to do with practising were offered in the interview (see Appendix 11, Table 6). Perhaps CEMs realise the importance of reading in their learning.
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 grade1/6 grade2/7 grade3/8 grade4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 21: I practise reading with textbooks The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 253 2013
7.10.10 Practising speaking skill (Questions 14a to 14d)
Practising speaking by reading aloud and reciting textbook material (graph 22 above) was rated first by CEMs (61%) and Shis (2006) students. The pattern was similar for CEMs both for talking with classmates or friends (54%) and talking with native English speakers (43%). While the trend was much lower for Shis students (13% for grade 8 and 10% for grade 10), 32 per cent of CEMs in grade 1, 45 per cent in grade 2, 46 per cent in grade 3 and 50 per cent in grade 4 indicated they practised speaking with native English speakers. Listening was supported by interview students (20% listening to new words), and 16 per cent practised with classmates (see Appendix 11, Table 3). University students may have more opportunities to speak with native English speakers than senior middle school students.
7.10.11 Practising listening skill (Questions 15a to 15d)
While grade 2 CEMs rated practise listening by watching English movies/TV first, Shis (2006) students rated listening to textbook tapes highest (graph 23 above). CEMs rated listening to textbook tapes second and English language radio third (see interview data Appendix 11, Table 6). While Shis data reveals a downward trend on all three practise methods, from 65 per cent 0 20 40 60 80 grade1/6 grade2/7 grade3/8 grade4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 22: I practise speaking by reading aloud and reciting texts 0 15 30 45 60 75 grade1/6 grade2/7 grade3/8 grade4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 23: I practise listening by listening to textbook tapes The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 254 2013
of grade 6 students to 45 per cent of grade 10 students, 64 per cent of grade 1 CEMs chose textbook tapes to practise listening skill, equivalent to Shis grade 6 students. University students may have more opportunities to watch English movies/TV than senior middle school students or watching English movies may have been a subject in their course.
7.10.12 Practising writing skill (Questions 16a to 16d)
Both Shis (2006) students and the CEMs (69%) chose finishing the writing tasks set by the teacher as the main way to practise writing. While Shis students had begun by writing in a diary (45% in grade 6 and grade 7, before declining to 16% in grade 8 and 12% in grade 10), few were writing in a diary by grade 10. In the current study, 56 per cent of CEMs were writing in a diary: 59 per cent in grade 1, 64 per cent in grade 2, 58 per cent in grade 3 and 33 per cent in grade 4. CEMs began using a diary in grade 1 and maintained the strategy until grade 3, when there was a sharp decline. CEMs may be encouraged to write in a diary as part their study, but they dropped the activity in grade 4, perhaps when there was no more pressure to practise writing. This is a descriptive belief it describes the action taken to practise writing in English.
0 15 30 45 60 grade1/6 grade2/7 grade3/8 grade4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 24: I practise writing with a diary The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 255 2013
7.10.13 Barriers to learning English (Questions 17a to 17d)
CEMs rated do not work hard enough as the main barrier to improving their English, which differed from Shis (2006) finding which observed variability from grade to grade in rating the main barriers. More CEMs rated do not work hard enough (55%) as a barrier, 43 per cent rated do not have a good learning environment as the second barrier, and 21 per cent rated learning materials out of date as the third barrier; 10 per cent of CEMs thought their teachers did not teach well. Shis students thought they did not have a good learning environment (89% of grade 10 students). In comparison, approximately 40 per cent of grade 1, grade 2 and grade 3 CEMs, and 59 per cent of grade 4 CEMs thought they did not have a good learning environment. Many grade 4 CEMs spend their fourth year searching for work, so the rating is interesting.
7.10.14 What makes a good learner? (Questions 18a to 18e)
Shi (2006) observed some variability in students opinions regarding what makes a good learner. CEMs, however, were not as variable in their opinions. Grade 2 CEMs (82%) held the strongest opinion on respect for teachers. Respect for teachers gradually declined by grade 10 for Shis students (58%), while respect for teachers began at 64 per cent for grade 1 CEMs, 0 15 30 45 60 grade1/6 grade2/7 grade3/8 grade4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 25: I think the main barrier is I don't work hard enough 0 20 40 60 80 grade1/6 grade2/7 grade3/8 grade4/10 P e r c e n t a g e
a g r e e i n g Comparison graph 26: A good learner of English should respect teachers The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 256 2013
peaking in grade 2 at 82 per cent, and then gradually declining to 50 per cent for grade 4 CEMs. Respect for teachers was rated first overall (66%), working hard and having own opinion were equally rated second (58%), Never give up was rated third (49%), and practice English all the time was rated least important (44%). Shi concluded that students maturity increased their critical assessment of teachers, but that could not be substantiated in the present research. Also, holding their own opinion about what makes a good learner was variable for Shis students: 56 per cent for grade 6, 31 per cent for grade 7, 59 per cent for grade 8 and 15 per cent for grade 10. CEMs rated having own opinion consistently: 50 per cent in grade 1, 68 per cent in grade 2, 58 per cent in grade 3, 50 per cent in grade 4. Shi concluded that, while holding own opinion was the most controversial criteria (2006, p. 136), probably because Chinese are not really allowed to hold their own opinions on education generally, and English language education specifically, there might well be conflict between students ideas/feelings and the Chinese education system. This is a reasonable conclusion but maturity did not seem to increase the possible conflict between these issues for CEMs; they rated having own opinion quite strongly. Perhaps CEMs did not think there was much of a conflict between their ideas/feelings and the Chinese education system. Perhaps they tended to agree with it more as more mature students.
Compared to Shis (2006) finding, CEMs were similar roughly 58 per cent of the time. Some important points were that they enjoy learning English, learn English to find a good job in the future, learn English to pass exams, think teachers should improve English skills, think good English teachers should be knowledgeable, prefer the teacher-student relationship to be a friend-friend relationship, prefer the teacher to use different teaching activities, question the accuracy of textbook content, practise reading skill by reading textbook material, and think good learners respect teachers.
This comparison of Shis (2006) exploration of CCL beliefs and CEMs is that CEMs possess CCL beliefs but their support for them is different from Shis. This suggests CEMs are different from Shis sample, or that some other factor (e.g., maturity and experience) has modified their stand on these beliefs perhaps they were similar with Shis middle school students before entering university. More research is needed on these issues to get a better understanding of their effect on learning behaviour.
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 257 2013
Section summary
While CEMs indicated that they hold beliefs (found in the questionnaires and interview data) that could be classified as belonging to the CCL, they also indicated that they hold beliefs that could be classified as belonging to a Westernised culture of learning. The mean range for Horwitzs BALLI was slightly lower than Shis CCL, and suggests CEMs beliefs belonging to the CCL are stronger than their beliefs belonging to Western culture. Based on the data, percentage-wise, CEMs were almost balanced in their BALLL. This result could be explained in three ways: 1) increased openness by China to the West in the last 30 years has resulted in Chinese students being exposed to Western ideas about language and language learning; 2) while CEMs may hold beliefs that might be classified as belonging to a Westernised culture of learning, such beliefs had not strongly displaced the beliefs of the Chinese culture of learning; and, 3) globalisation and the influence of the internet. On the second point, it could be said that the Chinese want to maintain something distinct about themselves and their way of life, which still has a strong impact on Chinese youth even though they may be engaged in learning English.
7.11 Research question No 6:
Do BALLL and VLSs have an impact on EVS of CEMs?
From the statistical analysis in Chapter 6, section 6.2, Tables 6.2 to 6.5, we saw that VLSs did have an impact on English vocabulary size, both high frequency words and Academic words, in grades 3 and 4. In Tables 6.6 to 6.9, we saw that BALLL have an impact on high frequency words. In Table 6.10, we saw how BALLL also have an impact on Academic vocabulary size. And in the Boxplot analysis in section 6.5, we saw where the impact was in the three mean- score ranges for Academic size vocabulary, the upper range (high to medium agreement) for CCL beliefs and the lower range (medium to low agreement) for Western BALLL. This confirms previous research on the importance of beliefs in language learning, and vocabulary learning in this context. Teachers need to be made aware of such beliefs and their impact in language learning. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 258 2013
Section 3: the Process of Vocabulary Learning
The aim of this section is to discuss the result with respect to the PVL. The process relies on strategy clusters, discussed in 7.12.1. The notion of a process is discussed in 7.12.2, and the data from the questionnaires and interview that supports a process is synthesised to provide insights into the PVL. In 7.12.3, the importance of knowing the process and the strategy cluster observation is recapped.
7.12.1 The PVL uses strategy clusters
The PVL does not really involve the use of a single vocabulary learning strategy at any given moment, but involves the use of strategy clusters, some of which will be general LLSs or general skills (e.g., making lists or making vocabulary flash cards), and others specific VLSs (e.g., reciting new words many times or writing the new word many times). Take for instance VLS 6b: write the new word several times (see Chapter 5, section 5.1, Table 5.7). At first glance, it may be seen as a straightforward strategy, but on closer examination it is more complex than it appears. Strategies are not simple one-off events in working memory (see Macaro, 2006), they are often complex procedural knowledge. A brief digression into what is involved in the use of a strategy ensues to clarify the point that strategy use is complex.
What is involved, for instance, in the strategy to write the new word several times? One needs several skills and certain materials. First, take a pen and paper (large enough to write a new word several times); second, take the pen in hand and write the new word. At this point, what is the student doing; are they writing the new word from memory, or are they copying it? The assumption is the latter it is held in working memory because the student hasnt as yet learned the new word as it isnt in long-term memory to recall. Therefore, they will copy it from wherever it was first discovered (having located it again); writing the new word several times is, after all, a consolidation-memory strategy, not a discovery strategy. When the student engages in initial copying, they are engaging several cognitive strategies for example, look at the word and keep it in working memory long enough to begin writing it; working memory is essential to the success of the task. Immediately following this, the student engages motor skills associated with writing and proceeds to sketch the first marks of the new word (if they are using pen and paper technology, not typing it on a computer keyboard), the first part of the The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 259 2013
first letter. Then they sketch the remaining letters of the new word. Size of sketched letters is arbitrary, depending on the students preference. However, would copying the new word be a silent activity? Would the student also be saying the sounds of the letters, or the syllables of the word if not the whole word, as s/he copies it? (see Chapter 5, section 5.1) What is suggested here is that the student would be sounding out words as they are written. Of the eight strategies listed below, some of them are concerned with pronunciation and spelling. After copying the new word, the student simply focuses on the first copy made and re-copies it several more times using the same strategies and skills as before.
Macaro (2001) talks of combinations of strategies in relation to reading but doesnt make it clear which strategies are being employed. He provides a short general list but the reader must decipher them all from the evidence he provides. He is far more explicit, however, in his 2006 paper Strategies for Language Learning and for Language Use: Revising the Theoretical Framework, in which he proposes a cognitive framework for learner strategies. In this framework, Macaro highlights the location of LLSs working memory. Working memory is where they become functional. Without delving deeply into the design of his framework, the focus here will be on his discussion of strategy clustering (Macaro, 2006, p. 326).
Macaro (2006, p. 327) discusses the location of learning strategies and describes their action component, which helps us understand what a strategy actually purports to do. He discusses how they promote learning, and how they must be combined with other strategies to be effective. Macaro (2006, p. 327) provides an example of a strategy cluster and his example illustrates how a learner looks up a new word in an L1-L2 dictionary (e.g., Chinese-English dictionary) while engaged in writing. His non-exhaustive list of elements is: remember prior problems with dictionary use; predict what problems I might encounter this time; think about what part of speech I am looking for; compare all definitions given; compare collocations in L2 and L1; evaluate predictions; remember to copy word correctly; check that it makes sense in the sentence generated. He adds that this cluster may well be combined with other clusters. What can be seen here is just how complex strategy use can be. Macaro uses very general examples which must be unpacked further. For example, predict what problems I might encounter this time, if used in relation to using a Chinese-English dictionary, what should be known is what is involved in making such predictions. Depending on the strategy cluster used, and depending on which other strategy cluster is drawn into the process, the outcome of strategy use will be affected. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 260 2013
In order for strategy use to be successful, however, it must occur in the presence of other strategies, not in isolation. The CEMs in the present research have shown that their strategy use is not done in isolation, but is combined. They have demonstrated a particular process of vocabulary learning by regularly reusing a core set of VLSs.
7.12.2 The PVL involves strategies and beliefs
As stated above, the process of learning is a complex process that uses many cognitive resources, not least of all a cognitive tool to acquire both skills and knowledge (Phye & Andre, 1986) (see Chapter 5, section 5.5). Phye and Andres (1986) cognitive resources are also employed with general LLSs and specific VLSs gained/developed in the process of learning the first or other foreign language or skill/knowledge. In the process of learning English vocabulary, CEMs employ specific VLSs (e.g. Schmitt, 1997) to learn the English vocabulary probably those used to learn their native language and modified to learn English vocabulary. Illeris (2007, p. 3) defined learning as any cognitive process that leads to permanent capacity change not due to other factors, like maturity and aging. One of the processes that can lead to permanent capacity change is the use of a VLS, or a bunch of them used consecutively to learn a new vocabulary item for example, a strategy that allows the learner to focus on the meaning (e.g., look up a dictionary), or the words morphology (e.g., root words, suffixation) or its pronunciation (e.g., phonetics). The use of questionnaires and interviews allowed the collection of data on CEMs VLS use, not just at one time but in each year of a four-year Bachelor degree. Such strategy use information was viewed as the best way to gain insight into the process of English vocabulary learning by CEMs, even though indirect. The finding was interesting.
Beginning with strategy use, CEMs regularly use a small range of VLSs to learn English vocabulary. Regularly here means the strategies were often used in each grade. According to the data (see Chapter 5, section 5.4.1, Tables 5.15 and 5.16), CEMs regularly reuse at least eight VLSs, restated here:
1a: in textbooks and classroom learning activities (discovery-place strategy); 1e: when reading English materials (discovery-place strategy); 4a: its pronunciation (determination-study strategy); The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 261 2013
4b: the spelling (determination-study strategy); 4d: the Chinese translation (determination-study strategy); 6b: write the word several times (consolidation-memory strategy); 6c: look at the word several times (consolidation-memory strategy); and, 8c: remember the new word by its meaning (when read again) (consolidation-review strategy].
This short list, which highlights what appears at first sight a disparate group of strategies, can be argued to reflect a pattern of learning that is common among CEMs. When one reflects on the learning context in China, or at least, higher education from which CEMs were sampled, one may see its validity. This list, arguably, represents a core set of commonly used strategies, regularly used to learn English vocabulary. These strategies also represent the PVL. The process tends to be: first, students discover new vocabulary in textbooks and other classroom activities (implied in the learning activities) the main one being to learn the content of a textbook and, second, when they read English materials. They consolidate their learning of new vocabulary by looking at the word several times, focus on its pronunciation, the Chinese translation (of its meaning), write the word several times and remember the new word by its meaning (when read again). (This activity is supported by the interview data see Chapter 5, sections 5.31 and 5.3.5) This is a core activity, and is sometimes complemented by the use of other strategies, which will be discussed later.
Looking at the other major factor involved in the PVL, BALLL, general and specific, further insights can be gained.
According to Richardson (1996), a belief is a psychologically held understanding, premise or proposition about the world that is felt to be true. Beliefs are often viewed as the relation between two categories which do not define each other (Open University, 1975) for example, language and how to learn it. They are mental representations (Mohamed, 2006), and refer to specific aspects of reality (Pitt, 2008) for example, the objects of learning and the actions taken to learn them. And according to Rokeach (1968), beliefs are categorised according to their internal structure, whether they are descriptive, evaluative or prescriptive descriptive describes action taken, prescriptive prescribes action to be taken and evaluative evaluates outcomes of action and states, the former outcomes on experience.
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The importance of studying beliefs is due to their influence on behaviour. Horwitz (1987) listed some of the following general beliefs: some languages are easier to learn than others; the English I am trying to learn is X difficulty; I believe I will ultimately speak English very well; its easier to read and write English than it is to speak it/listen to it and understand it; and, it is easier to speak English than it is to understand it. The complete list of Horwitzs BALLI can be found in Appendix 9. These beliefs, in particular, were supported by CEMs and incidentally in terms of the difficulty of language Horwitzs sample supported them too, (see section 7.9.3 above). Finding statistically significant correlations between general beliefs and VLS use, 0.298 at p < 00.1 and CCL beliefs and VLS use, 0.420 at p < 0.01, provides support for the claim that they work together (see Gu & Johnson, 1996). Horwitz (1988) found that learners behave in accordance with their beliefs. So, one should find that learners behaviour is fairly consistent with their beliefs, whether general or specific beliefs (e.g. Shi, 2006).
Take the belief that some languages are easier to learn than others, an evaluative belief, which 54 per cent of CEMs agreed with, as did Horwitzs (1987) sample. If a learner believes this strongly enough then thats going to be true of a particular language they are learning and be reflected in their learning behaviour, or their experience of learning it at least. CEMs suggested that the English they are learning is medium difficulty (see Chapter 5, section 5.6.2.5). This belief was ranked No. 8 by percentage of students supporting it out of 34 ranked general beliefs. Given that the VLSs this belief impacted cannot actually be seen, a guess can be made by looking at which VLSs are frequently used in learning English vocabulary and which were not (see Appendix 9, Table 2). Referring back to the regularly reused VLSs listed above (see Chapter 5, section 5.4.1, Table 5.15), it can be seen how learning any language might become difficult, if these were the only strategies used. Of course, if one only focused on that list, one would not get a clear idea of which strategies are involved in learning vocabulary. In fact, it is not just a single strategy alone that results in learning, but a combination of strategies.
Though a combination of strategies is used, their use is supported by a belief or set of beliefs that they are at least useful (e.g. Schmitt, 1997), or they have proven useful in the past or are promoted by a teacher research into teachers beliefs would complement this idea. Asking students where they got their VLSs, students indicated that they often got them from a teacher (see Chapter 5, section 5.5.2, Table 5.18). However, the problem of taking beliefs at face value immediately becomes apparent when you see the belief, its better to learn English in an English-speaking country like the United States, is strongly supported by students, and ranked The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 263 2013
No. 1 by percentage of students agreeing with it (see Appendix 9, Table 2). One has to wonder why and how students developed such a strong belief since few, if any, of the students sampled have ever been to an English-speaking country. So their support for such a belief is not based primarily on experience. One should then categorise such a belief as prescriptive rather than evaluative for instance, if you want to learn English well, learn it in an English-speaking country.
The beliefs that underlie or drive the vocabulary learning process CEMs use are reflected in the list of eight regularly used VLSs listed above. The first two VLSs are discovery-place strategies: 1) English vocabulary is found in textbooks and classroom activities, and 2) when reading English materials. The suggestion that English vocabulary is rarely found anywhere outside these contexts is indicated in the lack of use of other VLSs. To begin with, they expect to find English vocabulary in textbooks (and classroom activities), rarely in the mouths of teachers or others, generally. It is certain that CEMs know English can be heard from peoples lips, but the point concerns their context of learning. Perhaps that is implied in classroom activities, but certainty is elusive students would need to be asked if this is what they think is meant by classroom activities. The implied idea that English vocabulary is usually found in books and rarely elsewhere is supported by the second discovery-place strategy, when reading English materials. The idea is also supported in the discovery-place strategy, when singing English songs and watching English movies/TV, but with far less support (see Chapter 5, section 5.1.2.3, Table 5.3, Q1:1f). The strongest support for this strategy was roughly 50 per cent of grade 3 students. Further, the frequency of use of the discovery-place strategy, during English conversations with others (see Chapter 5, section 5.1.2.3, Table 5.3, Q1:1d), lends strong support to the argument, with the implication that CEMs (with only 42% of grade 3 students often using it) indicating that they rarely engage in English conversation, either with a teacher or a classmate. Beliefs drive strategy use.
In terms of consolidating vocabulary learning, six strategies suggest which beliefs drive CEMs strategy use: 1) its pronunciation (determination-study strategy); 2) the spelling (determination- study strategy); 3) the Chinese translation (determination-study strategy); 4) write the word several times (consolidation-memory strategy); 5) look at the word several times (consolidation-memory strategy); and, 6) remember the new word by its meaning (when read again) (consolidation-remember strategy). The VLS, its pronunciation, suggests that CEMs at least had pronunciation classes; however, little use of the spoken mode suggests they did not The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 264 2013
expect it was going to happen in their context of FLL. The lack of use of the strategy during English conversations with others (see Chapter 5, section 5.1.2.3, Table 5.3, Q1:1d), try using the new word in speaking and writing (see Chapter 5, section 5.1.2.3, Table 5.11, Q9:9a), and try to have conversations using the new words, with people who speak English, for example, teachers, classmates (see Chapter 5, section 5.1.2.3, Table 5.11, Q9:9d), all provide some support for the argument, despite roughly 50 per cent of grade 2 and 4 indicating that English vocabulary is to be found, or at least expected to be found, not in the mouths of teachers and others, but in textbooks in the context of learning. CEMs seemed to spend most of their time looking at words and less time listening to words is also support for the argument. This suggests that the focus is on reading and writing English rather than speaking it.
The focus on pronunciation may well be a phonics one. That is, it may be for the purposes of strengthening students understanding of the one-to-one syllabic correspondence between written English and spoken English, because that syllabic relationship does not exist in Chinese. It may not have been so much the purposes of speaking English as it was for reading and writing it. Support for the argument comes from the support for the VLS for focusing on the spelling (see Chapter 5, section 5.1.2.3, Table 5.5, Q4:4b). Additional support for the argument comes from the response to the VLSs, write the words several times (see Chapter 5, section 5.1.2.3, Table 5.7, Q6:6b), and remember the new word by its meaning (when read again) (see Chapter 5, section 5.1.2.3, Table 5.10, Q8:8c). CEMs seem not to support the idea they would speak English or develop fluency in it in their context of learning, a FLL context, and indicated that with this core approach to learning English vocabulary. Again, this suggests more focus on reading and writing than speaking.
Chinese learners rely on a Chinese translation which should not surprise us. They are learning English in a FLL context, not an English-speaking country, with few opportunities to use it outside the classroom. They have already learnt a first language, Mandarin or Cantonese, which they rely on heavily for communication and learning. If Chinese students are taught Grammar Translation (and they are), then support for translation is going to be strong. Jiangs (2000) description of the formal stage of the development of a lexical entry or how words can be entered into a persons mental lexicon will be examined here. Mas (2009, p. 57) summary of this is also revealing:
In the initial stage of learning an L2 word, the learners main task is to connect the L2 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 265 2013
word form with an existing meaning in the mind, [whose] form [is/must be] an L1 translation or [an L1] definition.
To clarify this further, word form equals Nations (2001) item knowledge (see Chapter 2, section 2.1.3). The learning process, though discussed in relation to receptive learning, is associative learning (Malim, 1994) for instance, learning which happens when an association or a connection is made, usually between two things (Richards et al., 2002; Jiang, 2000; Schmitt, 2000; Nation, 2000; Oxford & Nyikos, 1989). Recent developments view this process as connectionism, meaning: 1) information processing takes place through the interconnections of a large number of simple units, organised into networks and operating in parallel; 2) learning takes place through the strengthening and weakening of the interconnections in a particular network in response to examples encountered in the input; and 3) the result of learning is often a network of simple units that acts as though it knows abstract rules, although the rules themselves exist only in the form of association strengths distributed across the entire network (Richards et al., 2002; Ellis, 2001; MacWhinney, 2001; Greg, 2001; Hulstijn, 2001; Harrington, 2001).
Jiangs (2000, p. 51) summary of connectionism is also revealing:
As ones experience in L2 increases, stronger associations are developed between L2 words and their L1 translations What these strong associations mean, among other things, is the simultaneous activation of L2 word forms and the lemma information (semantic and syntactic specifications) of L1 counterparts in L2 word use Such simultaneous activation of L2 word form and language lemma information may result in a strong and direct bond between L2 word and the lemma of its L1 translation.
Jiangs (2000) account of the initial stage of the development of a lexical entry precisely illustrates what happens when L2, or English vocabulary in this case, is learned in the initial stage of learning an L2 or an English vocabulary item. The heavy reliance on translation supports the argument. Student support for the strategy remember the new word by its meaning (when read again) (see Chapter 5, section 5.1.2.3, Table 5.10, Q8:8c) achieved the No. 1 position, with 63 per cent of students supporting it (see Appendix 8, Table 7). Perhaps this is due to the fact that learning does not mean only learning vocabulary.
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Focusing on some specific beliefs, the CCL beliefs (about language and language learning), there is further support for the arguments made thus far. The argument that CEMs tend not to expect to discover English vocabulary anywhere other than in textbooks and classroom activities in their context of learning is found in CCL BS#38 (14b): talking to my classmates or friends in English (see Chapter 5, section 5.7, Table 5.25, practising speaking skills), which roughly 54 per cent of students agreed with it but did not seem to behave according to the belief perhaps limited opportunity?; BS#6/2e: for daily communication, which many students agreed with, yet they indicated that they tended to rarely engage in English conversations with either teachers or classmates (see Chapter 5, section 5.1.2.3, Tables 5.3 to 5.11, 1d; 9a; 9d). This raises a question about who they were communicating in English with daily if they tended not to do so with teachers and classmates. The conclusion is to view this belief, on the evidence, as prescriptive rather than evaluative for instance, learn English to communicate with English speakers. Further support for this conclusion is drawn from BS#39: talking with native English speakers, which most students agreed with as a way to practise speaking English. This strategy should be viewed as prescriptive rather than evaluative (Rokeach, 1986) for instance, to practise speaking English, speak with native English speakers (as opposed to speaking with other students). This suggests again that the focus is on reading and writing, not on speaking English.
7.12.3 The importance of the findings
The findings have shown that there is a process to vocabulary gain. The process supports what Schmitt (1997) claimed about VLSs in his taxonomy which classifies VLSs as discovery strategies and consolidation strategies. Discovery strategies include determination and social strategies, and consolidation strategies include cognitive, metacognitive, social and memory strategies.
The PVL used by CEMs involves the first set of discovery strategies, discovery and determination strategies. Discovery strategies concern the initial encounter with a new word; the place the new word is discovered, for example, a book, a list of words, a conversation. Determination strategies concern the response to the new word and what to do with it. Determination strategies play two roles: 1) the initial response to the new word (e.g., ignore it, find its meaning), and 2) what to do to study it (e.g., study its spelling, study its pronunciation, study the English explanations). The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 267 2013
This narrow set of discovery and determination strategies was used by CEMs. There are eight vocabulary strategies in total (not including strategies used to complement this set of strategies). The first is the discovery strategy in textbooks and classroom activities; the second is the discovery strategy when reading English materials; the third is the determination strategy study its pronunciation; the fourth is the determination strategy study its spelling; the fifth is the determination strategy study its Chinese translation; the sixth is the memory strategy write the word several times; the seventh is the cognitive strategy look at the word several times; and the eighth is the metacognitive strategy remember the new word by its meaning (when read again).
While the PVL CEMs use when learning English vocabulary is observed in the data, the data suggests the process contains some weaknesses. The weakness in the process suggests CEMs may not achieve the kinds of learning outcomes they may desire; especially if they are to teach English as a foreign language in their home country or if they have plans to study in an institute of higher education outside their home country. The process suggests 1) that it is an exam oriented approach to learning English vocabulary, and 2) that it is a process that is culturally preferred (revealed in the process) when approaching learning English. Vocabulary learning seems to be approached in a specific way and students are not offered instruction on how to learn, practice new vocabulary which is an important building block in language learning. Such an approach will not cater for individual differences in learning. The data suggests CEMs use individually different approaches to learning. The exam oriented approach in a formal learning context is constrained by time and the effect on learning language deeply in an EFL context is undesirable, limiting students opportunities to consolidate learning. This suggests the syllabus/curriculum approach to learning is not learner-centred and requires revision and evaluation.
The PVL used by CEMs suggests a group similarity when approaching learning English vocabulary, though they all employ their own strategies in vocabulary learning. The curriculum and syllabus does not cater for individual learning styles and follows traditional modes of learning. This creates an unnecessary restraint on CEMs when approaching learning English vocabulary, and combined with the exam oriented approach will have an undesirable effect. This culturally preferred way of approaching learning another language means CEMs experience a weakened capacity to achieve learning outcomes they might otherwise imagine The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 268 2013
will be the case.
This study highlights the importance of evaluating and further enhancing the teaching methods and curriculum employed in English language teaching in that institution. The curriculum can be improved in at least two ways. Firstly, it can be improved by incorporating a communicative approach to learning. A communicative approach can provide ample opportunities for consolidation of learning, facilitates interaction and promotes learner autonomy. This will overcome the limitations of the exam based approach to learning and grammar translation approach which focus simply on learning of grammar. Secondly, the PVL can be improved by incorporating strategy training within the syllabus and acknowledging it within the curriculum. Providing explicit strategy training has proven to have a beneficial effect on learners confidence and learning outcomes. It was clear in the interview data that CEMs desired strategy training as part of their language education. The questionnaire data supported this preference for strategy training by showing that strategy use was far from optimal.
Section summary
The questionnaires and interview provided data to observe the PVL used by CEMs. The evidence for their particular process was found in the exploration of CEMs VLS use and beliefs, general and specific. CEMs using the same small cluster of VLSs (8) in each grade provides strong evidence of this. Why the eight VLSs is not clear in the data it is speculated that it is due to the learning tasks CEMs engage in, which are viewed as often exam oriented. The process begins with discovering new vocabulary, determining what to do with it, and then consolidating learning by focusing on particular aspects of the new vocabulary using memory, review and production strategies. The process is complex, uses strategy clusters and occurs in working memory. What happens in working memory is not a one-off event but a series of events relying on procedural knowledge to be successful.
Chapter summary
VLS use was generally variable in each grade, though the same eight strategies were used in each grade. This clustering of strategies in each grade was viewed as a core set of strategies used by CEMs, and arguably the PVL CEMs tend to use when learning English vocabulary. Using Schmitts (1997) VLS taxonomy as a general reference to discuss strategies and use, it The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 269 2013
was seen that two discovery-place strategies, three determination-study strategies, two consolidation-memory strategies, and one consolidation-review strategy made up the core set of strategies regularly used in each grade. Some of the literature (e.g. Macaro, 2006; Griffiths, 2013) discusses strategy clustering and provides a way to begin understanding the nature and goal of strategies. Macaro (2006) provides a cognitive domain within which to place them: working memory. However, it is argued here that strategies must have their roots in long-term memory given the components of strategies (e.g., look up a dictionary is premised on knowing what a dictionary is and what is involved in the action of looking up), and can be classified procedural knowledge, because they are action oriented.
The two beliefs questionnaires provided data to show that CEMs hold BALLL. By using the descriptive statistic of percentages, it was seen that the strength of students agreement or not with a particular BALLL differed. Three general patterns emerged from the data: agree/strongly agree; disagree/strongly disagree; and, neither disagree or agree. Students indicated they generally agreed or strongly agreed with 18 general Western BALLL out of 34, approximately 53 per cent of BALLL. The reason they hold beliefs that are generally classified as Western BALLL could be due to Chinas recent attempt to integrate into the global village. With respect to CCL BALLL, 33 beliefs statement were agreed with or strongly agreed with out of 57, approximately 58 per cent of CCL beliefs.
The statistical analysis showed how BALLL and VLS use are strongly related and had an impact on English vocabulary size, for high frequency words and Academic size vocabulary.
The result showed several things: 1) that CEMs do use VLSs, and 2) individual CEMs are different in the strategy use, but not as a group. As a group, they are similar. The result also showed that CEMs use a cluster of strategies in each grade of a four-year Bachelor degree. This evidence was used to infer that it is a core set of strategies, and that it suggests it is the PVL for these CEMs, at least. The data also showed that CEMs are variable in their VLS use. Variable use here means that CEMs used a strategy in one grade but may not use it in another and the percentage of students using the strategy fluctuated with each grade.
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CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION
8.0 Introduction
This chapter concludes the research project with a general summary followed by a summary of the major findings (8.1), highlighting significant aspects and generalisations, then implications and contribution (8.2), limitations (8.3) and concluding remarks (8.4).
8.1 Summary of the project and its aims
The main aim of this research was to explore the process of English vocabulary learning by CEMs and to better understand the process. The process involves two important factors: VLSs and BALLL. Specifically the project explored the relationship between VLS use and BALLL, general BALLL and specific CCL, and their influence on EVS. A secondary aim was to know where CEMs obtain the VLSs they use, including the place, in the wider context of a university, where they often do vocabulary learning.
The project used a mixed methods approach to explore the PVL. Eighty CEMs from four different grades were surveyed on strategy use and BALLL. The project also surveyed CEMs EVS through four tests. A further 25 students were interviewed to explain strategy use and beliefs, and to validate questionnaire results. Data collection was sequential: quantitative then qualitative. The data were analysed by descriptive and non-parametric statistics. The descriptive statistics helped observe patterns in the data and frequency of use. The non- parametric statistics helped observe differences in mean scores and strength of relationships. The interview data was themed to allow organisation around categories and formal classifications. Questionnaires and interview results were combined and compared.
The results demonstrated which VLSs were used, and the frequency of use cross-sectionally (across four grades of a Bachelor degree) and as a whole. The results showed a strong correlation between VLS use and beliefs. The project showed EVS, in a general sense, and the differences in EVS in each grade. However, there was no significant correlation found between VLS use and VST/Academic mean scores in grades 1 and 2, but there was between VLS use and VST/Academic mean scores in grade 3 and 4. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 271 2013
8.2 Major findings
The Process of Vocabulary Learning
Gu and Johnson (1996) suggest strategy use and beliefs are the whole process of FLL, and Schmitt (1997) hints at it in his vocabulary learning taxonomy. The key result of the research was that the PVL could be observed in VLS use and beliefs. The process could be strongly inferred from the use of a core set of VLSs (Griffith, 2013) which were repeatedly used in each grade of a four-year Bachelor degree and students BALLL, with the two working together (see Chapter 5). Other strategies were used to complement the core set of strategies engaged in learning activities and tasks.
The PVL was inferred from the key finding of the clustering of VLS use in each grade (e.g. Flavell et al., 1993; Mohamed, 2006). CEMs had used a particular set of eight VLSs in each grade, supplemented by a certain number of other VLSs in each grade (see Chapter 5, Table 5.16). The idea of strategy clustering also extended to beliefs (e.g. Horwitz, 1985). However, there was no evidence in the data to suggest clustering of beliefs in each grade. The data showed that CEMs mostly agreed/strongly agreed with 18 of Horwitzs (1985) 34 Western beliefs (53%), and 33 of Shis (2006) 57 beliefs of the CCL (58%) (see Chapter 5, sections 5.6.1 and 5.7).
Vocabulary Learning Strategy use
The data strongly suggested that CEMs use VLSs but that their use of VLSs is variable at the individual level. CEMs regularly used, across the four grades, eight of the 62 VLS asked about:
1) discover new words in textbooks and classroom learning activities; 2) discover new words when reading English materials; 3) when studying new words, study its pronunciation; 4) when studying new words, study the spelling; 5) when studying new words, study the Chinese translation; 6) when memorising new words, write it several times; 7) when memorising new words, look at it several times; and The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 272 2013
8) remember memorised words by its meaning (when read again).
The result can be attributed to the nature of learning tasks and activities at the research site. The students preference for strategies on translation, spelling, pronunciation can also be explained by the teaching methodology which might have been traditional, as explained in the introduction.
Across the four grades, 29 VLSs were used variably, and 36 were used rarely or never, and 5 were never/rarely used:
1) when I meet a new word I pay no attention to it, and never go back to it; 2) I order new words by making vocabulary cards; 3) I review new words by reading the new words the first day, but not after that; 4) I review new words by testing new words with classmates; and 5) I use new words by trying to e-chat in English using QQ, MSN Messenger (see Chapter 7, Table 7.2).
The possible reason for number 1 is due to students being proactive when learning vocabulary. The reason for numbers 2 to 4 is probably due to students not viewing these strategies as useful or as inconvenient. CEMs probably have fewer opportunities to use strategy number 5. The VLS use fluctuated in each grade, both in the number of students using a VLS and the frequency with which the VLS was used for example, grade 1 used 39 per cent, grade 2 used 31 per cent, grade 3 used 32 per cent, and grade used 45 per cent of the 62 VLSs asked about. For the whole group, it was an average of 37 per cent of VLSs asked about. The results confirm that EFL learners use VLSs to learn English vocabulary and must be recognised as important in EFL teaching. Further research is needed to understand why such a low percentage of VLSs were used.
CEMs use VLSs to learn English vocabulary and this supports other research (e.g. Gan et al., 2004; Gu & Johnson, 1997; Oxford, 1990; Schmitt, 1990; see Chapter 2, section 2.4.1). There were strong statistically significant differences (SSD) within grades for VLS use, and a significant finding was the variability in VLS use at the individual level; another was the clustering of VLS use in each grade. The significant difference within a grade is due to students using individual approaches to learning. The strategy clustering is due to CEMs using The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 273 2013
culturally significant approaches to learning English vocabulary.
CEMs achieved a certain EVS which could not be convincingly correlated with VLS use (see Chapter 6). The literature has consistently claimed they are strongly related but research is light on showing a statistical relationship (see Griffiths, 2013). Few VLS subgroups (e.g., determination-place strategies, determination-study strategies and consolidation-production strategies) actually correlated with VST/Academic mean scores (see Chapter 6). The subgroups which did correlate were determination-study and consolidation-memory strategies in grade 3, and determination-study, consolidation-memory and consolidation-remember strategies in grade 4. More research is needed to understand the precise relationship between strategy subgroups and vocabulary learning outcomes. The CEMs indicated a low end of medium level of VLS use they indicated they had often and always used roughly 37 per cent of the 62 VLSs asked about; they indicated they had sometimes, never or rarely used the remaining 64 per cent of the 62 VLSs. Moreover, there were few instances in the data that indicated they had used the strategies more regularly than sometimes. Therefore, their self-reported VLS frequency of use indicated a low end of medium VLS use as individuals, modifying their strategy use in each grade in response to specific learning tasks. CEMs strongly indicated that they preferred strategy training. Given their EFL context, this may be useful.
Chinese English Majors and the beliefs about language and language learning
With regards to beliefs, the sampled CEMs used VLSs, and possessed general BALLL fairly consistent with Horwitzs (1988) classification of Western beliefs and specific beliefs classified by Shi (2006) as the CCL beliefs.
With regard to BALLL, the surprising finding was that CEMs general BALLL was almost as strong as their CCL (see Chapter 5, section 5.6.1 & 5.7). The assumption was that CEMs CCL beliefs would be much stronger than their general BALLL, given that the researcher had observed reasonably strong CCL beliefs being employed by students when teaching many of the CEMs who participated in the research. The data did not, however, strongly support that observation. The difference in the number of BALLL and CCL questions, for instance, may be a factor: 34 for the BALLLQ and 57 for the CCLQ. Fifty-eight per cent of CCL beliefs were agreed with compared with 53 per cent for the general BALLL. The result for BALLL BS#4 (the English I am trying to learn is a particular level of difficulty) was surprising, with 61 per The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 274 2013
cent of CEMs giving the same response of medium difficulty compared with Horwitzs (1987) European learners of English. The fact that the result suggests Chinese students beliefs are partially Westernised beliefs would account for this result.
While CEMs may belong to a collective, in the Chinese sense, and live in a cultural setting that emphasises a particular culture of learning (Cortazzi & Jin, 1996; Shi, 2006), the data confirmed that CEMs are individuals in both their beliefs and learning behaviour (see Chapter 7). They were very similar as a group in their beliefs and learning behaviour, which affirms their collectivist outlook. CEMs individual beliefs and learning behaviour were not altogether unusual, and affirmed that all humans are distinct at the individual level (Drnyei, 2009). The strong group characteristic, however, can be viewed as reinforcing a preferred cultural learning style; they were all similar in their choices as a group (see Chapter 5). For example, unquestionably two of the most important beliefs to entertain as EFL learners are learning English is mostly a matter of learning many new words and learning English is mostly a matter of learning its grammar rules; CEMs rated them respectively No. 22 and 23 and, incidentally, the two weakest beliefs (36% and 34% agreed). These weakest beliefs broke the pattern of all students in all grades holding a belief at similar strengths and at similar frequencies.
The CCLQ was useful in affirming CEMs CCL beliefs (Shi, 2006). For example, CEMs strongly agreed (58%) with the belief that a good teacher of English should improve my English skills (for example, reading, writing), which affirms the idea that Chinese students tend to be passive learners in the classroom (Gu, 1997; Gu & Johnson, 1996). The second choice was ask the teacher after class, which also affirms the idea that Chinese students in China tend not to interrupt the teacher during class. However, there was evidence to support the conclusion that these CEMs, at least, had been influenced by Western BALLL, enough to alter their perception of BALLL if not their behaviour. For instance, the beliefs my English teacher likes me asking questions in the classroom and in my opinion, a good learner of English should respect teachers were rated equally (66%), showing an increased flexibility perhaps of some Chinese teachers but still tempered by Chinese beliefs. The top 20 beliefs indicate a tendency to follow CCL beliefs and the occasional Westernized belief but, even so, the general BALLL should have resulted, if the rhetoric is to be believed, in a greater knowledge of English vocabulary than was observed.
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English Vocabulary Size
A surprising result was observed in the CEMs EVS (see Appendix 6). While CEMs vocabulary size was as low as expected overall, the word in each size that was known most by all students was surprising. For instance, for all students in all grades, the word most known at the 1000 size was poor; at the 2000 word size it was upset; at the 3000 word size it was soldier; and at the Academic size, it was method. There was not enough data to explain why such variability existed in their receptive vocabulary knowledge (Nation, 2001). In addition, there was an increase in vocabulary knowledge from grade 1 to grade 4 in the Academic size test, the opposite of the 1000 to 3000 word tests. This was an unexpected finding, and again there was not enough data to explain why their Academic vocabulary should be increasing in each grade while their general vocabulary should be decreasing. CEMs focus on Academic vocabulary in higher education and are trained to be English teachers, perhaps this contributed to the result.
The EVS of CEMs in the present research was average, and variable. The average EVS was observed in their results on Nations VST (see Appendix 6). Students were asked to complete the first three of Nations size tests 1000, 2000, 3000 and the Academic size. The expectation was that CEMs would know all the words at the 1000 size. The bilingual version was used to make it easier to process. However, the results showed that CEMs did not fully know all the words at the 1000 size (see Appendix 6). The same pattern was observed in all three vocabulary sizes and the Academic size. The trend observed in CEMs vocabulary size was that word knowledge declined from the 1000 size to the 3000 size; however, an interesting observation at the Academic size was that more students knew most of the words at each size, even though word knowledge declined in the first three sizes. So, even though fewer students in grade 1 knew most of the words at the Academic size, more students tended to know most of the Academic words by grade 4, which was the opposite for the VST from 1000 to 3000.
Schmitt (2010, pp. 2840) listed at least five indicators that EFL learners were consistently learning vocabulary. The first suggested was signs of a large vocabulary required to negotiate conversational English (e.g., Australian), which was roughly 2000 to 3000 word families. The present research did not show that CEMs possessed a large range of vocabulary, particularly at the 2000 to 3000 word family range (see Appendix 6). The second indicator suggested was signs of a variety of word knowledge needed to negotiate not only spoken discourse but The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 276 2013
certain kinds of texts. The research did not affirm that CEMs possessed a wide variety of word knowledge because it did not really explore the extent of CEMs word knowledge; all that was done was observe whether CEMs knew a word and its general meaning at a particular size receptive vocabulary knowledge. The third indicator suggested was signs of incremental learning gained through a large range of exposure (e.g., number of times a learner is exposed to a single item, type of exposure, level of engagement and congruity between L2 and L1 form) (Schmitt, 2010). The present research did not explore this issue, but assumes that a certain number of exposures must have transpired, given the average 9 to 12 years of English language education. Some researchers (e.g. Ming Wei, 2007) have argued that China is an input-poor environment, which may account for the perceived lack of repeated exposure suggested in CEMs low EVS. The fourth indicator suggested was signs of consolidation, observed in how vocabulary is revised, expanding revision, and signs of connectionism. Connectionism means here that students showed signs of a developing English lexicology. Revision was not observed to be a strong point among CEMs (see Chapter 5, Table 5.1, Table 5.2 and section 5.1.2.2, Table 5.9). There was no indication of expanded revision, though there were signs of connectionism. The fifth indicator suggested was a sign of enhancement of partial word knowledge gained over time to become fully mastered. The research did not explore this issue in depth, but there were signs that partial knowledge was not really being enhanced over time. There were signs that learning was only geared toward achieving immediate academic goals but not moving beyond this point. This is not viewed as controversial, given the learning context. CEMs must negotiate a great deal within the learning context to achieve what they do. However, this result also may have teaching implications and there may be recommendations to improve learning in the context.
8.3 Theoretical and practical implications and contribution
The discussion now turns to the implications of the research for its contribution to theory and practice, which could be applicable not simply for English vocabulary learning but to EFL learners in similar contexts.
Theory The research contributes to the development of vocabulary learning theory in several ways. Initially, it extends previous research. It not only confirms some of the previous research regarding VLS use (e.g. Gu & Johnson, 1996) and BALLL (e.g. Horwitz, 1987; Shi, 2006), but The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 277 2013
demonstrates that frequency of use can reveal deeper aspects of the issue, when explored cross- sectionally, and even pseudo-longitudinally, which is only hinted at in previous research (e.g. Gu & Johnson, 1996), and that VLSs and BALLL strongly correlate. The research extends the range of VLSs through interviews not found in previous research (e.g. Schmitt, 1997), highlighting more complexity in vocabulary learning. It also reveals some details of the PVL, albeit in a FLL context, not examined before.
One group of VLSs not found in previous research concerns practice strategies. Previous research highlights consolidation-review and consolidation-remember strategies (e.g. Schmitt, 1997). Practice strategies can be viewed as a necessary aspect of FLL, particularly in contexts with fewer opportunities to consolidate learning. They are similar to consolidation-review strategies, in that vocabulary is reviewed by how it has been organised or reviewed for memorisation, but the aim of practice strategies can be quite different. They can be viewed as a way to automatise vocabulary knowledge and contribute to language development.
A range of discovery-place and determination initial response strategies was shown. Discovery- place strategies have been portrayed as strategic action. Their goal is not the same as other action-oriented strategies, which they can be if the learner is determined to find new vocabulary in a specific place (e.g., a newspaper), rather than stumble upon it in due course. An interesting set of discovery-place strategies was those for finding new vocabulary in the public sphere (outside the classroom) for example, on trains, in. Determination-response strategies, on the other hand, concern either an initial response to finding a new word or determining what to do with it. An initial response for some students, according to the questionnaire/interview data, was to do nothing. Some interesting determination initial response strategies from the interview were: look up pc/phone dictionary; note its history; separate short from long words; learn how to read it. Only 8 per cent of interview participants said they ignore a new word. An important question to ask is does ignoring a new word help the student to learn it? The logical answer is no.
Finding strong correlation between VLSs and BALLL contributes to theory concerning the important aspects of vocabulary learning. Gu & Johnson (1996) list three general BALLL, arguing they are strategies. But beliefs are not strategies, though action oriented, they are statements about the relations between two things that do not define each other (e.g. Richardson, 1996). A strategy is procedural knowledge, concerned with what is to be done, The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 278 2013
whereas beliefs are concerned with relations between, in this case, language, the thing to be learned, and how to learn it. Language is not defined by how it is to be learned. Strategies and beliefs strongly correlating is convincing support for the argument that the two interact and work together in the vocabulary learning endeavour.
Two categories of beliefs were offered in the interview and concerned what makes a good teacher of English and what is involved in learning another language. The importance of beliefs concerning what makes a good teacher of English is in their ability to affect teaching pedagogy. A very wide range of beliefs came out of the interview which were not based on either Horwitzs (1985) BALLI or Shis (2006) CCL beliefs. There were two interesting categories, one concerned personality traits generally and the other specific traits the former concerning the teacher as a person, the latter concerning the person as a teacher. Some specific attributes emerged too: teacher qualities, teaching tools and syllabus subjects. The first contained preferred teacher qualities, such as should have knowledge of English, should have good teaching skill and knows grammar. Under teaching tools came skills, such as ability to use multimedia, movies and easy words. Some interesting topics emerged under syllabus subjects: teaches culture, teaches students how to learn, teaches useful skills, teaches real-life English, teaches socio-pragmatics and teaches for communication. This suggests CEMs desire less traditional types of teacher and prefer communicative activities and learning of the culture.
Showing that there is PVL in the relationship between strategy use and beliefs develops the field beyond simply highlighting which strategies students use and which beliefs they possess. These are a functional basis for vocabulary learning. Students either deliberately go in search of new words or they stumble upon them in the course of formal study. Students then decide what to do with them; either find their meaning of ignore them. They then go further, studying specific aspects of the new vocabulary. These actions, up till this point, might be viewed as a kind of surface learning (e.g. Biggs, 1996; Ramsden, 1992; Prosser & Trigwell, 1999), whereas using consolidation-organisation strategies, consolidation-memorisation strategies, consolidation-review strategies and consolidation-remember strategies might be viewed as a kind of deep learning.
Practical implications The practical implications of this research are for students, teachers, curriculum design and researchers. Based on the data, the main issues are 1) the practical implications for CEMs, 2) The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 279 2013
opportunities to consolidate learning, 3) the impact of increased opportunities to consolidate learning and the English curriculum of Chinese universities. A fourth concerns problems researching VLSs.
1) Practical implications for Chinese English Majors
There are practical implications for CEMs when learning English vocabulary in their host cultural context. Firstly, they may be constrained in their learning, and not satisfactorily achieve their personal learning goals other than pass English exams, if they manage it on the first attempt. Secondly, while they may satisfy a culturally preferred way of learning they may fail to achieve the level of proficiency expected for negotiating higher education in a non-Chinese institute in an English speaking country, if that is their aim. Thirdly, if they fail to achieve the expected proficiency level (they are personally aiming for) they will be required to undertake additional English language education until they reach a level of proficiency sufficient for self- regulating learning in the new cultural context. Chinese English majors in this context need to focus on developing a variety of strategies for autonomous learning. In this way, they can regulate and achieve their learning goals and needs.
2) Opportunities to consolidate learning
The research findings suggest there was a weighted imposition on CEMs to engage in learning activities rather than engage in consolidation of learning activities (indirectly English language teaching), which is not easy when there is pressure to conform to a culturally preferred way of thinking about language and language learning (e.g. Gao, 2006; Horwitz, 1999; Phuong-Mai et al., 2005; Yang, 1999). The pressure to conform would, therefore, maintain the pattern of outcomes of learning observed of CEMs in the present research. A change could not be expected in English vocabulary learning outcomes, for CEMs specifically, if the preferred ways of thinking and behaving are expected to be maintained in the foreseeable future (e.g. Elbaum et al., 1993; Gao, 2006).
Teaching must meet the needs of diverse learners though they belong to a collectivist culture, and not expect learners to use the same approaches to learning just because the teacher uses an approach to teaching that views all learners as homogenous e.g. Chinese. Expecting learners to conform to a teaching pedagogy that does not try to meet the needs of learners who use The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 280 2013
individually different approaches to learning will not achieve its educational goals equitably for all. The evidence gathered in this research shows that while students are expected to learn from the same textbooks, the same vocabulary lists, the same approach to learning, in the same amount of time, under the same generalised teaching pedagogy, the learning outcome was not the same for all students. The learning outcome was variable for each student and less than desirable for many. In order for students to achieve their individual educational goals, teachers should attempt to expose students to a variety of learning strategies, vocabulary consolidation and discovery strategies which will enhance their learner autonomy. Another suggestion would be to supplement teaching materials with authentic resources, gleaned from the internet or radio to offer students realistic learning opportunities. Teachers could also attempt to develop activities for a variety of learning styles and personalities to address students learning needs. Cohen (2010) provides a useful step by step process for assisting teachers in integrating strategy training: 1. Determine learners needs and the resources available for training. 2. Select the strategies to be taught. 3. Consider the benefits of integrated strategy training. 4. Consider motivational issues. 5. Prepare the materials and activities. 6. Conduct explicit strategy training. 7. Evaluate and revise the strategy training. This will empower students with problem solving skills and enable them to self evaluate their performance.
3) Impact on syllabuses and curriculums: finding the right balance
In order to increase CEMs opportunities to consolidate learning, syllabuses and curriculums would need to be redesigned to accommodate increased opportunities (e.g. Gao, 2006; Schmitt, 2008), by including strategy training (e.g. Griffiths, 2013). Interview participants showed interest in strategy training and given the benefit of strategy training, it would be best that Chinese teachers and institutional administrators undertake such changes. CEMs educational experience seems to be overly managed and much of their out-of-class time is consumed by extracurricular activities organised by either their teachers or the institutes administrators who have nothing to do with FLL. Whether adjustments will include strategy training, for instance, requires further research. But the research result showed students desire for strategy training and that it should be included in future in the higher education English curriculum. Teachers need to include strategy training to raise students awareness of strategies. Curriculum should The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 281 2013
incorporate where possible all skill training to produce opportunities for learning.
The best way to increase students opportunities to consolidate their learning is by offering a range of opportunities to learn the foreign language and combine a variety of teaching resources. This will require teachers and curriculum designers to pay great attention to individual approaches to learning. This means that teachers must design syllabuses that address individual learning styles, not syllabuses that view learners as the same. Teachers must incorporate learning activities those that will facilitate learning from students particular approach into the syllabus that will placate individual approaches to learning. This can be done by surveying student approaches to learning and then designing learning activities that will meet and enhance each students approach to learning. This requires a learner centred approach to learning and a negotiated syllabus which is advocated by Kumaravadivelu (2003).
4) Some problems with researching VLS use
Although the research contributed to the field of English vocabulary learning in FLL contexts, this was only possible because it delved deeper into the issue. Ten years ago, Ellis (1994, in Griffiths, 2013) said longitudinal studies were sorely needed this is still true today. Doing pseudo-longitudinal research has shown how much this approach can reveal about the PVL at least, which cannot be revealed by one-shot studies, or restricting research to simply listing strategies used and claiming they represent the whole process. But the research has not found support for earlier postulations that strategy use is amenable to change (Griffiths, 2013) CEMs did not change their base or core strategies (Griffiths, 2013) across four years of a Bachelor degree, but the result does support Griffiths idea that there is such a thing as a core set of strategies. My findings also support Griffiths postulation that it perhaps reflects students level of proficiency, because most CEMs had variable and non-consistent test size.
According to Griffiths (2013), individual strategy use is likely to be affected by a range of personal variables. Therefore, more research time must be placed on individual use and contextual and situational factors. If culture affects strategy use, and the research demonstrates that it does, then this has implications for teaching pedagogy and strategy training. Digging deeper is the only answer. Students respond individually to learning activities and tasks in a variety of ways, therefore students need to be assessed individually with respect to language education and training and not be limited to one-size-fits-all programs. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 282 2013
The other problem with researching strategy use is its very nature: what is a VLS? The best theory so far is that strategies are procedural knowledge (e.g. Phye & Andre, 1986; Anderson et al, 2001), along with beliefs they are action orientation, and they exist in long-term memory, have histories, and can be drawn on and used as a cognitive resource in times of specific learning for example, vocabulary learning (Rubin, 1975; Macaro, 2006). Strategies are what students do to learn vocabulary. Strategy training has some effect, but it must be tailored to meet specific individual needs, exacerbated by a range of personal variables (Griffiths, 2013). While our understanding of strategies is still in its infancy, more research would reveal their hidden virtues and aspects. These aspects include their relationship to specific learning activities and tasks, the context and situation of learning and asking questions like which activities and tasks trigger which strategies, in which classrooms and in which year of English language education. Under what teaching methods? And, what is the precise gain from using specific strategies? And, what are the sub-aspects of a VLS beyond its surface definition?
8.4 Research limitations and recommendations
There are limitations in the present research. The scope is one limitation. The focus of this research was on the PVL. LLSs generally are not included, and nor are other speculated factors involved in the PVL (e.g., supposed unconscious learning mechanisms). The age of respondents is another limitation: this study looked at university age students who were between 19 and 25. Gender is another limitation. There was at least a 20 : 1 ratio of females to males. The range of CEMs was limited to the grade a student was enrolled in a four-year Bachelor degree and to the second semester of each grade.
The number of factors researched could also be seen as another limitation. The research focused on two main factors: VLSs and BALLL. The research explored range and frequency of use of VLSs. The range of VLSs was limited to Mas (2009) selection of 62 VLSs listed in her VLSQ. Two types of BALLL were examined: general BALLL, those listed by Horwitz (1987), and specific CCL beliefs, those listed by Shi (2006).
Finally, a larger sample would have provided more confidence to generalise about the CEM population in China. Due to time limitations and students busy schedules, it was not possible to collect more data. A possible direction for future research would be to repeat the study with The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 283 2013
a larger sample and possibly a number of universities in China. It could also be worthwhile to do a longitudinal study when researching VLSs and beliefs across different grades to investigate their development and relationship. Last but not least a different combination of methods studying the same phenomenon would offer another insight/angle to the topic.
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 284 2013
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1
Part 1: GDLB Start time: This section of the survey / questionnaire collects information about you of a general nature, including some personal information and general language education information.
1. Name (pinyin): 2. Age: 3. Gender / Sex: 4. Ethnicity (i.e. Han): 5. Native language: (e.g. Chinese Cantonese / Chinese Mandarin) 6. Years of English language education: 7. Name of Bachelor Degree (i.e. English): 8. Year / Grade of Enrolment (i.e. Grade 1): / (year/month i.e. 2/5) 9. College Entrance Test (CET 2) score (if known): 10. Todays Date: / / (dd/mm/yyyy e.g. 03/04/2009) 11. If you would like to participate in an interview later, after you have completed your end- of-term exams, please leave your cell phone number and/or email address.
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APPENDIX 2
Part 2: VLQ Start time: This section of the survey / questionnaire collects information about your vocabulary learning strategies and how often you use them to learn English vocabulary (e.g. words and phrases), and is adopted from Schmitts VLS taxonomy (2001, pp. 207-08; Cohen & Chi 2003). Instructions: Please show which strategy you use and how often you actually use the strategy by drawing a circle around the number that shows how often you actually use the strategy following this key / scale: 1=never; 2=rarely; 3=sometimes; 4=often; 5=always
Example: Where do you eat your breakfast during semester? In the dining hall 1 2 3 4 5
10. Where do you meet new words? In textbooks and from classroom learning activities 1 2 3 4 5 In vocabulary lists arranged in alphabetical order 1 2 3 4 5 In vocabulary lists arranged by meaning 1 2 3 4 5 During English conversations with others (e.g. teachers, classmates, foreigners) 1 2 3 4 5 When reading English materials (e.g. books, newspapers, magazines) 1 2 3 4 5 When singing English songs or watching English movies / TV shows 1 2 3 4 5 When using / surfing the Internet (e.g. English websites, e-chatting [e.g. writing: QQ, MSN; speaking: Skype]) 1 2 3 4 5 1=never; 2=rarely; 3=sometimes; 4=often; 5=always
11. Where do you often learn English vocabulary during the semester? In my classroom 1 2 3 4 5 In the library 1 2 3 4 5 In my dormitory room 1 2 3 4 5 Other (explain here):
1=never; 2=rarely; 3=sometimes; 4=often; 5=always
12. What do you do when you meet a new vocabulary item? Pay no attention to it and never go back to it 1 2 3 4 5 Pay no attention to it, but go back to it later 1 2 3 4 5 I try to guess the meaning from the context i.e. in a sentence or where it was said 1 2 3 4 5 Study the words prefixes, suffixes and root-word for the meaning 1 2 3 4 5 Ask a classmate or the teacher for the meaning 1 2 3 4 5 Read a Chinese-English / English-Chinese dictionary 1 2 3 4 5 Read an English-only dictionary 1 2 3 4 5 1=never; 2=rarely; 3=sometimes; 4=often; 5=always
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13. When learning a new vocabulary item, what aspects do you study? I study its pronunciation 1 2 3 4 5 I study the spelling 1 2 3 4 5 I study the prefixes, suffixes and root-words 1 2 3 4 5 I study the Chinese translations 1 2 3 4 5 I study the English explanations 1 2 3 4 5 I study the example sentences 1 2 3 4 5 I study the way the word is used (e.g. prevent sb from doing sth) 1 2 3 4 5 I study the words relationship with other words (e.g. make money / a profit) 1 2 3 4 5 I study the words part of speech (i.e. noun, verb, adjective) 1 2 3 4 5 1=never; 2=rarely; 3=sometimes; 4=often; 5=always
14. How do you put in order the information about the new vocabulary item? I write down the information on a piece of paper 1 2 3 4 5 I put in order the information about the vocabulary in a vocabulary notebook 1 2 3 4 5 I make vocabulary cards 1 2 3 4 5 I use the vocabulary lists in the textbook 1 2 3 4 5 I use a vocabulary list like the vocabulary list in the vocabulary books Vocabulary 5000 and TEM 4 EasyTest 1 2 3 4 5 1=never; 2=rarely; 3=sometimes; 4=often; 5=always
15. How do you memorize vocabulary? I say the word aloud several times 1 2 3 4 5 I write the word several times 1 2 3 4 5 I look at the word several times 1 2 3 4 5 I memorize Chinese-English / English-Chinese lists 1 2 3 4 5 I do vocabulary exercises 1 2 3 4 5 I link the word to its similar meaning words and its opposite meaning words 1 2 3 4 5 I link the word with words I already know and have similar pieces (e.g. dam / damage) 1 2 3 4 5 I compare words that are similar in meaning and study them together 1 2 3 4 5 I group words in order (e.g. according to their meaning, part of speech, topic) 1 2 3 4 5 I place the word in a context (a meaningful sentence, conversation, or story to remember) 1 2 3 4 5 I make up a phrase or a sentence containing the word 1 2 3 4 5 I listen to a tape-recording / CD of the words 1 2 3 4 5 I make up rhymes to link words together 1 2 3 4 5 I practice words (e.g. verbs) by acting them out 1 2 3 4 5 I try to imagine what the new word looks like (or the sentence with the word) 1 2 3 4 5 I draw pictures to illustrate the meaning of new words 1 2 3 4 5 I try to imagine what the new word looks in my head / mind 1 2 3 4 5 I remember the prefix, suffix and root-word of new words 1 2 3 4 5 1=never; 2=rarely; 3=sometimes; 4=often; 5=always
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16. How do you review vocabulary? Say the new words two or three times the first day 1 2 3 4 5 Say the new words as I read them the next day, and after that 1 2 3 4 5 Read the new words the first day, but not after that 1 2 3 4 5 Read the new words two or three times the first day, then do it again a few days after that, a week after that, a month after that 1 2 3 4 5 Test new words on my own 1 2 3 4 5 Test new words with classmates 1 2 3 4 5 1=never; 2=rarely; 3=sometimes; 4=often; 5=always
17. How do you remember words you have memorized? I remember a new word the way that I learned it 1 2 3 4 5 I remember the word by its meaning (when I hear it again) 1 2 3 4 5 I remember the word by its meaning (when I read it again) 1 2 3 4 5 I remember the words meaning first, then I think about its meaningful parts (prefixes, suffixes and root-words) 1 2 3 4 5 I try to remember where I first met the words 1 2 3 4 5 1=never; 2=rarely; 3=sometimes; 4=often; 5=always
18. How do you make use of new vocabulary? I try to use words in speaking and writing 1 2 3 4 5 I try to use idioms when I speak 1 2 3 4 5 I try to think with English using the new vocabulary 1 2 3 4 5 I try to have conversations using the new words, with people who speak English, e.g. teachers, classmates 1 2 3 4 5 I try to e-chat with people on the internet, using QQ, MSN Messenger 1 2 3 4 5 1=never; 2=rarely; 3=sometimes; 4=often; 5=always
19. Do you remember who taught you how to learn English vocabulary? My Chinese English teachers 1 2 3 4 5 My classmates 1 2 3 4 5 My textbooks 1 2 3 4 5 I taught myself / seemed natural to learn words this way 1 2 3 4 5 Other (explain here):
Finish time:
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APPENDIX 3
Part 3: BALLI Start time: This section of the survey / questionnaire collects information about your beliefs (e.g. what you believe is true) about language and language learning, and is adopted from Horwitzs (1988) BALLI. Instructions: Read each of the statements and show how much you agree with it. Show your level of agreement or disagreement by circling one of the capital letters to the right of each statement following this key / scale: Strength of agreement = (1) Strongly disagree (2) Disagree (3) Neither agree or disagree (4) Agree (5) Strongly agree Example: a. Its not necessary to use a dictionary when learning English S: 1 2 3 4 5
1. It is easier for children than adults to learn a foreign language S: 1 2 3 4 5 2. Some people are born with a special ability which helps them learn a foreign language S: 1 2 3 4 5 3. Some languages are easier to learn than others S: 1 2 3 4 5 4. The English I am trying to learn is: 1=Very difficult 2=Difficult 3=Medium difficulty 4=Easy 5=Very easy S: 1 2 3 4 5 5. English is formed in the same way as Chinese S: 1 2 3 4 5 6. I believe I will at last speak English very well S: 1 2 3 4 5 7. It is important to speak English without an accent S: 1 2 3 4 5 8. Chinese students should know English culture in order to speak English well S: 1 2 3 4 5 9. You should not speak English until you can speak it correctly S: 1 2 3 4 5 10. It is easier to learn another foreign language if you already know one foreign language S: 1 2 3 4 5 11. It is better to learn English in an English speaking country like the US S: 1 2 3 4 5 12. If I heard someone speaking English, the language I am trying to learn, I would try to speak with them in order to practice my English S: 1 2 3 4 5 13. It is okay to guess the meaning of an English word if you dont know it S: 1 2 3 4 5 14. If you spent one hour a day speaking / learning English, how long would it take for you to become fluent? 1 = less than a year 2 = 1 to 2 years 3 = 3 to 5 years 4 = 5 to 10 years 5 = you cant learn English in one hour a day
S:
1
2
3
4
5 15. I have foreign language aptitude S: 1 2 3 4 5 16. Learning English is mostly a matter of learning many new English vocabulary items S: 1 2 3 4 5 (1) Strongly disagree (2) Disagree (3) Neither agree or disagree (4) Agree (5) Strongly agree 17. It is important to repeat English words and practice often S: 1 2 3 4 5 18. I feel self-conscious speaking English in front of others S: 1 2 3 4 5 19. If you are allowed to make mistakes, it will be hard to get rid of them later S: 1 2 3 4 5 20. Learning English is mostly a matter of its many grammar rules S: 1 2 3 4 5 21. It is important to practice in a language lab S: 1 2 3 4 5 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 303 2013
22. Males are better than females at learning English S: 1 2 3 4 5 23. If I speak English very well, I will have many opportunities to use it S: 1 2 3 4 5 24. It is easier to speak English than it is to understand it S: 1 2 3 4 5 25. Learning English is different from learning other university subjects S: 1 2 3 4 5 26. Learning English is mostly a matter of translating English into Chinese S: 1 2 3 4 5 27. If I learn to speak English very well it will help me get a good job S: 1 2 3 4 5 28. It is easier to read and write English than it is to speak it / listen to it and understand it S: 1 2 3 4 5 29. People who are good at math and science are good at learning English S: 1 2 3 4 5 30. Chinese think it is important to speak English S: 1 2 3 4 5 31. I would like to speak English so I can learn more about English people S: 1 2 3 4 5 32. People who can speak more than one foreign language are intelligent people S: 1 2 3 4 5 33. Chinese are good at learning foreign languages S: 1 2 3 4 5 34. Everyone can learn to speak English S: 1 2 3 4 5 (1) Strongly disagree (2) Disagree (3) Neither agree or disagree (4) Agree (5) Strongly agree
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APPENDIX 4
Part 4: CLQ Start time: This section of the survey / questionnaire collects information about your Chinese way of learning, and your Chinese way of learning English vocabulary. The CLQ is adopted from Shis (2006) Chinese Culture of Learning survey. Instructions: Please show your agreement with each statement by drawing a circle around the number that shows your feeling about it following this key / scale: 1=Strongly disagree; 2=Disagree; 3=Neither disagree or agree; 4=Agree; 5=Strongly agree Example: a. I learn English from watching English movies 1 2 3 4 5
1. I enjoy learning English 1 2 3 4 5 1=Strongly disagree; 2=Disagree; 3=Neither disagree or agree; 4=Agree; 5=Strongly agree 2. I learn English a) To improve myself / for self-development 1 2 3 4 5 b) To find a good job in the future 1 2 3 4 5 c) For the honor of my family 1 2 3 4 5 d) To pass exams 1 2 3 4 5 e) For daily communication 1 2 3 4 5 f) Because it is compulsory 1 2 3 4 5 Other (Please explain):
1=Strongly disagree; 2=Disagree; 3=Neither disagree or agree; 4=Agree; 5=Strongly agree 3. A good teacher of English should h) Be knowledgeable about his / her area 1 2 3 4 5 i) Often use games / activities when s/he teaches 1 2 3 4 5 j) Be light-hearted 1 2 3 4 5 k) Be serious 1 2 3 4 5 l) Provide clear and comprehensive notes 1 2 3 4 5 m) Help me pass exams 1 2 3 4 5 n) Improve my English skills (reading, writing, listening, speaking) 1 2 3 4 5 Other (Please explain):
1=Strongly disagree; 2=Disagree; 3=Neither disagree or agree; 4=Agree; 5=Strongly agree 4. I prefer the teacher-student relationship to be like a) A parent-child relationship 1 2 3 4 5 b) A friend-friend relationship 1 2 3 4 5 Other (Please explain):
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1=Strongly disagree; 2=Disagree; 3=Neither disagree or agree; 4=Agree; 5=Strongly agree 5. How much do you agree with the following statements: a) Being a teacher for one day entitles him/her to lifelong respect from the student in the same way the students respect his/her father 1 2 3 4 5 b) I love my teacher, but I love the truth more 1 2 3 4 5 Other (Please explain):
1=Strongly disagree; 2=Disagree; 3=Neither disagree or agree; 4=Agree; 5=Strongly agree 6. If you do not agree with what the teacher teaches in the classroom, what do you do? a) Still follow the teachers idea 1 2 3 4 5 b) Ask the teacher after class 1 2 3 4 5 c) Ask the teacher immediately in the classroom 1 2 3 4 5 Other (Please explain):
7. My English teacher likes me asking questions in the classroom 1 2 3 4 5 1=Strongly disagree; 2=Disagree; 3=Neither disagree or agree; 4=Agree; 5=Strongly agree 8. My English teacher likes me asking question after class 1 2 3 4 5
9. I prefer the teacher to a) Tell me everything I should learn 1 2 3 4 5 b) Encourage me to learn 1 2 3 4 5 c) Use different activities to help me learn 1 2 3 4 5 Other (Please explain):
1=Strongly disagree; 2=Disagree; 3=Neither disagree or agree; 4=Agree; 5=Strongly agree 10. I think the contents of textbooks are a) Totally correct 1 2 3 4 5 b) Not totally correct 1 2 3 4 5
11. I think the knowledge from textbooks is a) Useful in real life 1 2 3 4 5 b) Not useful in real life 1 2 3 4 5 1=Strongly disagree; 2=Disagree; 3=Neither disagree or agree; 4=Agree; 5=Strongly agree 12. I memorize vocabulary by a) Rehearsal strategies (e.g. using word lists, oral repetition, visual repetition) 1 2 3 4 5 b) Using other methods 1 2 3 4 5 Other (Please explain):
1=Strongly disagree; 2=Disagree; 3=Neither disagree or agree; 4=Agree; 5=Strongly agree 13. I practice reading in English by reading a) The materials in the textbooks 1 2 3 4 5 b) The materials in other textbooks 1 2 3 4 5 c) Newspapers 1 2 3 4 5 d) Nothing 1 2 3 4 5 Other (Please explain):
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1=Strongly disagree; 2=Disagree; 3=Neither disagree or agree; 4=Agree; 5=Strongly agree 14. I practice speaking in English by a) Reading aloud or reciting the texts in the textbook 1 2 3 4 5 b) Talking with my classmates or friends in English 1 2 3 4 5 c) Talking with native English speakers 1 2 3 4 5 d) Doing nothing 1 2 3 4 5 Other (Please explain):
1=Strongly disagree; 2=Disagree; 3=Neither disagree or agree; 4=Agree; 5=Strongly agree 15. I practice listening to English by a) Listening to the tapes which accompany the textbook 1 2 3 4 5 b) Watching English language movies / TV shows 1 2 3 4 5 c) Listening to English language radio 1 2 3 4 5 d) Doing nothing 1 2 3 4 5 Other (Please explain):
1=Strongly disagree; 2=Disagree; 3=Neither disagree or agree; 4=Agree; 5=Strongly agree 16. I practice writing in English by a) Exchanging letters with my pen pal in English 1 2 3 4 5 b) Finishing the writing tasks assigned by my teacher of English 1 2 3 4 5 c) Writing in my diary in English 1 2 3 4 5 d) Doing nothing 1 2 3 4 5 Other (Please explain):
1=Strongly disagree; 2=Disagree; 3=Neither disagree or agree; 4=Agree; 5=Strongly agree 17. I think the main barrier to improving my English skills is because a) I do not work hard enough 1 2 3 4 5 b) My teacher of English does not teach well 1 2 3 4 5 c) I do not have a good English learning environment 1 2 3 4 5 d) Our learning materials are already out-of-date 1 2 3 4 5 Other (Please explain):
1=Strongly disagree; 2=Disagree; 3=Neither disagree or agree; 4=Agree; 5=Strongly agree 18. In my opinion, a good learner of English should a) Word hard 1 2 3 4 5 b) Respect teachers_ 1 2 3 4 5 c) Practice using English all the time 1 2 3 4 5 d) Never give up learning English 1 2 3 4 5 e) Have his / her own opinion 1 2 3 4 5 Other (Please explain):
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APPENDIX 5
Part 5: VST Start time: This section of the survey / questionnaire collects information about your English vocabulary size, e.g. your understanding of the first 1000 English words in the English language (size 1000), the second 1000 English words (size 2000), the third 1000 (size 3000), and your understanding of the first 1000 Academic English words (Academic size). The VST is adopted from Nation (2001). Instructions: Please show your understanding of the meaning of a word (in bold) by drawing a circle around one of the letters before each of the choices shown in this example: Example: a. dog: My pet dog. a. (face) b. (an animal with four legs) c. (a happy cat) d. (human)
[1000] 1 to 10 1. see: They saw it. a. (cut) b. (waited for) c. (looked at) d. (started)
2. time: They have a lot of time. a. (money) b. (food) c. (hours) d. (friends)
3. period: It was a difficult period. a. (question) b. (time) c. (thing to do) d. (book)
4. figure: Is this the right figure? a. (answer) b. (place) c. (time) d. (number)
5. poor: We are poor. a. (have no money) b. (feel happy) c. (are very interested) d. (do not like to work hard)
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6. drives: He drives fast. a. (swims) b. (learns) c. (throws balls) d. (uses a car)
7. jump: She tried to jump. a. (lie on top of the water) b. (get off the ground suddenly) c. (step the car at the edge of the road) d. (move very fast)
8. shoe: Where is your shoe? a. (the person who looks after you) b. (the thing you keep your money in) c. (the thing you use for writing) d. (the thing you were on your foot)
9. standard: Her standards are very high. a. (the bits under the back of her shoe) b. (the marks she gets in school) c. (the money she asks for) d. (the levels she reaches in everything)
10. basis: I dont understand the basis. a. (reason) b. (words) c. (road signs) d. (main part)
[2000] 1 to 10 1. maintain: Can they maintain it? a. keep it as it is b. make it bigger c. get a better one than it d. get it
2. stone: He sat on a stone. a. hard thing b. kind of chair c. soft thing on the floor d. part of a tree
3. upset: I am upset. a. tired b. famous c. rich d. unhappy
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4. drawer: The drawer was empty. a. sliding box b. place where cars are kept c. cupboard to keep things cold d. animal house
5. patience: He has no patience. a. will not wait happily b. has no free time c. has no faith d. does not know what is fair
6. nil: His mark for that question was nil. a. very bad b. nothing c. very good d. in the middle
7. pub: They went to the pub. a. place where people drink and talk b. place that looks after money c. large building with many shops d. building for swimming
8. circle: Make a circle. a. rough picture b. space with nothing in it c. round shape d. large hole
9. microphone: Please use the microphone. a. machine for making food hot b. machine that makes sounds louder c. machine that makes things look bigger d. small telephone that can be carried around
10. pro: Hes a pro. a. someone who is employed to find out important secrets b. a stupid person c. someone who writes for a newspaper d. someone who paid for playing sport etc
[3000] 1 to 10 1. soldier: Hes a soldier. a. person in a business b. student c. person who uses metal d. person in the army
2. restore: It has been restored. a. said again b. given to a different person c. given a lower price d. made like new again
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3. jug: He was holding a jug. a. a container for pouring liquids b. an informal discussion c. a soft cap d. a weapon that explodes
4. scrub: He is scrubbing it. a. cutting shallow lines into it b. repairing it c. rubbing it hard to clean it d. drawing simple pictures of it
5. dinosaur: The children were pretending to be dinosaurs. a. robbers who work at sea b. very small creatures with human bodies but with wings c. large creatures with wings that breathe fire d. animals that lived an extremely long time ago
6. strap: He broke the strap. a. promise b. top cover c. shallow dish for food d. strip of material for holding things together
7. paved: It was paved. a. prevented from going through b. divided c. given gold edges d. covered with a hard surface
8. dash: They dashed over it. a. moved quickly b. moved slowly c. fought d. looked quickly
9. rove: He couldnt stop roving. a. getting drunk b. traveling around c. making a musical sound through closed lips d. working hard
10. lonesome: He felt lonesome. a. ungrateful b. very tired c. lonely d. full of energy
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ACADEMIC VOCABULARY This test is designed to explore the academic vocabulary level of Chinese English Majors. Instruction: Please indicate your understanding of the meaning of a word by placing the number of the word in the left-hand column next to its meaning in the right-hand column. Only three words can be matched with the three meanings not all of the words. Example: x. 1. concrete 2. era 4 circular shape 3. fiber 6 top of a mountain 4. loop 2 a long period of time 5. plank 6. summit
a. 1. area 2. contract written agreement 3. definition way of doing something 4. evidence reason for believing something is or is not true 5. method 6. role
b. 1. construction 2. feature safety 3. impact noticeable part of something 4. institute organization which has a special purpose 5. region 6. security
c. 1. debate 2. exposure plan 3. integration choice 4. option joining something into a whole 5. scheme 6. stability
d. 1. access 2. gender male or female 3. implementation study of the mind 4. license entrance or way in 5. orientation 6. psychology
e. 1. accumulation 2. edition collecting things over time 3. guarantee promise to repair a broken product 4. media feeling a strong reason or need to do something 5. motivation 6. phenomenon
f. 1. adult 2. exploitation end 3. infrastructure machine used to move people or goods 4. schedule list of things to do at certain times 5. termination 6. vehicle
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g. 1. alter 2. coincide change 3. deny say something is not true 4. devote describe clearly and exactly 5. release 6. specify
h. 1. convert 2. design keep out 3. exclude stay alive 4. facilitate change from one thing into another 5. indicate 6. survive
i. 1. bond 2. channel make smaller 3. estimate guess the number or size of something 4. identify recognizing and naming a person or thing 5. mediate 6. minimize
j. 1. explicit 2. final last 3. negative stiff 4. professional meaning no or not 5. rigid 6. sole
k. 1. analogous 2. objective happening after 3. potential most important 4. predominant not influenced by personal opinions 5. reluctant 6. subsequent
l. 1. abstract 2. adjacent next to 3. controversial added to 4. global concerning the whole world 5. neutral 6. supplementary
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APPENDIX 6 English Vocabulary Size Research question No. 4:
What is the general English vocabulary size of CEMs in each of the four grades (years) of a four-year Bachelor degree?
To answer the question of CEMs general EVS in each grade of a four-year Bachelor degree, Nations (2001) vocabulary size test was used. The first three size tests (1000, 2000, and 3000) and the first academic size (1000) were measured. The EnglishMandarin bilingual version was used for the 1000 level. The other size tests were the English-only versions. There was a range of 10 words for each of the first three sizes, where one word represents 100 words at that size. There was a range of 36 words for the academic size, representing 3600 words. A total of 36 words were presented in 12 groups of three words. The general idea was that if a student correctly chose the meaning of each word then he/she generally knew the 1000 words for that size; likewise for the 36 words for the academic size. The assumption was the CEMs would know all the words at the 1000 size but not all the words in other sizes.
Method of analysis Tables A.1, A.2, A.3 and A.4 below show students scores on the first three vocabulary size tests (VST 1000 to 3000) and the Academic vocabulary size test. Each table, for instance, shows the results for a grade. The raw data was first summed and descriptive statistics generated i.e. minimum, maximum, mean and standard deviation. The maximum was converted into crude percentage (e.g. rounded up to a whole number: 21/22*100 = 95%). No. K in column 2 means the number of students who knew the particular word at the 1000 size, and that number is converted to a crude percentage. No. NK in column 4 means the number of students who did not know the particular word at the 1000 size, and that total is converted to a crude percentage. The final column details the total number of participants (students) that answered the question out of the total number of participants who completed the test.
Vocabulary size is calculated by multiplying the score, for each individual score per word (not shown in Table A.1 grade score is shown), by 100. In Table A.1 below shows the grade score for each word presented in the test vocabulary size cannot be calculated on this score because it only lets us see the number of students who knew each word. The individual score can be found in Table A.5, A.6, A.7 and A.8 below. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 314 2013
Section 1.1 shows the results of the VST 1000 for all grades, section 1.2 shows the results of VST 2000 for all grades, and section 1.3 shows the results for the VST 3000 for all grades. Section 1.4 shows the results of the Academic size test for all grades. Section 1.5 shows individual English vocabulary sizes at all VSTs and Academic. Section 1.6 shows grade vocabulary size per VSTs and Academic.
1.1 grade 1 to grade 4 CEMs known words at the 1000 size by grade
Key to reading tables A.1 to A.4: below, beginning with Table A.1, is grade 1 CEMs score on the vocabulary size test 1000; the left-hand column lists the words tested, 10 in all; the second column lists the number of students who knew the word, on each word; the third column has the score converted to a percentage, e.g. the percentage of students who knew the word saw was 95%; the last column lists the number of students who answered the question the total number of grade 1 students is 22.
Table A.1: known words at the 1000 size by grade 1 students Words: No. K % Total: 1. saw 21 95 22 2. time 21 95 22 3. period 16 73 22 4. figure 10 45 22 5. poor 21 95 22 6. drives 19 86 22 7. jump 21 95 22 8. shoe 21 95 22 9. standards 19 86 22 10. basis 3 14 22
Table A.2: known words at the 1000 size by grade 2 students Words: No. K % Total: 1. saw 22 100 22 2. time 21 95 22 3. period 20 91 22 4. figure 13 59 22 5. poor 22 100 22 6. drives 22 100 22 7. jump 21 95 22 8. shoe 22 100 22 9. standards 20 91 22 10. basis 5 23 22 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 315 2013
Table A.3: known words at the 1000 size by grade 3 students Words: No. K % Total: 1. saw 23 96 24 2. time 23 96 24 3. period 16 67 24 4. figure 12 50 24 5. poor 24 100 24 6. drives 24 100 24 7. jump 24 100 24 8. shoe 23 96 24 9. standards 17 71 24 10. basis 9 37 24
Table A.4: known words at the 1000 size by grade 4 students Words: No. K % Total: 1. saw 11 92 12 2. time 12 100 12 3. period 11 92 12 4. figure 7 58 12 5. poor 12 100 12 6. drives 11 92 12 7. jump 11 92 12 8. shoe 12 100 12 9. standards 11 92 12 10. basis 5 42 12
1.2 grade 1 to grade 2 CEMs known words at the 2000 size by grade
Key to reading tables A.5 to A.8: below, beginning with Table A.5, is grade 1 CEMs score on the vocabulary size test 2000; the left-hand column lists the words tested, 10 in all; the second column lists the number of students who knew the word, on each word; the third column has the score converted to a percentage, e.g. the percentage of students who knew the word saw was 95%; the last column lists the number of students who answered the question the total number of grade 1 students is 22; in the bottom row is average number of student who knew all the words, e.g. 17, and an average percentage of students in grade 1 knowing all the words, e.g. 78%.
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Table A.5: known words at the 2000 size by grade 1 students Words: No. K % Total: 1. maintain 15 68 22 2. stone 21 95 22 3. upset 20 9 22 4. drawer 15 68 22 5. patience 18 82 22 6. nil 1 4 21 7. pub 17 77 20 8. circle 20 91 21 9. microphone 7 32 22 10. pro 1 4 20
Table A.6: known words at the 2000 size by grade 2 students Words: No. K % Total: 1. maintain 18 82 22 2. stone 20 91 22 3. upset 21 95 22 4. drawer 17 77 22 5. patience 22 100 22 6. nil 18 82 22 7. pub 21 95 22 8. circle 20 91 22 9. microphone 11 50 22 10. pro 1 4 22
Table A.7: known words at the 2000 size by grade 3 students Words: No. K % Total: 1. maintain 16 67 24 2. stone 24 100 24 3. upset 23 96 24 4. drawer 14 58 24 5. patience 18 75 24 6. nil 4 17 24 7. pub 21 87 24 8. circle 22 92 24 9. microphone 9 37 24 10. pro 3 12 24
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Table A.8: known words at the 2000 size by grade 4 students Words: No. K % Total: 1. maintain 11 92 12 2. stone 10 83 12 3. upset 12 100 12 4. drawer 7 58 12 5. patience 9 75 12 6. nil 4 33 12 7. pub 12 100 12 8. circle 9 75 12 9. microphone 7 58 12 10. pro 1 8 12
1.3 grade 1 to grade 4 CEMs known words at the 3000 size
Key to reading the tables A.9 to A.12: below in Table 8.9 is grade 1 CEMs score on the vocabulary size test 3000; the left-hand column lists the words tested, 10 in all; the second column lists the number of students who knew the word, on each word; the third column has the score converted to a percentage, e.g. the percentage of students who knew the word restored was 77%; the last column lists the number of students who answered the question the total number of grade 1 students is 22; in the bottom row is average number of student who knew all the words, e.g. 12, and an average percentage of students in grade 1 knowing all the words, e.g. 56%.
Table A.9: known words at the 3000 size by grade 1 students Words: No. K % Total: 1. soldier 21 95 21 2. restored 17 77 21 3. jug 6 27 21 4. scrubbing 6 27 21 5. dinosaurs 15 68 22 6. strap 10 45 22 7. paved 9 41 21 8. dashed 18 82 22 9. roving 6 27 21 10. lonesome 16 73 22
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Table A.10: known words at the 3000 size by grade 2 students Words: No. K % Total: 1. soldier 22 100 22 2. restored 21 95 22 3. jug 13 59 22 4. scrubbing 13 59 22 5. dinosaurs 16 73 22 6. strap 12 54 22 7. paved 14 64 22 8. dashed 16 73 22 9. roving 8 36 22 10. lonesome 19 86 22
Table A.11: known words at the 3000 size by grade 3 students Words: No. K % Total: 1. soldier 21 87 24 2. restored 18 75 24 3. jug 13 54 24 4. scrubbing 10 42 24 5. dinosaurs 15 63 24 6. strap 10 42 24 7. paved 14 58 24 8. dashed 15 63 24 9. roving 5 21 24 10. lonesome 19 79 24
Table A.12: known words at the 3000 size by grade 4 students Words: No. K % Total: 1. soldier 12 100 12 2. restored 8 67 12 3. jug 7 58 12 4. scrubbing 8 67 12 5. dinosaurs 6 50 12 6. strap 7 58 12 7. paved 5 42 12 8. dashed 8 67 12 9. roving 4 33 12 10. lonesome 10 83 12
1.4 grade 1 to grade 4 CEMs known words at the Academic size
Key to reading the tables A.13 to A.16: below in Table A.13 is grade 1 CEMs score on the Academic size test; the left-hand column lists the words tested, 36 words in 12 groupings; the second column lists the number of students who knew the word, on each word; the third column The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 319 2013
has the score converted to a percentage, e.g. the percentage of students who knew the word method was 91%; the last column lists the number of students who answered the question the total number of grade 1 students is 22; in the bottom row is average number of student who knew all the words, e.g. 13, and an average percentage of students in grade 1 knowing all the words, e.g. 59%.
Tables A.17 to A.20 below shows grades 1 to 4 individual students vocabulary size based on scores in the 1000, 2000, 3000 and Academic vocabulary size tests, as well as an overall English vocabulary size (EVS) (e.g. X out of an ideal 9600).
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Key to reading the tables: below in Tables A.17 to A.20, for instance, is grade 1 CEMs individual scores on the vocabulary size test 1000, 2000, 3000 and Academic grade 2 in Table A.18, grade 3 in Table A.19, grade 4 in Table A.20); the left-hand column lists the tests, 4 in all; the remaining columns list the students code in the top row, e.g. S1 to S11, S12 to S22, and beneath the individual score on each test; in the bottom row, headed by EVS, the individuals English vocabulary size, based on the four tests.
The result of the vocabulary size tests suggests that CEMs individual vocabulary size is dependent on the vocabulary size tested at; that is, a size somewhere between 0 and 1000 for a particular test, e.g. 800 from 1000. The vocabulary size is calculated by multiplying the test score by 100, e.g. 8 x 100 = 800. It is not an exact size, but the score provides a general range of vocabulary known at that particular vocabulary size e.g. 800 at the 1000 most frequent English words. Here I have calculated a general English vocabulary size based on 4 tests, for instance, student 1 in grade 4 (above in Table A.20) has a general vocabulary size of 800 at the 1000 size, but increases with each size test e.g. 800 + 800 = 1600, 800 + 800 + 600 = 2200 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 325 2013
(at the first 3 vocabulary sizes), though vocabulary size dips in the VST 3000. However, if I only calculate the first 3 vocabulary sizes, this would mean students vocabulary size is less than that estimated to be in the literature (e.g. Cortazzi & Jin, 1996). The literature suggests vocabulary size of 3000 at entry to university, but the results do not support this. The claim is that vocabulary is much higher than the scores of the individuals in my research. When the score for the Academic vocabulary size is added to the score from the three frequency size tests, the final vocabulary size score becomes much higher, e.g. 2200 + 3300 = 5500. The scores then seem to satisfy the claims in the literature. However, without the Academic vocabulary size, they do not Academic vocabulary is viewed as being gained in university, not prior to it, though some of it could have been gained in Middle school prior to entry to university.
As an aside, if I divide an individuals vocabulary size by their years of English language education I can see the average number of words learned per year of language education. For instance, student S1 in grade 1 (Table A.17) has a vocabulary size of 5200, and 7 years of English language education. If I divide 5200 by 7, I get 743. On average then, student No. 1 in grade 1 learned 743 words a year before grade 1 semester 2 at least the words that have been remembered. The literature (e.g. Cortazzi & Jin, 1996) claims students learn thousands of words per year before entering university, if this student remembered every word learned, her vocabulary size would be around 7000 words at merely one thousand words learned (and remembered) each year, yet the result does not support such a claim. If the claim is accurate, this particular student has experienced large scale forgetting. Further research is needed to ascertain the precise number of words actually learned and the precise reasons for forgetting.
1.6 grade vocabulary size
For reader convenience, all grade scores on all tests are shown in Table A.21 below. Key to reading the Table A.21 below: it presents the overall grade scores on the four vocabulary size tests; the left-hand column lists the tests, 4 in all; the top row indicates grade and beneath is listed the grade score for each test; in the bottom row, headed by EVS, the grades English vocabulary size, based on the four tests.
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In Table A.21 above we can see the scores and vocabulary size per VST (e.g. a score somewhere between 100 and 1000), and over all vocabulary size for each grade (e.g. a score somewhere between 1000 and 9600). What is of interest here is the fluctuation in vocabulary size for each grade for VST 1000 to VST 3000. For the VST 1000 to 3000 we can see that there was a general trend downward in vocabulary size between VST 1000 and VST 3000; however, it was the opposite for Academic size, in which the general trend in Academic vocabulary size steadily increased from grade 1 to grade 4. At the grade level, the average score for each VST test was somewhere between 100 and 1000, and a score calculated for each VST resulting in a vocabulary size for the grade being 782 (of 1000). For the VST 2000, the average score was 6 (out of 10), and the average vocabulary size for the grade was 614 (of 1000). For the VST 3000, the average score was 6 (out of 10), and the average vocabulary size for the grade was 564 (of 1000). For the AST, the average score was 21 (out of 36), and the average vocabulary size was 2141 (of 3600).
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APPENDIX 7
The statistical formula the Kruskal-Wallis test (Table 6.10) and for the Spearmans rho to observe correlations between VLS use and vocabulary size test scores
The making and meaning of Table 6.10 in Chapter 6 & Spearmans rho analysis
1/ VLS, BALLL and CCL data and Academic data are divided into 3 scores Upper, middle and lower
1B/ To observe the 3 score groups [the data is in the large SPSS data table: Total Data]: In SPSS, go to Descriptive statistics => Frequencies Enter Academic data => Statistics Cut point for 3 equal groups => Continue Press OK [see print out]
The data table by question and student (variable) 1/ CCL @ 57; BALLL @ 34; VLS @ 62; Academic @ 36; VST 1000 to 3000 @ 30 Variables 1 to 255 (in data table) [see print out] 2/ total means of all scores per factor (3) and total scores for VST & Academic
1C/ Age & years of English language education repeat same as above
2/ In SPSS: Go to Transform => Recode into Different Variables Enter Academic data Chose Old and New Variables - Range: Lowest through value: 6 to 22 Enter 3 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 328 2013
- Range: Middle through value: 23 to 32 Enter 2 - Range: Highest through value: 33 to 36 Enter 1 Output Variable => Name: Group_ACA - or any name, really => Change Press OK [see print out]
The logic: to see if scores are the same or different because the Dependent variable (Academic vocabulary size) depends on the Independent Variable (VLS, BALLL, CCL)
Next, to transform data to create new data column in preparation for Correlation analysis Got to Transform => Compute variables Numeric expression: Type in: mean and in brackets the variables 128 to 134 i.e. Questions 1a to 1g on the vocabulary learning questionnaire, separated by a comma [repeat for all questions and question subparts] Target Variable (means renamed e.g. DISCOVERY_VLS) => DISCOVERY_VLS Press OK [go to data table and see new table titled e.g. DISCOVERY_place]
To correlate individual tables, input variable tables e.g. VST_new & ACA and VST_1 [VST_new is the first 3 vocabulary tests incorporated into one table because the three tests are the same type, unlike the Academic test which is structured differently and has 3 subparts per question]
3/ Spearmans rho analysis: Go to Data => Split file Organize output by groups Enter grade 1 [do each grade separately] Press OK The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 329 2013
Go to Correlate => Bivariate Enter variables: DISCOVERY_place Determination_initial response Determination_study Consolidation_organizatino Consolidation_memorization Consolidation_review Consolidation_remember Consolidation_production Academic data VST_new data Press OK [see print out]
4/ The Table: First column is factor, e.g. CCL, BALLL & VLS; Second column is Aca, e.g. Upper, Middle & Lower; Third column is Number of students in each group e.g. CCL Upper 29; Middle 28; Lower 23 [it is the same for all factors] Fourth column is Mean Rank of each groups means for each factor e.g. CCL, etc - The means mean the students scores (e.g. 1 to 5) of range in each factor e.g. Upper, Middle & Lower (see print out)
The logic: because no correlations were observed between scores and factors in Spearmans rho analysis, I looked deeper using an alternative approach. If students have strong beliefs, for example, they will get a high score on the questionnaire; likewise, if students have strong regular strategy use, it will be seen in their scores on the questionnaire. So if we look at 3 groups of score-means, we will see whether there is a difference, depending on the 3 groups Upper, Middle & Lower. And we see a no difference between CCL & Aca, between BALLL & Aca, but a difference between VLS use & Aca.
Among the 3 groups, there is no significant difference for two factors and Academic vocabulary scores, but a difference for VLS use and Academic vocabulary scores (Aca). Interestingly, of The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 330 2013
the 3 groups, the Middle shows the highest range of strong beliefs (see print out) with respect to Aca, e.g. the middle score-mean range being minimum 23 to 33. The Mean Rank refers to the Academic vocabulary size test, and reflects the Wilcoxon W value. However, because I used Non-parametric tests, I cannot generalise about the findings.
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 331 2013
APPENDIX 8
Table 1: grade mean for 62 strategies grade M SD N 1 3.17 1.02 22 2 3.16 1.05 22 3 3.17 0.99 24 4 3.17 0.98 12 average: 3.17 1.01
Table 2: Percentages for all grades on all strategy questions item never % rarely % sometimes % often % always % 1. In textbooks and classroom learning activities
grade 1 4.5 9.1 36.4 40.9 9.1 grade 2 0 4.5 45.4 36.4 13.6 grade 3 0 8.3 33.3 40.9 20.8 grade 4 0 16.7 33.3 33.3 16.7 7. When using/surfing the Internet grade 1 4.5 18.2 50.0 9.1 18.2 grade 2 9.1 13.6 54.5 22.7 0 grade 3 4.2 12.5 41.7 25.0 16.7 grade 4 0 8.3 16.7 58.3 16.7 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 332 2013
8. Pay no attention to and never go back to it
grade 1 18.2 59.1 22.7 0 0 grade 2 27.3 68.2 4.5 0 0 grade 3 20.8 50.0 25.0 4.2 0 grade 4 50.0 33.3 8.3 8.3 0 9. Pay no attention to it, but go back to it later
grade 1 4.5 9.1 31.8 40.9 13.6 grade 2 9.1 18.2 63.6 9.1 0 grade 3 16.7 29.2 29.2 20.8 0 grade 4 8.3 16.7 41.7 25.0 8.3 10. I try to guess the words meaning from the context
grade 1 0 9.1 22.7 40.9 27.3 grade 2 0 9.1 27.3 59.1 4.5 grade 3 0 0 37.5 54.2 8.3 grade 4 0 8.3 50.0 25.0 16.7 11. Study the words prefixes, suffixes and root-word for meaning
grade 1 0 13.6 50.0 27.3 9.1 grade 2 0 22.7 45.4 27.3 4.5 grade 3 0 25.0 50.0 25.0 0 grade 4 0 8.3 33.3 41.7 16.7 12. Ask a classmate or teacher for the meaning
grade 1 4.5 45.4 13.6 27.3 9.1 grade 2 13.6 40.9 40.9 4.5 0 grade 3 4.2 41.7 37.5 16.7 0 grade 4 8.3 33.3 41.7 16.7 0 13. Read a Chinese-English or an English- Chinese dictionary
grade 1 4.5 13.6 18.2 40.9 22.7 grade 2 0 13.6 45.4 31.8 9.1 grade 3 0 16.7 29.2 41.7 12.5 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 334 2013
grade 4 0 41.7 25.0 25.0 8.3 28. Use a vocabulary list like those in the VOCABULARY 5000 / TEM4EasyTEST
grade 1 9.1 18.2 22.7 31.8 18.2 grade 2 18.2 22.7 36.4 18.2 4.5 grade 3 0 4.2 41.7 29.2 25.0 grade 4 0 25.0 50.0 25.0 0 29. Say the word aloud several times grade 1 13.6 13.6 18.2 31.8 22.7 grade 2 0 22.7 45.4 18.2 13.6 grade 3 0 16.7 58.3 25.0 0 grade 4 8.3 8.3 58.3 25.0 0 30. Write the word several times grade 1 4.5 22.7 4.5 50.0 18.2 grade 2 0 4.5 13.6 45.4 36.4 grade 3 0 4.2 25.0 41.7 29.2 grade 4 0 8.3 33.3 50.0 8.3 31. Look at the word several times grade 1 0 13.6 31.8 36.4 18.2 grade 2 0 13.6 22.7 36.4 27.3 grade 3 8.3 20.8 16.7 50.0 4.2 grade 4 0 25.0 33.3 33.3 8.3 32. Memorize Chinese-English/English- Chinese lists
grade 1 9.1 9.1 22.7 45.4 13.6 grade 2 0 13.6 22.7 36.4 27.3 grade 3 0 12.5 37.5 29.2 20.8 grade 4 0 16.7 50.0 25.0 8.3 33. Do vocabulary exercises grade 1 0 40.9 40.9 18.2 0 grade 2 4.5 18.2 45.4 22.7 9.1 grade 3 0 37.5 33.3 29.2 0 grade 4 0 33.3 25.0 33.3 8.3 34. Link the word to similar meaning words or opposite meaning words
grade 1 4.5 27.3 50.0 18.2 0 grade 2 4.5 27.3 36.4 18.2 13.6 grade 3 8.3 16.7 45.8 25.0 4.2 grade 4 0 8.3 66.7 16.7 8.3 35. Link the word with already known words and have similarities
grade 1 0 13.6 59.1 27.3 0 grade 2 0 22.7 22.7 45.4 9.1 grade 3 4.2 12.5 54.2 25.0 4.2 grade 4 0 16.7 50.0 33.3 0 36. Compare words with similar meaning and study together
grade 1 9.1 22.7 54.5 13.6 0 grade 2 4.5 13.6 54.5 13.6 13.6 grade 3 4.2 20.8 33.3 29.2 12.5 grade 4 0 33.3 41.7 25.0 0 37. Group words in order e.g. meaning, part of speech, etc
grade 1 0 54.5 18.2 27.3 0 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 335 2013
grade 2 9.1 45.4 36.4 4.5 4.5 grade 3 8.3 29.2 41.7 16.7 4.2 grade 4 0 41.7 25.0 33.3 0 38. Place word in a context e.g. sentence, conversation, etc
grade 1 0 22.7 36.4 36.4 4.5 grade 2 9.1 9.1 40.9 36.4 4.5 grade 3 0 12.5 54.2 29.2 4.2 grade 4 0 0 41.7 41.7 16.7 39. Use the new word to make up a sentence
grade 1 4.5 31.8 27.3 31.8 4.5 grade 2 9.1 31.8 50.0 0 9.1 grade 3 8.3 33.3 29.2 25.0 4.2 grade 4 8.3 25.0 25.0 33.3 8.3 40. Listen to tape- / CD recordings of words
grade 1 18.2 45.4 27.3 9.1 0 grade 2 13.6 45.4 31.8 9.1 0 grade 3 8.3 37.5 41.7 8.3 4.2 grade 4 8.3 16.7 33.3 25.0 16.7 41. Make up rhymes to link new words together
grade 1 4.5 31.8 36.4 27.3 0 grade 2 18.2 45.4 31.8 4.5 0 grade 3 12.5 50.0 29.2 8.3 0 grade 4 25.0 33.3 33.3 0 8.3 42. Practice new words by acting them out e.g. verbs
grade 1 13.6 22.7 40.9 18.2 4.5 grade 2 27.3 40.9 22.7 4.5 0 grade 3 16.7 20.8 50.0 12.5 0 grade 4 25.0 16.7 41.7 16.7 0 43. Try to imagine what the new word looks like (in a sentence)
grade 1 9.1 22.7 22.7 40.9 4.5 grade 2 4.5 22.7 36.4 31.8 4.5 grade 3 8.3 12.5 45.8 29.2 4.2 grade 4 8.3 25.0 33.3 33.3 0 44. Draw pictures to illustrate the meaning of new words
grade 1 36.4 63.6 0 0 0 grade 2 40.9 40.9 13.6 4.5 0 grade 3 29.2 58.3 8.3 4.2 0 grade 4 33.3 8.3 41.7 8.3 0 45. Try to imagine in my head what the new word looks like
grade 1 18.2 27.3 40.9 9.1 4.5 grade 2 13.6 31.8 31.8 18.2 4.5 grade 3 12.5 12.5 50.0 20.8 4.2 grade 4 33.3 16.7 25.0 25.0 0 46. Remember the prefix, suffix and root- word of the new word
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 336 2013
grade 1 4.5 27.3 45.4 18.2 4.5 grade 2 4.5 4.5 59.1 22.7 9.1 grade 3 0 25.0 45.8 25.0 4.2 grade 4 8.3 25.0 25.0 33.3 8.3 47. Say the new word 2 or 3 times the first day
grade 1 4.5 40.9 22.7 22.7 9.1 grade 2 0 18.2 40.9 27.3 13.6 grade 3 8.3 12.5 58.3 20.8 0 grade 4 0 25.0 33.3 41.7 0 48. Say the new words the next time I read them, and again after that
grade 1 0 18.2 59.1 22.7 0 grade 2 4.5 27.3 40.9 18.2 9.1 grade 3 4.2 8.3 41.7 45.8 0 grade 4 0 25.0 33.3 41.7 0 49. Read the new words the first day, but not after that
grade 1 13.6 45.4 18.2 18.2 4.5 grade 2 27.3 27.3 22.7 22.7 0 grade 3 0 54.2 29.2 12.5 4.2 grade 4 25.0 33.3 8.3 25.0 8.3 50. Read the new words 2 or 3 times first, then again a few days later, a week later, a month later
grade 1 18.2 18.2 36.4 18.2 9.1 grade 2 4.5 27.3 36.4 18.2 13.6 grade 3 12.5 29.2 25.0 29.2 4.2 grade 4 8.3 8.3 50.0 33.3 0 51. Test the new words on my own grade 1 0 27.3 27.3 27.3 18.2 grade 2 4.5 18.2 40.9 27.3 9.1 grade 3 4.2 33.3 33.3 20.8 8.3 grade 4 8.3 33.3 25.0 8.3 25.0 52. Test the new words with classmates grade 1 4.5 36.4 31.8 22.7 4.5 grade 2 13.6 50.0 18.2 13.6 4.5 grade 3 8.3 50.0 33.3 4.2 4.2 grade 4 8.3 50.0 16.7 25.0 0 53. Remember the new word the way I learned it
grade 1 4.5 18.2 31.8 31.8 13.6 grade 2 0 9.1 50.0 40.9 0 grade 3 0 0 50.0 41.7 8.3 grade 4 0 0 58.3 41.7 0 54. Remember the new word by its meaning (when heard again)
grade 1 0 4.5 40.9 22.7 31.8 grade 2 0 4.5 22.7 50.0 18.2 grade 3 0 4.2 20.8 70.8 4.2 grade 4 8.3 0 41.7 41.7 0 55. Remember the new word by its meaning (when read again)
grade 1 0 0 13.6 54.5 31.8 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 337 2013
grade 2 0 4.5 18.2 50.0 27.3 grade 3 0 0 12.5 87.5 0 grade 4 0 8.3 41.7 50.0 0 56. Remember the new words meaning first, then think about its meaningful parts e.g. prefixes, etc
grade 1 0 18.2 54.5 22.7 4.5 grade 2 0 27.3 36.4 27.3 9.1 grade 3 0 8.3 58.3 25.0 8.3 grade 4 0 16.7 41.7 41.7 0 57. Try to remember where I first met the word
grade 1 4.5 40.9 22.7 18.2 13.6 grade 2 0 18.2 36.4 36.4 9.1 grade 3 8.3 25.0 16.7 37.5 12.5 grade 4 8.3 16.7 25.0 50.0 0 58. Try to use words in speaking and writing
grade 1 0 13.6 36.4 22.7 27.3 grade 2 0 9.1 36.4 50.0 4.5 grade 3 0 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 grade 4 0 0 33.3 58.3 8.3 59. Try to use idioms when I speak grade 1 0 36.4 27.3 36.4 0 grade 2 0 45.4 50.0 0 4.5 grade 3 4.2 37.5 33.3 20.8 4.2 grade 4 8.3 33.3 33.3 16.7 8.3 60. Try to think in English with the new vocabulary
grade 1 0 27.3 22.7 40.9 9.1 grade 2 0 9.1 50.0 31.8 4.5 grade 3 8.3 12.5 41.7 33.3 4.2 grade 4 8.3 8.3 58.3 16.7 8.3 61. Try having conversations using the new words with English speakers e.g. teachers, etc
grade 1 4.5 36.4 36.4 13.6 9.1 grade 2 4.5 45.4 45.4 4.5 0 grade 3 4.2 41.7 29.2 25.0 0 grade 4 8.3 16.7 58.3 8.3 8.3 62. Try to e-chat on the Internet using QQ, MSN, etc
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 338 2013
Table 3: VLSs and strategy use by grade, largest percentage of students using it and frequency of use Vocabulary Learning Strategy % of students who use a strategy
Q1 Discovery strategies: where do you meet new words? g1 g2 g3 g4 Frequency of use 1/1a In textbooks and classroom learning activities 50 55 63 50 often 2/1b In vocabulary lists arranged in alphabetical order 45 36* 54 33 sometimes/ often 3/1c In vocabulary lists arranged by meaning 50 41 33 50* sometimes/ often 4/1d During English conversation with others 45 50 42^* 67" rarely/ sometimes/ often 5/1e When reading English materials 45 59 42 58 often 6/1f When singing English songs and watching English movies / TV 41* 45 38* 33* sometimes/ often 7/1g When using/surfing the Internet 50 55 42 58* sometimes/ often Q3 Determination strategies: What do you do when you meet new vocabulary items? g1 g2 g3 g4 8/3a Pay no attention to and never go back to it 59 68 50 50 never/rarely 9/3b Pay no attention to it, but go back to it later 41* 64^ 29 42 rarely/ sometimes/ often 10/3c I try to guess the words meaning from the context 41* 59* 54* 50 sometimes/ often 11/3d Study the words prefixes, suffixes and root- word for meaning 50 45 50 42* sometimes/ often 12/3e Ask a classmate or teacher for the meaning 45 41^ 42 42 rarely/ sometimes 13/3f Read a Chinese-English or an English-Chinese dictionary 41* 50 50* 42^ * sometimes/ often/always 14/3g Read an English-only dictionary 45 45 29^ 50 rarely/ sometimes Q4 Determination strategies: When learning new vocabulary, what aspects do you study? g1 g2 g3 g4 15/4a Its pronunciation 41* 45^* 50 50 often/always 16/4b The spelling 45* 45^* 63 33^* often/always 17/4c The prefixes, suffixes and root-word 45 55 46 67 sometimes 18/4d The Chinese translation 50* 55 58 50* often/always 19/4e The English explanations 32 50 42 42* sometimes/ often 20/4f The example sentences 27*^ 50 58 58* rarely/ sometimes/ often 21/4g The way the new word is used 41 64* 42* 50* sometimes/ often 22/4h The new word's relationship with other words 64 41 46 42 sometimes 23/4i The new word's part of speech 45 41* 38 33* sometimes/ often Q5 Consolidation strategies: How do you put in order the info about the new vocabulary? g1 g2 g3 g4 24/5a Write it down 45 45 38 42 sometimes The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 339 2013
25/5b Order the information in a vocabulary notebook 32* 41 33* 42 sometimes/ often 26/5c Make vocabulary cards 55 59 50 42 rarely 27/5d Use the vocabulary lists in the textbooks 41* 45 42* 42 rarely/ sometimes/ often 28/5e Use a vocabulary list like those in the VOCABULARY 5000 / TEM4EasyTEST 32* 36 42 50 sometimes/ often Q6 Consolidation strategies: How do you memorize new vocabulary? g1 g2 g3 g4 Frequency of use 29/6a Say the word aloud several times 32* 45 58 58 sometimes/ often 30/6b Write the word several times 50 45 42 50 often 31/6c Look at the word several times 36* 36* 50* 33^ * sometimes/ often 32/6d Memorize Chinese-English/English-Chinese lists 45* 36* 38 50 sometimes/ often 33/6e Do vocabulary exercises 41^ 45 38 33^* rarely/ sometimes/ often 34/6f Link the word to similar meaning words or opposite meaning words 50 36 46 67 sometimes 35/6g Link the word with already known words and have similarities 59 45* 54 50 sometimes/ often 36/6h Compare words with similar meaning and study together 55 55 33 42 sometimes 37/6i Group words in order e.g. meaning, part of speech, etc 55 45 42 42 rarely/ sometimes 38/6j Place word in a context e.g. sentence, conversation, etc 36^* 41 54 42^* sometimes/ often 39/6k Use the new word to make up a sentence 32^* 50" 33 33* rarely/ sometimes/ often 40/6l Listen to tape- / CD recordings of words 45 45 42 33 rarely/ sometimes 41/6m Make up rhymes to link new words together 36 45 50 33^ rarely/ sometimes 42/6n Practice new words by acting them out e.g. verbs 41 41 50 42 rarely/ sometimes 43/6o Try to imagine what the new word looks like (in a sentence)
41* 36 46 33^* sometimes/ often 44/6p Draw pictures to illustrate the meaning of new words 64 41^ 58 42 never/ rarely/ sometimes 45/6q Try to imagine in my head what the new word looks like 41 32^ 50 33 never/ rarely/ sometimes 46/6r Remember the prefix, suffix and root-word of the new word 45 59 46 33* sometimes/ often Q7 Consolidation strategies: How do you review vocabulary? g1 g2 g3 g4 Frequency of use 47/7a Say the new word 2 or 3 times the first day 41 41 58 42* rarely/ sometimes/ often 48/7b Say the new words the next time I read them, and again after that 59 41 46* 42* sometimes/ often The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 340 2013
49/7c Read the new words the first day, but not after that 45 27^ 54 33 never/ rarely 50/7d Read the new words 2 or 3 times first, then again a few days later, a week later, a month later 36 36 29^* 50 rarely/ sometimes/ often 51/7e Test the new words on my own 27^* 41 33^ 33 rarely/ sometimes/ often 52/7f Test the new words with classmates 36 50 50 50 rarely Q8 Consolidation strategies: How do you remember words you have memorized?
53/8a Remember the new word the way I learned it 32^* 50 50 58 sometimes/ often 54/8b Remember the new word by its meaning (when heard again) 41 55* 71* 42^* sometimes/ often 55/8c Remember the new word by its meaning (when read again) 55 50 88 50 Often 56/8d Remember the new words meaning first, then think about its meaningful parts e.g. prefixes, etc 55 36 58 42^* sometimes/ often 57/8e Try to remember where I first met the word 41 36^* 38* 50* rarely/ sometimes/ often Q9 Consolidation strategies: How do you make use of new vocabulary? g1 g2 g3 g4 Frequency of use 58/9a Try to use words in speaking and writing 36 50* 25^ * 58* rarely/ sometimes/ often/always 59/9b Try to use idioms when I speak 36^* 50 38 33^ rarely/ sometimes/ often/always 60/9c Try to think in English with the new vocabulary 41* 50 42 58 sometimes/ often 61/9d Try having conversations using the new words with English speakers e.g. teachers, etc 36^ 45^ 42 58 rarely/ sometimes 62/9e Try to e-chat on the Internet using QQ, MSN, etc 55 41 50 50 rarely
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 341 2013
33 38 45 41 Strategy 6/1f When singing English songs and watching English movies Increase then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes sometimes sometimes sometimes The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 342 2013
50 54 59 41 Strategy 10/3c I try to guess the word's meaing from the context Increase then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes often often often 50 58 55 50 Strategy 18/4d the Chinese translation Increas then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 often often sometimes sometimes The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 343 2013
42 50 59 55 Strategy 26/5c make vocabulary cards Increase then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 rarely rarely rarely rarely 33 38 45 41 Strategy 33/6e do vocabulary exercises Increase then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 rarely/sometimes sometimes rarely sometimes/often The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 344 2013
42 54 41 36 Strategy 38/6j place the new word in a context e.g. sentence Increase then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes/often sometimes sometimes sometimes/often 33 50 45 36 Strategy 41/6m make up rhymes to link words together Increase then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes rarely rarely sometimes/rarely The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 345 2013
33 46 59 45 Strategy 46/6r try to remember the prefix Increase then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes sometimes sometimes often 42 71 55 41 Strategy 54/8b Increase then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes often often sometimes/often The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 346 2013
33 38 50 36 Strategy 59/9b try to use idioms when I speak Increase then descrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes rarely rarely/sometimes 58 42 55 41 Strategy 7/1g when using/surfing the internet Increase, decrease then increase grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes sometimes sometimes often The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 347 2013
42 29 64 41 Strategy 9/3b pay no attention to it and never go back to it Increase, decrease then increase grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 often rarely/sometimes sometimes sometimes 67 46 55 45 Strategy 17/4c the prefixes Increase, decrease then increase grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes sometimes sometimes sometimes The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 348 2013
50 42 64 41 Strategy 21/4g the way the new word is used Increase, decrease then increase grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes often often often 42 33 41 32 Strategy 25/5b order the info about a new word in a notebook Increase, decrease then increase grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 often sometimes often sometimes The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 349 2013
58 25 50 36 Strategy 58/9a try to use words in speaking and writing Increase, decrease then increase grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes often rarely/often/always often 58 42 50 41 Strategy 60/9c try to think in English with new vocabulary Increase, decrease then increase grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 often sometimes sometimes sometimes The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 350 2013
58 42 45 36 Strategy 61/9d try having conversations using new words with English speakers e.g. teachers Increase, decrease then increase grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 rarely/sometimes rarely/sometimes rarely sometimes 42 42 50 32 Strategy 19/4e the English explanations Increase, decrease then unchanged grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes sometimes sometimes often The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 351 2013
42 42 45 41 Strategy 27/5d use the vocab lists in the textbook Increase, decrease then unchanged grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 often sometimes sometimes sometimes 33 33 50 32 Strategy 39/6k use the new word to make up a sentence Increase, decrease then unchanged grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 rarely/often sometimes rarely often The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 352 2013
33 33 41 27 Strategy 51/7e test the new words on my own Increase, decrease then unchanged grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 rarely/often sometimes rarely/sometimes rarely 58 58 50 27 Strategy 20/4f the example sentences Increase then unchanged grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes/often sometimes sometimes often The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 353 2013
58 58 45 32 Strategy 29/6a say the word aloud several times Increase then unchanged grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 often sometimes sometimes sometimes 50 50 50 36 Strategy 52/7f test the new words with classmates Increase then unchanged grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 rarely rarely rarely rarely The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 354 2013
50 38 36 45 Strategy 32/6d memorize ChineseEnglish and EnglishChinese lists Decrease then increase grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 often often sometimes sometimes 67 46 36 50 Strategy 34/6f link new word to similar meaning words or opposite meaning words Decrease then increase grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes sometimes sometimes sometimes The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 355 2013
50 38 36 41 Strategy 57/8e try to remember where I first met the word Decrease then increase grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 rarely rarely/often often often 67 42 50 45 Strategy 4/1d During English conversations with others Decrease, increase then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 rarely rarely/often sometimes sometimes The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 356 2013
42 50 45 50 Strategy 11/3d study the word's prefixes suffixes and root word for meaning Decrease, increase then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes sometimes sometimes often 42 46 41 64 Strategy 22/4h the new word's relationship with other words Decrease, increase then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes sometimes sometimes sometimes The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 357 2013
42 58 41 64 Strategy 44/6p draw pictures to illustrate the meaning of new words Decrease, increase then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 rarely never/rarely rarely sometimes 33 50 32 41 Strategy 45/6q try to imagine in my head what the new word looks like Decrease, increase then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes rarely/sometimes sometimes never The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 358 2013
42 46 41 59 Strategy 48/7b say the new words next time I read them and again after that Decrease, increase then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes sometimes often often 50 88 50 55 Strategy 55/8c remember the new word by its meaning when read again Decrease, increase then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 often often often often The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 359 2013
42 58 36 55 Strategy 56/8d remember the new word's meaning first then think about its meaningful parts prefixes suffixes etc Decrease, increase then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes sometimes sometimes sometimes/often 42 42 41 45 Strategy 12/3e ask a classmate or teacher for the meaning Decrease, increase then unchanged grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 rarely rarely/ sometimes rarely sometimes The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 360 2013
33 50 36 36 Strategy 31/6c look at the word several times Unchanged, increase then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 often often often sometimes/often 42 50 41 41 Strategy 42/6n practice new words by acting them out eg verbs Unchanged, increase then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes rarely sometimes sometimes The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 361 2013
42 58 41 41 Strategy 47/7a say the new word 2 or 3 times the first day Unchanged, increase then decrease grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 rarely sometimes sometimes often 50 29 36 36 Strategy 50/7d read the new words 2 or 3 times first then a gain a few days later a week later a month later Unchanged, decrease then increase grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 sometimes sometimes rarely/often sometimes The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 362 2013
Table 3: Discovery strategies in interview data #: Discovery strategies: where do you meet new words? Interview percentages Questionnaire percentages Reading material: 1 In books 12 - 2 In textbooks 64 55 3 In newspapers 32 - 4 In magazines 32 - 5 In extensive readers 4 - 6 In passages 4 - 7 In novels 16 - 8 In educational books 4 - 9 In vocabulary books 4 - 10 In other books 4 - Listening material: 11 In listening resources 4 - Exam material: 12 In tests 8 - 13 In exams 8 - Learning context: 14 In school 4 - 15 In class 4 55 Productive context: 16 In conversation 4 15 Electronic and library resources: 17 On computer 4 - 18 Computer games 4 - 19 In libraries 4 - 20 On the internet 16 25 21 News websites 4 - Media resources: 22 On TV 40 38 23 On radio 4 - Public space: 24 In public 4 - 25 On trains 4 - 26 In hotels 4 - Advertising and other media: 27 Restaurant menu 4 - 28 In advertising 16 - 29 In posters 4 - Entertainment context: The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 363 2013
30 In movies 36 38 31 In music 4 - 32 In songs 4 38 Universal context: 33 everywhere 4 -
Table 4: Determination strategies in interview data #: Determination strategies: response to new words? Interview percentages Questionnaire percentages Cognitive: 1 Guess its meaning 32 48 2 Find its meaning 4 16 3 Find its Chinese meaning 12 41 4 Find its English meaning 4 28 5 Look up dictionary 72 - 6 Look up English dictionary 20 15 7 Look up Chinese dictionary 4 45 8 Look up internet dictionary 20 - 9 Look up English-Chinese dictionary 16 45 10 Look up Chinese-English dictionary 4 45 11 Look up pc/phone dictionary 4 - 12 Search the internet for it 4 - Metacognitive: 13 Note its meaning 4 - 14 Note its background information 4 - 15 Note its history 4 - 16 Find its function 4 - 17 Know its usage 16 48 18 Notice its suffixes 4 15 Organizing information: 19 Write it in a vocabulary notebook 4 - 20 Separate short from long words 4 - Reading: 21 Read it 12 - 22 Try to read it 4 - 23 Learn how to read it 4 - Rehearsal or practice: 24 Read it aloud 4 - 25 Say it aloud 4 25 26 Knows it pronunciation 20 39 27 Recite it 24 - 28 Recite its syllables 4 - The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 364 2013
29 Recite it when meet again 4 - Social strategies: 30 Use in it conversation 4 14 31 Ask a teacher about it 8 16 32 Ask classmates about it 8 16 33 Ask friends about it 4 - 34 Use it in daily life 4 - Writing: 35 Write it down 20 23 36 Make a sentence with it 8 21 37 Connect sentences with it in 4 - 38 Make phrase with it 4 - Cognitive II: 39 Use the context to learn it 4 34 40 Try to remember it 12 39 41 Memorize it 12 - 42 Translate it 4 41 43 Memorize new words context 4 35 44 Remember it through its context 4 - 45 Try to recognize it next time 4 63 46 Use imagery to learn it 4 18 Consolidation strategy: 47 Do exercises about it 4 25 Determination strategy: 48 Ignore it 8 3
Table 5: Practice strategies in interview data #: Consolidation strategies: How do you practice new words? What strategies do you use? Interview percentages Questionnaire percentages Writing: 1 Writing it down 20 23 2 Write it many times 4 46 3 Write for many days 4 - 4 Making phrases 4 - 5 Making sentence 12 21 6 Write composition 4 - Metacognitive: 7 Knowing usage 4 48 Organizing information: 8 Vocabulary notebook 4 30 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 365 2013
9 Diary 4 - Consolidation strategy: 10 Doing exercises 12 25 11 Using examples 4 31 12 With spelling 16 38 Reading: 13 Reading it 8 - 14 Reading them again 4 24 15 Reading paragraph with new word 4 - 16 Read it while I write it 4 - 17 Reading books 4 - 18 Reading English books 4 - 19 Repeat read word lists 8 - 20 Vocabulary book 20 26 Determination strategy II: 21 Look for root word 4 15 22 Looking at it 4 40 23 Look up dictionary 8 - 24 Look up internet dictionary 4 - 25 Know its meaning (first) 4 - 26 Know its Chinese meaning 4 41 27 Remember English/Chinese meanings 4 35 28 Guessing meaning 4 48 Strategic: 29 Reviewing for exams 8 - Metacognitive II: 30 Noting sentence context 4 - 31 Noting usage 4 48 32 Noticing synonyms & comparing 4 20 33 With grammar 4 35 34 Studying 4 - Cognitive III: 35 Trying to remember 4 39 36 Memorizing words 20 - 37 Learning high frequency words 4 - 38 Memorizing suffixes 4 24 39 Memorizing sentences 4 - 40 Using imagery (in the mind) 4 18 41 Drawing pictures 4 4 42 Repeating new words 12 25 43 Knowing its phonetic symbols 4 - The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 366 2013
44 Its pronunciation 8 39 45 By reciting 28 - 46 Saying aloud 8 25 47 Reciting sentences 4 - 48 Remember it by its pronunciation 4 - Listening: 49 Listening to new words 20 11 50 Listen to pronunciation 4 11 51 Imitating audio 4 - 52 Through dictation 8 - Social strategies: 53 Practicing with classmates 16 15 54 Talk about it 4 - Productive strategies: 55 Sing along to a song 4 38 56 Watch and recite lyrics 4 - 57 Using in essays 12 - 58 Using in class 4 - 59 Using in dialogues 4 - 60 Using in life 4 - Non-practice: 61 By not using 4 - 62 Leaving it alone 4 3
Table 6: Memorization strategies in interview data #: Consolidation strategies: How do you memorize new words? Interview percentages Questionnaire percentages Memorization strategy: 1 By looking at the word many times 4 40 Memorization: 2 By following the rules of memorization 4 - 3 By memorizing 8 - 4 By memorizing frequently 4 - 5 By remembering it 4 - 6 By memorizing high frequency words 4 - 7 By memorizing sentences 8 - Cognitive: 8 By knowing phonetics 4 - 9 By pronunciation 28 - 10 By reciting 24 25 11 By reciting many times 4 - The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 367 2013
12 By reciting in my head 4 - 13 By reciting in class 4 - 14 By reciting sentences 8 - 15 By imaging new word 4 18 16 By connecting with Chinese meaning 4 41 17 By linking known words 4 33 18 By constructing meronyms 4 - 19 By memorizing large chunks of textbooks 4 - 20 By using flash cards 4 13 21 By using a vocabulary book 4 35 Determination strategies: 22 By guessing meaning 4 48 23 By look up dictionary 12 - 24 By look up internet dictionary 4 - Cognitive II: 25 By thinking about meaning 4 - 26 By learning its spelling 8 38 27 By knowing its part of speech 4 35 28 By learning its suffixes 8 20 29 By learning synonyms 4 20 30 By noticing similarity 4 33 31 By knowing how to read it 4 - Reading: 32 By reading it while I write it 4 - 33 By reading 12 - 34 By reading aloud 4 - 35 By reading many times 16 - 36 By reading books 4 - Cognitive III: 37 By learning roots 4 24 38 By learning affixes 4 24 39 By learning antonyms 8 20 Writing: 40 By writing down 52 - 41 By writing down many times 4 46 42 By making sentences 16 21 43 By remembering through grammar 4 - Cognitive IV: 44 By learning usage 8 48 45 By studying example sentences 4 31 46 By doing exercises 8 25 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 368 2013
47 By repetition 20 - 48 By reviewing for exams 8 - 49 By answering questions 8 - Rehearsal: 50 By using it immediately 4 - Discovery strategy: 51 By finding new words in newspapers 4 - Listening strategies: 52 By listening to new words 4 11 53 By dictation 4 - Social strategy: 54 By asking others 4 16 55 By practicing with classmates 4 15 Strategic: 56 By thinking in English 4 33 57 By paying more attention next time 4 -
Table 7: strategies ranked by percentage of students using them Rank: S#: Ranked vocabulary learning strategies over all: % 1 8c Remember a new word by its meaning (when read again) 63% 2 1a In textbooks and classroom learning activities 55% 3 1e When reading English materials 50% 4 8b Remember a new word by its meaning (when heard again) 49% 5 4g The way the new word is used 48% 6 3c I try to guess the word's meaning from the context 48% 7 6b Write the word several times 46% 8 3f Read a Chinese-English or an English-Chinese dictionary 45% 9 4d The Chinese translation 41% 10 6c Look at the word several times 40% 11 8a Remember the new word the way I learned it 39% 12 4a Its pronunciation 39% 13 4b The spelling 38% 14 1f When singing English songs and watching English movies / TV 38% 15 9a Try to use new words in speaking and writing 36% 16 5d Use the vocabulary lists in a textbook 36% 17 6j Place word in a context e.g. sentence, conversation, etc 35% 18 6d Memorize Chinese-English/English-Chinese lists 35% 19 4i The new word's part of speech 35% 20 1b In vocabulary lists arranged in alphabetical order 34% 21 8e Try to remember where I first met the word 34% 22 6o Try to imagine what the new word looks like (in a sentence) 34% 23 6g Link the word with already known and have similarities 33% The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 369 2013
24 9c Try to think in English with the new vocabulary 33% 25 7b Say the new words the next time I read them, and again after that 31% 26 4f The example sentences 31% 27 1c In vocabulary lists arranged by meaning 30% 28 5b Order the info in a vocabulary notebook 30% 29 8d Remember the new word's meaning first, then think its meaningful parts e.g. prefixes, etc 28% 30 4e The English explanations 28% 31 7a Use word to make up a sentence/phrase 26% 32 5e Use a vocabulary list like those in the VOCABULARY 5000 / TEM4EasyTEST 26% 33 1g When using / surfing the Internet 25% 34 6a Say the word aloud several times 25% 35 6e Do vocabulary exercises 25% 36 3b Pay no attention to it, but go back to it later 24% 37 6r Remember the prefix, suffix and root-word of new word 24% 38 7d Read the new words 2 or 3 times first, again a few days later, a week later, a month later 24% 39 5a Write it down 23% 40 7e Test the new words on my own 23% 41 6k Use the new word to make up a sentence 21% 42 4c The prefixes, suffixes and root-words 20% 43 6f Link the word to similar meaning words or opposite meaning words 20% 44 4h The new word's relationship with other words 20% 45 6h Compare words with similar meaning / study together 20% 46 6i Group words in order e.g. meaning, part of speech, etc 19% 47 7c Read the new words the first day, but not after that 19% 48 9b Try to use idioms when I speak 19% 49 6q Try to imagine in my head what the new word looks like 18% 50 3e Ask a classmate or a teacher for the meaning 16% 51 1d During English conversations with others 15% 52 3d Study the word's prefixes, suffixes and root-word for meaning 15% 53 3g Read an English-only dictionary 15% 54 7f Test the new words with a classmates 15% 55 9d Try having conversations using the new words with English speakers e.g. teachers, etc 14% 56 5c Make vocabulary cards 13% 57 6n Practice new words by acting them out i.e. verbs 13% 58 6m Make up rhymes to link new words together 11% 59 6l Listen to tape- / CD recordings of words 11% 60 9e Try to e-chat on the Internet using QQ, MSN, etc 8% 61 6p Draw pictures to illustrate meaning of new words 4% 62 3a Pay no attention to it, and never go back to it 3%
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 370 2013
APPENDIX 9 Table 1: general BALLL by categories & beliefs for each grade Beliefs statements by categories/beliefs grade M grade SD n The difficulty of language 3 Some languages are easier to learn than others
4 The English I am trying to learn is medium difficulty
6 I believe I will ultimately speak English very well
14 1 to 2 years is sufficient time to become fluent in English if 1 hour a day is spent speaking/learning English
24 Its easier to speak English than it is to understand it
28 Its easier to read and write English than it is to speak it/listen to it and understand it
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
3.64 3.55 3.46 3.42
3.18 3.09 3.00 3.25
3.68 4.09 3.67 3.33
2.27 2.55 2.21 2.50
2.45 2.73 2.63 2.75
3.32 3.32 3.17 3.67
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
0.73 0.91 0.88 1.16
0.50 0.75 0.51 0.62
1.04 0.61 1.05 1.23
0.83 1.18 1.02 0.90
1.01 1.08 1.10 1.06
1.09 1.09 1.17 0.65
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
Foreign language aptitude 1 Its easier to for children than adults to learn a foreign language
2 Some people are born with a special ability which helps them learn a foreign language
10 Its easier to learn another language if you already know one foreign language
15 I have foreign language aptitude
22 Males are better than females at learning English
grade 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 M 4.05 4.05 3.92 3.58
3.59 3.95 3.50 3.33
3.14 3.32 2.92 3.33
2.77 3.14 3.42 3.08
1.73 1.77 1.92 grade 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 SD 0.72 1.00 1.02 1.16
0.96 0.95 1.22 1.44
0.83 0.95 0.97 1.15
1.07 0.71 0.72 0.79
0.94 0.87 0.88 n 22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 371 2013
29 People who are good at math and science are good at learning English
32 People who speak more than one language well are very intelligent
33 Chinese are good at learning foreign languages
34 Everyone can learn to speak English
4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
2.00
2.09 2.36 2.25 2.17
3.05 3.14 2.96 3.08
3.32 3.18 3.25 3.58
3.59 4.00 4.08 4.00
4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1.13
0.81 0.95 0.74 1.03
1.17 0.94 1.16 0.90
0.99 0.59 0.74 1.00
0.80 0.76 0.78 0.85
12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
The nature of language learning 8 Its necessary to know English culture in order to speak English
11 Its better to learn English in an English speaking country like the United States
16 Learning English is mostly a matter of learning many new English vocabulary items
20 Learning English is mostly a matter of its many grammar rules
25 Learning English is different from learning other university subjects
26 Learning English is mostly a matter of translating English into Chinese
grade 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
M 4.23 4.00 4.17 4.00
4.41 4.50 4.54 4.42
3.00 2.86 3.29 3.08
3.05 3.00 3.17 2.83
3.41 3.45 3.63 3.42
2.32 2.45 2.96 2.58
grade 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
SD 0.75 0.69 0.87 0.85
0.59 0.80 0.72 0.67
0.98 0.94 0.75 1.08
1.09 1.07 1.01 0.83
0.73 1.06 0.88 1.00
0.84 0.86 1.00 0.90
n 22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
Learning and communication strategies 7 Its important to speak English with an excellent accent
grade 1 2 3 4
1 M 4.41 4.50 4.21 3.50
1.45 grade 1 2 3 4
1 SD 1.05 0.51 0.59 1.09
0.67 n 22 22 24 12
22 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 372 2013
9 You should not speak English until you can speak it correctly
12 If I heard someone speaking English, the language I am trying to learn, I would try to speak with them in order to practice my English
13 Its ok to guess the meaning of an English word if you dont know it
17 Its important to repeat English words and practice often
18 I feel self-conscious speaking English in front of others
19 If you are allowed to make mistakes, it will be hard to get rid of them later
21 Its important to practice in a language lab
2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1.64 2.04 2.08
3.73 3.68 3.88 3.83
4.00 4.00 3.92 3.92
4.05 4.50 4.21 4.00
2.82 3.41 3.50 3.58
2.59 3.23 3.17 2.58
3.59 3.73 3.67 3.25
2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
0.73 1.08 0.90
0.88 0.65 0.80 0.72
0.53 0.69 0.97 0.67
0.84 0.51 0.59 0.85
1.50 0.67 0.88 0.90
1.22 1.11 0.92 1.08
1.10 0.83 1.13 1.14
22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
Motivation and expectations 23 If I speak English very well, I will have many opportunities to use it
27 If I learn to speak English very well, it will help me get a good job
30 Chinese think it is important to speak English
31 I would like to speak English so I can learn more about English people
grade 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 M 4.23 4.00 3.96 4.25
4.05 4.09 4.25 3.75
4.05 4.05 3.58 4.00
3.18 3.55 3.54 3.67 grade 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 SD 0.92 0.69 0.95 0.62
0.90 0.61 0.68 1.14
0.58 0.72 0.93 0.74
0.96 0.60 0.72 0.78 n 22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 373 2013
Table 2: Ranked general beliefs about language and language learning Rank: B#: Name of belief: % freq.: 1 B#11 It's better to learn English in an English speaking country like United States 58% S.Agree 2 B#13 It's ok to guess the meaning of an English word if you don't know it 68% Agree 3 B#30 Chinese think it is important to speak English 65% Agree 4 B#17 It's important to repeat English words and practice often 60% Agree 5 B#34 Everyone can learn to speak English 59% Agree 6 B#8 It's necessary to know English culture in order to speak English 58% Agree 7 B#27 If I learn to speak English very well, it will help me get a good job 56% Agree 8 B#3 Some languages are easier to learn than others 54% Agree 9 B#21 It's important to practice in a language lab 54% Agree 10 B#23 If I speak English very well, I will have many opportunities to use it 53% Agree 11 B#12 If I heard someone speaking English, the language I am trying to learn, I would try to speak with them in order to practice my English 51% Agree 12 B#25 Learning English is different from learning other university subjects 49% Agree 13 B#31 I would like to speak English so I can learn more about English people 49% Agree 14 B#1 It's easier for children than adults to learn a foreign language 48% Agree 15 B#18 I feel self-conscious speaking English in front of others 46% Agree 16 B#2 Some people are born with a special ability which helps them learn a foreign language 45% Agree 17 B#7 It's important to speak English with an excellent accent 45% Agree 18 B#6 I believe I will ultimately speak English very well 40% Agree 19 B#10 It's easier to learn another foreign language if you already know one foreign language 40% Agree 20 B#28 It's easy to read and write English than it is to speak it/listen it and understand it 39% Agree 21 B#32 People who can speak more than one foreign language are intelligent people 38% Agree 22 B#16 Learning English is mostly a matter of learning many new English vocabulary items 36% Agree 23 B#20 Learning English is mostly a matter of its many grammar rules 34% Agree 24 B#9 You should not speak English until you can speak it correctly 43% S.Disag. 25 B#22 Males are better than females at learning English 39% S.Disag. 26 B#5 English is structured in the same way as Chinese 66% Disag. 27 B#29 People who are good at math and science are good at learning English 50% Disag. 28 B#24 It's easier to speak English than it is to understand it 49% Disag. 29 B#14 If you spent 1 hr a day speaking/learning English, how long would it take for you to become fluent? 1/1 year; 2/1-2 years; 3/3-5 years; 4/5-10 years; 5/you can't 46% Disag. 30 B#26 Learning English is mostly a matter of translating English into Chinese 44% Disag. 31 B#19 If you are allowed to make mistakes, it will be hard to get rid of them later 31% Disag. 32 B#15 I have foreign language aptitude 48% NDoA 33 B#33 Chinese are good at learning foreign languages 51% NDoA The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 374 2013
34 B#4 The English I'm trying to learn is: 1/very difficult; 2/difficult; 3/medium difficulty; 4/easy; 5/very easy 63% med. diff
Table 3: general BALLL by grade, by percentage of students by agreement/disagreement General Beliefs % of students who agree/disagree #: Belief statement: SD D ND oA A SA 1 Its easier for children than adults to learn a foreign language 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 0 27 45 27 grade 2 0 14 4 45 36 grade 3 0 17 4 50 29 grade 4 8 8 17 50 17 2 Some people are born with a special ability which helps them learn a foreign language 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 18 18 50 14 grade 2 0 9 18 41 32 grade 3 0 17 17 46 17 grade 4 0 17 17 42 17 3 Some languages are easier to learn than others 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 9 23 64 4 grade 2 0 18 18 54 9 grade 3 4 8 29 54 4 grade 4 8 8 33 33 17 4 The English I am trying to learn is: 1=very difficult, 2=difficult, 3=medium difficulty, 4=easy, 5=very easy 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 4 68 27 0 grade 2 0 23 45 32 0 grade 3 0 12 75 12 0 grade 4 0 8 58 33 0 5 English is structured in the same way as Chinese 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 4 54 14 27 0 grade 2 9 82 9 0 0 grade 3 4 71 25 0 0 grade 4 25 50 25 0 0 6 I believe I will ultimately speak English very well 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 14 32 27 27 grade 2 0 0 14 64 23 grade 3 0 17 25 33 25 grade 4 8 17 25 33 17 7 It's important to speak English with an excellent accent 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 4 4 0 27 64 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 375 2013
grade 2 0 0 0 50 50 grade 3 0 0 8 58 29 grade 4 0 25 17 42 17 SD D ND oA A SA 8 It's necessary to know English culture in order to speak English 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 4 4 54 36 grade 2 0 4 9 68 18 grade 3 0 8 4 50 37 grade 4 0 8 8 58 25 9 You should not speak English until you can speak it correctly 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 64 27 9 0 0 grade 2 45 50 0 4 0 grade 3 29 37 17 12 0 grade 4 25 50 17 8 0 10 It's easier to learn another foreign language if you already know one foreign language 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 27 41 27 4 grade 2 0 27 18 50 4 grade 3 4 37 21 37 0 grade 4 8 17 17 50 8 11 It's better to learn English in an English speaking country like the United States 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 0 4 50 45 grade 2 0 4 4 27 64 grade 3 0 0 12 21 67 grade 4 0 0 8 42 50 12 If I heard someone speaking English, the language I am trying to learn, I would try to speak with them in order to practice my English 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 4 0 27 54 14 grade 2 0 0 41 50 9 grade 3 0 4 25 50 21 grade 4 0 0 33 50 17 13 It's ok to guess the meaning of an English word if you don't know it 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 0 14 73 14 grade 2 0 4 9 68 18 grade 3 4 4 12 54 25 grade 4 0 8 0 83 8 14 If you spent 1 hour a day speaking / learning English, how long would it take for you to become fluent? 1 = less than 1 year, 2 = 1 to 2 years, 3 = 3 to 5 years, 4 = 5 to 10 years, 5 = you can't learn English in 1 hour a day 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 9 64 23 0 4 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 376 2013
grade 2 18 41 14 23 4 grade 3 27 46 12 17 0 grade 4 17 25 50 8 0 SD D ND oA A SA 15 I have foreign language aptitude 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 4 23 50 14 4 grade 2 0 18 50 32 0 grade 3 0 8 46 42 4 grade 4 0 25 42 33 0 16 Learning English is mostly a matter of learning many new English vocabulary items 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 4 32 23 41 0 grade 2 0 50 14 36 0 grade 3 0 12 50 33 4 grade 4 0 42 17 33 8 17 It's important to repeat English words and practice often 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 4 0 4 68 23 grade 2 0 0 0 50 50 grade 3 0 0 8 63 29 grade 4 0 8 8 58 25 18 I feel self-conscious speaking English in front of others 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 9 27 9 36 9 grade 2 0 9 41 50 0 grade 3 0 12 37 37 12 grade 4 8 0 17 75 0 19 If you are allowed to make mistakes, it will hard to get rid of them later 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 14 32 23 27 0 grade 2 4 27 18 41 9 grade 3 0 25 42 25 8 grade 4 8 50 25 8 8 20 learning English is mostly a matter of its many grammar rules 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 9 23 27 36 4 grade 2 9 27 18 45 0 grade 3 4 21 37 29 8 grade 4 8 17 58 17 0 21 It's important to practice in a language lab 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 4 27 50 14 grade 2 4 14 9 64 9 grade 3 0 8 17 54 17 grade 4 8 17 25 42 8 22 Males are better than females at learning English 1 2 3 4 5 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 377 2013
grade 1 41 41 9 4 0 grade 2 45 36 14 4 0 grade 3 29 37 29 0 0 grade 4 42 33 8 17 0 23 If I speak English very well, I will have many opportunities to use it 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 4 0 4 50 41 grade 2 0 4 9 68 18 grade 3 0 8 21 37 33 grade 4 0 0 8 58 33 SD D ND oA A SA 24 It's easier to speak English than it is to understand it 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 14 32 54 0 grade 2 4 54 9 27 4 grade 3 4 37 42 4 8 grade 4 0 58 17 17 8 25 Learning English is different from learning other university subjects 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 14 32 54 0 grade 2 0 27 14 45 14 grade 3 0 12 25 50 12 grade 4 8 0 42 42 8 26 Learning English is mostly a matter of translating English into Chinese 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 14 50 27 9 0 grade 2 9 50 27 14 0 grade 3 4 33 29 29 4 grade 4 8 42 33 17 0 27 If I learn to speak English very well, it will help me get a good job 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 0 9 59 32 grade 2 0 0 14 64 23 grade 3 0 0 12 50 37 grade 4 0 25 0 50 25 28 It's easy to read and write English than it is to speak it / listen to it and understand it 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 9 9 32 41 9 grade 2 0 32 18 36 14 grade 3 0 25 25 37 8 grade 4 0 8 42 42 8 SD D ND oA A SA 29 People who are good at math and science are good at learning English 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 23 50 23 4 0 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 378 2013
grade 2 18 41 27 14 0 grade 3 12 50 29 8 0 grade 4 17 67 8 0 8 30 Chinese think it is important speak English 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 0 14 68 18 grade 2 0 4 9 64 23 grade 3 4 8 21 58 8 grade 4 0 8 0 75 17 31 I would like to speak English so I can learn more about English people 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 32 23 41 4 grade 2 0 0 50 45 4 grade 3 0 8 33 54 4 grade 4 0 8 25 58 8 32 People who can speak more than one foreign language are intelligent people 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 14 18 23 41 4 grade 2 0 27 41 23 9 grade 3 4 29 17 46 0 grade 4 0 33 25 42 0 33 Chinese are good at learning foreign languages 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 4 14 36 36 9 grade 2 0 4 77 14 4 grade 3 0 12 54 29 4 grade 4 0 17 25 42 17 34 everyone can learn to speak English 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 14 18 64 4 grade 2 0 4 14 59 23 grade 3 0 4 12 54 29 grade 4 0 8 8 58 25
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 379 2013
42 46 41 50 B#2 some people are born with a special ability which helps them learn a foreign language Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 33 54 54 64 B#3 some languages are easier to learn than others Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 neither disagree or agree/agree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 380 2013
33 33 64 32 B#6 I believe I will ultimately speak English very well Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 NDoA agree agree agree 42 58 50 64 B#7 its important to speak English with an excellent accent Agree/strongly agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 s.agree agree/s.agree agree agree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 381 2013
58 50 68 54 B#8 English culture should be known to speak English very well Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 50 67 64 50 B#11 its better to learn English in an English speaking country like the United States Agree/strongly agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 s.agree s.agree s.agree agree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 382 2013
50 50 50 54 B#12 if I heard someone speaking English Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 83 54 68 73 B#13 its ok to guess the meaning of an English word if you dont know it Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 383 2013
58 63 50 68 B#17 it's important to repeat English words and practice often Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 agree/s.agree 75 37 50 36 B#18 I feel self-conscious speaking English in front of others Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 384 2013
42 54 64 50 B#21 its important to practice in a language lab Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 58 37 68 50 B#23 if I speak English very well I will have many opportunities to use it Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 385 2013
42 50 45 54 B#25 learning English is different from learning other university subjects Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 neither disagree or agree/agree 50 50 64 59 B#27 if I learn to speak English very well it will help me get a good job Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 386 2013
42 37 36 41 B#28 its easier to read and write English than it is to speak it / listen to it and understand it Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 neither disagree or agree/agree 75 58 64 68 B#30 Chinese think it is important to speak English Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 387 2013
58 54 59 64 B#34 everyone can learn to speak English Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 50 37 50 64 B#9 you should not speak English until you can speak it correctly disagree/strongly disagree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 s.disagree disagree disagree disagree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 388 2013
42 33 50 50 B#26 learning English is mostly a matter of translating English into Chinese Disagree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 disagree disagree disagree disagree 67 50 41 50 B#29 people who are good at math and science are good at learning English Disagree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 disagree disagree disagree disagree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 389 2013
42 46 41 41 B#32 people who can speak more than one foreign language are intelligent people neither disagree or agree/agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 agree NDoA agree agree 42 37 45 41 B#22 males are better than females at learning English neither disagree or agree/agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 agree agree NDoA/agree agree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 390 2013
58 54 50 41 B#31 I would like to speak English so I can learn more about English people neither disagree or agree/agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 agree NDoA agree agree 42 54 77 36 B#33 Chinese are good at learning foreign languages neither disagree or agree/agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 NDoA /agree NDoA NDoA agree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 391 2013
42 46 50 50 B#15 I have foreign language aptitude neither disagree or agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 NDoA NDoA NDoA NDoA 42 50 50 41 B#16 learning English is mostly a matter of learning many new English vocabulary items disagree/neither disagree or agree/agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 agree disagree NDoA disagree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 392 2013
Table 4: The difficulty of language Belief statement: Horwitz %: CEMs: %: 3: Some languages are easier to learn than others A ? A 54 4: The English I am trying to learn is medium difficulty NDoA ? NDoA 63 6: I believe I will ultimately speak English very well A ? A 40 14: 1 to 2 years is sufficient time to become fluent in English if 1 hour a day is pent speaking/learning English ^D(2)/ NDoA(3) 40 D(2) 46 24: Its easier to speak English than it is to understand it D ? D 49 28: Its easier to read and write English than it is to speak it/listen to it and understand it A ? A 39
50 42 41 32 B#19 if you are allowed to make mistakes they will be hard to get rid of later disagree/neither disagree or agree/agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 disagree agree NDoA disagree 58 42 54 54 B#24 it's easier to speak English than it is to understand it disagree/neither disagree or agree/agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 agree disagree NDoA disagree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 393 2013
Table 5: Foreign language aptitude Belief statement: Horwitz %: CEMs: %: 1: Its easier for children than adults to learn a foreign language A ? A 48 2: Some people are born with a special ability which helps them learn a foreign language A 48 A 45 10: Its easier to learn another language if you already know one foreign language A ? A 40 15: I have foreign language aptitude NDoA ? NDoA 48 22: Males are better than females at learning English NDoA ? SD 39 29: People who are good at math and science are good at learning English ^SD/D/ NDoA ? D 50 32: People who speak more than one language well are very intelligent NDoA ? A 38 33: Chinese are good at learning foreign languages NDoA ? NDoA 51 34: Everyone can learn to speak English A ? A 59
Table 6: The nature of language learning Belief statement: Horwitz %: CEMs: %: 8: Its necessary to know English culture in order to speak English NDoA ? A 58 11: Its better to learn English in an English speaking country like the United States SD ? SA 58 16: learning English is mostly a matter of learning many new English vocabulary items D ? A/D 36/33 20: Learning English is mostly a matter of its many grammar rules D/NDoA ? A 34 25: Learning English is different from learning other university subjects A ? A 49 26: Learning English is mostly a matter of translating English into Chinese D/SA ? D 44
Table 7: Learning and communication strategies Belief statement: Horwitz %: CEMs: %: 7: Its important to speak English with an excellent accent A ? A 45 9: You should not speak English until you can speak it correctly SD ? SD 43 12: If I heard someone speaking English, the language I am trying to learn, I would try to speak with them in order to practice my English D/NDoA/A ? A 51 13: Its ok to guess the meaning of an English word if you dont know it NDoA /A ? A 68 17: Its important to repeat English words and practice often SA ? A 60 18: I feel self-conscious speaking English in front of others A ? A 46 19: If you are allowed to make mistakes, it will be heard to get rid of them later D ? D 31 21: Its important to practice in a language lab A ? A 54
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 394 2013
Table 8: Motivation and expectations Belief statement: Horwitz %: CEMs: %: 23: If I speak English very well, I will have many opportunities to use it NDoA/ A ? A 53 27: If I learn to speak English very well, it will help me get a good job NDoA ? A 56 30: Chinese think it is important to speak English D ? A 65 31: I would like to speak English so I can learn more about English people D/ NDoA/ A ? A 49
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 395 2013
APPENDIX 10 Table 1: CCL Beliefs statements by categories & beliefs for each grade Beliefs statements by categories/beliefs grade M grade SD n Attitude to learning English (1) 1 I enjoy learning English
Leaners aims for learning English (2a-2e) 2a I learn English to improve myself/ for self- development
2b I learn English to find a good job in the future
2c I learn English for the honour of my family
2d I learn English to pass exams
2e I learn English for daily communication
2f I learn English because it is compulsory
Criteria for being a good teacher (3a-3g) 3a should be knowledgeable about his/her area
3b should often use games/activities when she teaches
3c should be light-hearted
3d should be serious
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
grade 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2
3.64 3.27 3.04 3.67
4.32 4.14 4.08 4.17
4.32 4.09 4.13 4.17
3.05 3.23 3.21 3.33
3.18 3.55 3.42 3.83
3.64 3.50 3.54 4.08
3.41 2.82 3.25 3.00
M 4.45 4.45 4.38 4.33
3.77 3.41 3.71 3.83
3.77 3.55 3.67 3.42
3.27 3.18
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
grade 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2
1.43 1.20 1.71 1.37
0.65 0.35 1.02 0.58
0.78 1.02 0.54 0.58
1.05 0.97 0.93 1.15
1.22 1.10 0.93 0.83
1.05 0.80 0.93 0.67
0.85 0.91 0.94 0.85
SD 0.74 0.51 0.49 0.65
1.02 0.67 0.55 1.03
1.07 0.96 0.76 1.08
0.94 1.05
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
n 22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 396 2013
3e should provide clear / comprehensible notes
3f should help me pass exams
3g should improve my English skills (e.g. reading, writing, etc)
Teacher-student relationship (4a-4b) 4a should be like parent-child relationship
4b should be like friend-friend relationship
Perceptions of teachers attitudes towards students question in the classroom (5a-5b; 6a-6c; 7-8) 5a being a teacher for a day entitles him/her to lifelong respect from students in the same way students respect his/her father
5b I love my teacher, but I love the truth more
6a If you do not agree with what the teacher teaches in the classroom, what do you do? Still follow the teachers idea
6b If you do not agree with what the teacher teaches in the classroom, what do you do? Ask the teacher after class
6c If you do not agree with what the teacher teaches in the classroom, what do you do? Ask the teacher immediately in the classroom
7 My teacher likes me asking questions in the classroom
3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
grade
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 3.46 3.25
3.86 4.14 4.00 3.92
3.09 3.50 3.17 3.17
4.68 4.59 4.46 4.58
2.73 2.41 2.96 2.67
4.45 4.32 4.29 4.25
M
3.41 3.50 3.46 3.58
4.09 3.86 3.46 3.58
2.50 2.32 2.50 2.58
3.91 3.95 3.83 4.00
2.50 3.00 2.56 2.75
3.77 3.82 3.79 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
grade
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 0.88 1.14
0.99 0.64 0.83 0.79
1.02 0.91 0.87 0.58
0.57 0.50 0.51 0.51
1.28 0.85 1.04 1.15
0.51 0.65 0.55 0.87
SD
0.85 0.86 0.88 0.90
0.75 0.64 0.72 1.24
1.10 0.72 1.02 1.08
0.87 0.49 0.56 0.60
1.01 0.93 1.10 0.97
0.87 0.39 1.06 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
n
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 397 2013
8 My teacher likes me asking questions after class
Favoured teaching method (9a-9c) 9a I prefer the teacher to tell me everything
9b I prefer the teacher to encourage me learn
9c I prefer the teacher to use different activities to help me learn
Attitudes to the content of textbooks (10a- 10b) 10a I think the contents of the textbooks are totally correct
10b I think the contents of the textbooks are not totally correct
11a I think the knowledge from textbooks is useful in real life
11b I think the knowledge from textbooks is not useful in real life
Memorizing vocabulary (12a-12b) 12a using rehearsal strategies (e.g. using word lists, oral repetition, visual repetition, etc)
12b using other mnemonic techniques
Practicing reading skills (13a-13d) 13a use the materials in the textbooks
4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
grade
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 3.67
3.45 4.18 3.71 3.58
3.23 3.64 3.17 3.33
4.14 4.36 4.21 4.33
4.00 4.22 4.00 4.25
M
2.82 2.50 2.54 2.17
3.50 3.68 3.63 3.75
3.41 3.09 3.17 3.25
2.77 3.09 2.75 2.83
3.59 3.82 3.58 3.58
3.55 3.50 3.67 3.33
3.82 3.59 3.75 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
grade
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 0.98
1.10 0.59 0.81 0.79
1.07 1.09 1.17 1.07
0.89 0.58 0.51 0.65
1.02 0.65 1.06 0.75
SD
1.01 0.91 1.02 1.11
0.74 0.95 0.71 1.14
1.14 0.92 0.87 1.22
0.87 0.97 0.99 1.27
0.96 0.50 1.02 0.90
0.67 0.67 0.56 0.89
0.80 0.73 0.85 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
n
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 398 2013
13b use the materials in other textbooks
13c use newspapers
13d doing nothing
Practicing speaking skills (14a-14d) 14a reading aloud or reciting the texts in books
14b talking to classmates or friends in English
14c talking to native English speakers
14d doing nothing
Practicing listening skills (15a-15d) 15a listen to tapes- /CD that comes with the textbook
15b watch English movies/TV shows
15c listen to English radio
15d doing nothing
4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
grade 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
3.50
3.86 3.41 3.79 3.75
3.27 3.55 3.88 3.83
1.82 1.64 1.67 2.00
M 3.68 3.82 3.67 3.92
3.91 3.50 3.67 3.25
3.50 3.41 3.42 4.08
1.64 1.64 1.63 1.83
3.82 3.68 3.54 3.50
4.05 4.09 4.25 4.17
3.86 3.91 3.88 3.75
1.59 1.36 1.46 1.92
4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
grade 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1.00
0.47 0.73 1.02 0.97
0.83 0.80 0.45 0.83
0.85 0.85 0.87 1.04
SD 0.99 0.50 1.01 1.24
0.68 0.67 1.05 1.06
1.10 1.10 1.44 0.90
0.73 0.90 1.06 0.72
1.01 0.78 0.98 1.00
0.79 0.43 0.53 0.58
0.83 0.68 1.19 1.06
0.67 0.49 0.93 0.67
12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
n 22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 399 2013
Practicing writing skills (16a-16d) 16a exchange letters with pen pals in English
16b finish writing tasks from teacher
16c write in my dairy in English
16d doing nothing
Barriers to learning English (17a-17d) 17a I dont work hard enough
17b my teacher doesnt teach well
17c I dont have a good English learning environment
17d the learning materials are out of date
What makes a good learner? (18a-18e) 18a hard working
18b respects teachers
18c practices using English all the time
18d never gives up learning English
grade 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 M 3.18 3.09 2.63 3.42
3.95 4.05 3.79 3.58
3.91 3.59 3.38 3.33
1.45 1.45 1.38 1.83
3.36 3.59 3.46 3.67
2.00 2.36 2.33 2.83
3.32 3.41 3.71 3.83
2.45 2.95 2.88 3.08
4.18 4.18 4.17 3.83
4.00 3.77 3.88 3.83
3.82 3.95 4.38 4.17
4.14 4.50 grade 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 SD 1.10 0.87 1.50 1.16
0.84 0.38 0.72 0.79
0.75 0.85 1.10 1.15
0.51 0.51 0.92 0.58
1.05 1.26 1.10 0.89
0.82 0.73 0.92 1.11
0.99 1.01 0.95 1.19
0.91 0.95 1.03 1.38
0.80 0.66 1.05 1.19
0.62 0.53 1.08 0.94
0.80 0.95 0.65 0.94
0.89 0.51 n 22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 24 12
22 22 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 400 2013
18e has his/her own opinion
3 4
1 2 3 4 4.21 4.17
4.14 4.05 4.27 4.33 3 4
1 2 3 4 1.10 0.94
0.83 0.90 0.55 0.89 24 12
22 22 24 12
Table 2: CCL beliefs by grade, by percentage of students in agreement/disagreement Chinese culture of learning beliefs % of students who agree/disagree Beliefs statements: SD D ND oA A SA 1 I enjoy learning English 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 4 18 41 27 grade 2 0 4 27 59 0 grade 3 0 0 25 42 12 grade 4 0 8 0 67 17 2/2a I learn English... To improve myself / for self-development 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 0 9 50 41 grade 2 0 0 0 86 14 grade 3 0 0 4 62 29 grade 4 0 0 8 67 25 3/2b I learn English... To find a good job in the future 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 4 4 45 45 grade 2 0 0 0 68 27 grade 3 0 0 8 71 21 grade 4 0 0 8 67 25 4/2c I learn English... For the honour of my family 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 4 27 36 23 9 grade 2 0 32 18 45 4 grade 3 0 29 25 42 4 grade 4 0 33 25 25 17 5/2d I learn English... To pass exams 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 14 14 23 41 9 grade 2 4 14 23 41 18 grade 3 0 17 37 33 12 grade 4 0 8 25 50 17 6/2e I learn English... For daily communication 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 18 23 36 23 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 401 2013
grade 2 0 9 41 41 9 grade 3 0 17 25 46 12 grade 4 0 0 17 58 25 7/2f I learn English... Because it is compulsory 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 14 41 36 9 grade 2 4 32 45 14 4 grade 3 4 12 46 29 8 grade 4 0 33 33 33 0 8/3a A good teacher of English should... Be knowledgeable about his / her area 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 4 0 41 54 grade 2 0 0 0 54 45 grade 3 0 0 0 62 37 grade 4 0 0 8 50 42 SD D ND oA A SA 9/3b A good teacher of English should... Often use games / activities s/he teaches 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 14 23 36 27 grade 2 0 4 54 36 4 grade 3 0 0 29 67 4 grade 4 0 8 33 25 33 10/3c A good teacher of English should... Be light-hearted 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 14 27 27 32 grade 2 0 18 23 45 14 grade 3 0 4 33 50 12 grade 4 0 25 25 33 17 11/3d A good teacher of English should... Be serious 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 23 36 32 9 grade 2 4 27 18 45 4 grade 3 0 17 25 50 8 grade 4 0 33 25 25 17 12/3e A good teacher of English should... Provide clear and comprehensive notes 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 14 14 45 27 grade 2 0 0 14 59 27 grade 3 0 4 12 58 25 grade 4 0 0 33 42 25 13/3f A good teacher of English should... Help me pass exams 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 4 23 41 23 9 grade 2 0 14 36 36 14 grade 3 0 21 50 21 8 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 402 2013
grade 4 0 8 67 25 0 14/3g A good teacher of English should... Improve my English skills (reading, writing, etc) 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 0 4 23 73 grade 2 0 0 0 45 54 grade 3 0 0 0 54 46 grade 4 0 0 0 42 58 15/4a I prefer the teacher-student relationship to be like... A parent-child relationship 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 9 32 27 18 9 grade 2 9 54 23 14 0 grade 3 4 46 8 37 4 grade 4 17 33 17 33 0 SD D ND oA A SA 16/4b I prefer the teacher-student relationship to be like A friend-friend relationship 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 0 0 50 50 grade 2 0 0 9 50 41 grade 3 0 0 4 67 29 grade 4 0 8 0 50 42 17/5a How much do you agree with the following statement: Being a teacher for one day entitles him/her to lifelong respect from the students in the same way students respect his/her father 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 14 41 36 9 grade 2 0 14 36 41 9 grade 3 0 0 37 58 0 grade 4 0 8 42 33 17 18/5b How much do you agree with the following statement: I love my teacher, but I love the truth more 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 0 23 45 32 grade 2 0 4 18 68 9 grade 3 0 8 42 42 8 grade 4 8 8 25 33 25 19/6a If you do not agree with what the teacher teaches in the classroom, what do you do? Still follow the teacher's idea 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 9 41 23 23 0 grade 2 9 54 32 4 0 grade 3 4 46 33 8 4 grade 4 17 33 25 25 0 20/6b If you do not agree with what the teacher teaches in the classroom, what do you do? Ask the teacher after class 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 14 0 68 18 grade 2 0 0 14 77 9 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 403 2013
grade 3 0 0 25 67 8 grade 4 0 0 17 67 17 21/6c If you do not agree with what the teacher teaches in the classroom, what do you do? Ask the teacher immediately in the classroom 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 4 45 32 18 0 grade 2 4 23 45 23 4 grade 3 8 46 25 12 4 grade 4 8 33 33 25 0 22/7a My English teacher likes me asking questions in the classroom 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 14 9 64 14 grade 2 0 0 18 82 0 grade 3 0 4 12 62 17 grade 4 0 17 17 50 17 23/8a My English teacher likes me asking questions after class 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 4 41 36 14 grade 2 0 0 9 64 27 grade 3 0 8 25 54 12 grade 4 0 8 33 50 8 24/9a I prefer the teacher to... Tell me everything I should learn 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 23 41 14 18 grade 2 0 18 23 32 27 grade 3 0 21 37 25 12 grade 4 0 25 33 25 17 SD D ND oA A SA 25/9b I prefer the teacher to... Encourage me to learn 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 9 4 50 36 grade 2 0 0 4 54 41 grade 3 0 0 4 71 25 grade 4 0 0 8 50 42 26/9c I prefer the teacher to... Use different activities to help me learn 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 14 9 41 36 grade 2 0 0 9 50 41 grade 3 0 4 0 67 25 grade 4 0 0 17 42 42 27/10a I think the contents of textbooks are... Totally correct 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 4 41 27 23 4 grade 2 4 59 23 9 4 grade 3 4 42 37 8 4 grade 4 17 33 33 8 0 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 404 2013
28/10b I think the contents of textbooks are... Not totally correct 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 9 36 50 4 grade 2 4 9 9 68 9 grade 3 0 8 25 62 4 grade 4 8 8 0 67 17 29/11a I think the knowledge from textbooks is... Useful in real life 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 4 23 14 45 14 grade 2 0 32 23 45 0 grade 3 0 25 37 33 4 grade 4 8 17 33 25 17 SD D ND oA A SA 30/11b I think the knowledge from textbooks is... Not useful in real life 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 4 36 41 18 0 grade 2 0 32 36 23 9 grade 3 0 37 33 29 0 grade 4 17 25 25 25 8 31/12a I memorize vocabulary by... Rehearsal strategies (e.g. using word lists, oral repetition, visual repetition) 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 4 9 18 59 9 grade 2 0 0 23 73 4 grade 3 0 4 25 58 8 grade 4 0 17 17 58 8 32/12b I memorize vocabulary by... Using other mnemonic techniques 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 4 41 50 4 grade 2 0 4 45 45 4 grade 3 0 0 37 58 4 grade 4 0 17 42 33 8 33/13a I practice reading in English by reading... The materials in the textbooks 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 9 18 59 14 grade 2 0 9 27 59 4 grade 3 0 0 8 87 0 grade 4 8 8 8 75 0 34/13b I practice reading in English by reading... The materials in other textbooks 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 0 23 73 4 grade 2 0 14 32 54 0 grade 3 0 4 8 71 12 grade 4 8 0 8 75 8 35/13c I practice reading in English by reading... 1 2 3 4 5 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 405 2013
Newspapers grade 1 0 23 32 45 0 grade 2 0 14 23 59 4 grade 3 0 0 17 79 4 grade 4 0 8 17 58 17 36/13d I practice reading in English by reading... nothing 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 27 54 9 4 0 grade 2 41 45 4 4 0 grade 3 42 46 4 4 0 grade 4 33 50 0 17 0 37/14a I practice speaking in English by... Reading aloud or reciting the texts in books 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 18 18 45 18 grade 2 0 0 23 73 4 grade 3 0 4 17 71 4 grade 4 8 8 0 50 33 38/14b I practice speaking in English by... Talking with my classmates or friends in English 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 0 32 50 18 grade 2 0 4 45 45 4 grade 3 0 4 21 62 8 grade 4 8 17 17 58 0 39/14c I practice speaking in English by... Talking with native English speakers 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 23 23 32 23 grade 2 0 9 32 45 9 grade 3 8 17 4 46 21 grade 4 0 8 8 50 33 40/14d I practice speaking in English by... doing nothing 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 45 50 0 4 0 grade 2 54 36 0 9 0 grade 3 62 25 4 4 4 grade 4 25 58 17 0 0 41/15a I practice listening to English by... Listening to the tapes that accompany the textbook 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 4 9 4 64 18 grade 2 0 14 9 73 4 grade 3 0 4 25 62 4 grade 4 8 0 33 50 8 42/15b I practice listening to English by... Watching English language movies / TV shows 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 4 9 4 64 18 grade 2 0 0 4 82 14 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 406 2013
grade 3 0 0 4 67 29 grade 4 0 0 8 67 25 43/15c I practice listening to English by... Listening to English language radio 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 9 14 59 18 grade 2 0 0 27 54 18 grade 3 0 8 8 50 29 grade 4 8 0 17 58 17 44/15d I practice listening to English by... doing nothing 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 50 41 9 0 0 grade 2 64 36 0 0 0 grade 3 58 33 0 0 4 grade 4 25 58 17 0 0 45/16a I practice writing in English by... Exchanging letters with my pen pals in English 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 4 27 23 36 9 grade 2 4 14 54 23 4 grade 3 29 12 17 29 8 grade 4 0 25 33 17 25 46/16b I practice writing in English by... Finishing the writing tasks assigned by my teacher of English 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 9 9 59 23 grade 2 0 0 4 86 9 grade 3 0 8 12 71 8 grade 4 0 8 33 50 4 47/16c I practice writing in English by... Writing in my diary in English 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 4 18 59 18 grade 2 4 4 23 64 4 grade 3 0 17 17 58 4 grade 4 0 33 17 33 17 SD D ND oA A SA 48/16d I practice writing in English by... doing nothing 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 54 45 0 0 0 grade 2 54 45 0 0 0 grade 3 67 25 0 0 4 grade 4 25 67 8 0 0 49/17a I think the main barrier to improving my English is because... I do not work hard enough 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 4 23 9 59 4 grade 2 9 14 9 45 23 grade 3 0 17 8 67 4 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 407 2013
grade 4 0 17 25 42 17 50/17b I think the main barrier to improving my English is because... My teacher of English does not teach well 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 27 50 18 4 0 grade 2 9 59 23 9 0 grade 3 4 58 21 12 0 grade 4 8 42 25 17 8 51/17c I think the main barrier to improving my English is because... I do not have a good English learning environment 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 4 14 32 41 9 grade 2 4 18 27 36 14 grade 3 0 12 25 42 21 grade 4 8 8 0 58 25 52/17d I think the main barrier to improving my English is because... our learning materials are already out of date 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 9 50 32 5 5 grade 2 0 32 41 23 5 grade 3 0 33 29 33 0 grade 4 17 17 25 25 17 53/18a In my opinion, a good learner of English should... Work hard 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 4 9 50 36 grade 2 0 4 0 68 27 grade 3 0 0 4 54 37 grade 4 0 17 0 58 25 SD D ND oA A SA 54/18b In my opinion, a good learner of English should... Respect teachers 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 0 18 64 18 grade 2 0 4 14 82 0 grade 3 0 4 8 62 21 grade 4 0 8 25 50 17 55/18c In my opinion, a good learner of English should... Practice using English all the time 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 0 41 36 23 grade 2 0 9 14 45 32 grade 3 0 0 8 46 46 grade 4 0 8 8 50 33 56/18d In my opinion, a good learner of English should... Never give up learning English 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 4 4 54 36 grade 2 0 0 0 50 50 grade 3 0 0 8 42 46 grade 4 0 8 8 50 33 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 408 2013
57/18e In my opinion, a good learner of English should... Have his / her own opinion 1 2 3 4 5 grade 1 0 0 14 50 36 grade 2 0 0 4 68 27 grade 3 0 0 4 58 33 grade 4 0 8 0 50 42
67 62 86 50 B#2/2a I learn English to find a good job in the future Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 50 37 41 41 B#5/2d I learn English to pass exams Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 agree agree NDoA agree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 409 2013
50 62 54 54 B#8/3a a good teacher of English should be knowledgeable about their area Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 s.agree agree agree agree 33 50 45 32 B#10/3c a good teacher of English should be light hearted Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 s.agree agree agree agree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 410 2013
42 58 59 45 B#12/3e a good teacher of English should provide clear and comprehensive notes Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 agree agree agree agree 58 54 54 73 B#14/3g a good teacher of English should improve my English skills Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 s.agree s.agree agree s.agree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 411 2013
50 67 50 50 B#16/4b I prefer the teacher student relationship to be like a friend friend relationship Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 agree/s.agree agree agree agree 33 42 68 45 B#18/5b How much do you agree with I love my teacher but love the truth more Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 agree agree NDoA/agree agree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 412 2013
67 67 77 68 B#20/6b If you do not agree with the teacher's teaching do ask the teacher after class Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 50 62 82 64 B#22/7a my English teacher likes me asking questions in the classroom Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 413 2013
50 54 64 41 B#23/8a my English teacher likes me asking questions after class Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 NDoA agree agree agree 50 71 54 50 B#25/9b I prefer the teacher to encourage me to learn Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 414 2013
42 67 50 41 B#26/9c I prefer the teacher to use different activities to help me learn Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 67 62 68 50 B#28/10b I think the contents of textbooks are not totally correct Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 415 2013
58 58 73 59 B#31/12a I memorize vocabulary by rehearsal strategies like using word lists and oral and visual repetition Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 75 87 59 59 B#33/13a I practice reading English by reading the materials in the textbooks Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 416 2013
75 71 54 73 B#34/13b I practice reading in English by reading the materials in other textbooks Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 58 79 59 45 B#35/13c I practice reading in English by reading newspapers Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 417 2013
50 71 73 45 B#37/14a I practice speaking in English by reading aloud or reciting the texts in books Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 50 46 45 32 B#39/14c I practice speaking in English by talking with native English speakers Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 418 2013
50 62 73 64 B#41/15a I practice listening to English by listening to the tapes that accompany the textbook Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 67 67 82 64 B#42/15b I practice listening to English by watching English movies and TV shows Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 419 2013
58 50 54 59 B#43/15c I practice listening to English by listening to English radio Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 50 71 86 59 B#46/16b I practice writing in English by finishing the writing tasks assigned by my teachers of English Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 420 2013
33 58 64 59 B#47/16c I practice writing in English by writing in my diary in English Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 42 67 45 59 B#49/17a the main barrier to improving my English is I do not work hard enough Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 421 2013
58 42 36 41 B#51/17c the main barrier to improving my English is I do not have a good English learning environment Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 58 54 68 50 B#53/18a a good learner of English should work hard Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 422 2013
50 62 82 64 B#54/18b a good learner of English should respect teachers Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 50 46 45 41 B#55/18c a good learner of English should practice using English all the time Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 NDoA agree agree/s.agree agree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 423 2013
50 46 50 54 B#56/18d a good learner of English should never give up learning English Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 agree agree/s.agree s.agree agree 50 58 68 50 B#57/18e a good learner of English should have their own opinion Agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 424 2013
33 46 54 41 B#19/6a if you do not agree with the teacher's teaching do you still follow the teacher's idea Disagree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 disagree disagree disagree disagree 33 42 59 41 B#27/10a I think the contents of textbooks are totally correct disagree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 disagree disagree disagree disagree/NDoA The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 425 2013
50 46 45 54 B#36/13d I practice reading in English by reading nothing disagree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 disagree disagree disagree disagree 58 62 54 50 B#40/14d I practice speaking English by doing nothing disagree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 disagree s.disagree s.disagree disagree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 426 2013
58 58 64 50 B#44/15d I practice listening to English by listening to nothing disagree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 s.disagree s.disagree s.disagree disagree 67 67 54 54 B#48/16d I practice writing in English by doing nothing disagree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 s.disagree s.disagree s.disagree disagree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 427 2013
42 58 59 50 B#50/17b the main barrier to improving my English is my teacher of English does not teach well Disagree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 disaagree disaagree disaagree disaagree 33 42 45 36 B#4/2c I learn English for the honour of my family disagree/NDoA/agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 NDoA agree agree disagree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 428 2013
33 46 45 41 B#7/2f I learn English because it is compulsory NDoA/agree/disagree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 agree NDoA NDoA disagree/NDoA/agree 25 37 36 41 B#30/11b the knowledge from textbooks is not useful in real life disagree/NDoA/agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 NDoA NDoA disagree disagree/NDoA/ agree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 429 2013
25 29 54 36 B#45/16a I practice writing in English by exchanging letters with my pen pals in English disagree/NDoA/agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 agree NDoA s.disagree/ agree NDoA 25 33 41 50 B#52/17d the main barrier to improving my English is our learning materials are already out of date disagree/NDoA/agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 disagree NDoA disagree/agree NDoA/agree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 430 2013
33 67 54 36 B#9/3b a good teacher of English should often use games and other activities when teaching NDoA, agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 agree NDoA agree NDoA/s.agree 42 58 41 41 B#17/5a being a teacher for a day entitles them to lifelong respect from students in the same way students respect their father agree/NDoA grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 NDoA agree agree NDoA The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 431 2013
33 37 32 41 B#24/9a I prefer the teacher to tell me everything I should learn NDoA/agree grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 NDoA agree NDoA NDoA 33 37 45 45 B#29/11a I think the knowledge from textbooks is useful in real life agree/NDoA grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 agree agree NDoA NDoA The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 432 2013
Table 3: Self-efficacy and expectation about learning English Belief Statement #: Yang: %: CEMs: %: 16 (15): I have foreign language aptitude NDoA 43 NDoA 48 5 (6): I believe I will ultimately speak English very well A 58 A 40 21 (18): I feel self-conscious speaking English in front of others A 32 A 46 4 (16): Learning English is mostly a matter of learning many new English vocabulary items NDoA 45 A 36 13 (-): I enjoy practicing English with Americans A 42 - - 6 (33): Chinese are good at learning foreign languages NDoA 56 NDoA 51
42 58 45 50 B#32/12b I memorize vocabulary by using other mnemonic techniques agree/NDoA grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 agree NDoA/agree agree NDoA 58 62 45 50 B#38/14b I practice speaking in English by talking with my classmates and friends in English agree/NDoA grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 agree NDoA/agree agree agree The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 433 2013
Table 4: Perceived valued and nature of learning English Belief Statement #: Yang: %: CEMs: %: 31 (-): I want to learn to speak English well SA 71 - - 18 (17): Its important to repeat English words and practice often SA 59 A 60 20 (30): Chinese think it is important to speak English A 50 A 65 12 (11): Its better to learn English in an English speaking country like the United States SA 47 SA 58 32 (-): I would like to have American friends A 49 - - 7 (7): Its important to speak English with an excellent accent SA 63 A 45 33 (34): Everyone can learn to speak English A 56 A 59 29 (27): If I learn to speak English very well, it will help me get a good job A 56 A 56 9 (9): You should not speak English until you can speak it correctly SD 55 SD 43
Table 5: Beliefs about foreign language aptitude Belief Statement #: Yang: %: CEMs: %: 30 (32): People who can speak more than one foreign language are intelligent people NDoA 41 A 38 2 (2): Some people are born with a special ability which helps them learn a foreign language A 61 A 45 19 (22): Males are better than females at learning English NDoA 34 SD 39 11 (29): People who are good at math and science are good at learning English D 50 D 50 10 (10): Its easier to learn another foreign language if you already know one foreign language A 44 A 40 8 (8): Its necessary to know English culture in order to speak English A 39 A 58 24 (31): I would like to speak English so I can learn more about English people D 39 A 49
Table 6: Beliefs in formal structural studies Belief Statement #: Yang: %: CEMs: %: 23 (20): Learning English is mostly a matter of its many grammar rules D 38 A 34 17 (16): Learning English is mostly a matter of learning many new English vocabulary items A 42 A 36 28 (26): Learning English is mostly a matter of translating English into Chinese D 54 D 44 35 (-): Language learning involves a lot of memorization A 59 - - 34 (28): Its easy to read and write English than it is to speak it/listen to it and understand it A 45 A 39 22 (19): If you are allowed to make mistakes, it will be hard to get rid of them later A 57 D 31 25 (24): Its easier to speak English than it is to understand it A^* 35 D 49
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 434 2013
Table 7: Other Belief Statement #: Yang: %: Me: %: 1 (1): Its easier for children than adults to learn a foreign language A 56 A 48 3 (3): Some languages are easier to learn than others A 59 A 54 14 (13): Its ok to guess the meaning of an English word if you dont know it A 67 A 68 15 (14): If you spent 1 hour a day speaking/ learning English, how long would it take for you to become fluent? 1 = less than 1 year, 2 = 1 to 2 years, 3 = 3 to 5 years, 4 = 5 to 10 years, 5 = you cant learn English in 1 hour a day D 39 D 46 26 (21): Its important to practice in a language lab A 59 A 54 27 (25): Learning English is different from learning other university subjects A 55 A 49
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 435 2013
APPENDIX 11 Table 1: Discovery strategies in interview data #: Discovery strategies: where do you meet new words? Interview percentages Questionnaire percentages Reading material: 1 In books 12 - 2 In textbooks 64 55 3 In newspapers 32 - 4 In magazines 32 - 5 In extensive readers 4 - 6 In passages 4 - 7 In novels 16 - 8 In educational books 4 - 9 In vocabulary books 4 - 10 In other books 4 - Listening material: 11 In listening resources 4 - Exam material: 12 In tests 8 - 13 In exams 8 - Learning context: 14 In school 4 - 15 In class 4 55 Productive context: 16 In conversation 4 15 Electronic and library resources: 17 On computer 4 - 18 Computer games 4 - 19 In libraries 4 - 20 On the internet 16 25 21 News websites 4 - Media resources: 22 On TV 40 38 23 On radio 4 - Public space: 24 In public 4 - 25 On trains 4 - 26 In hotels 4 - Advertising and other media: 27 Restaurant menu 4 - 28 In advertising 16 - 29 In posters 4 - The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 436 2013
Entertainment context: 30 In movies 36 38 31 In music 4 - 32 In songs 4 38 Universal context: 33 everywhere 4 -
Table 2: Determination strategies in interview data #: Determination strategies: response to new words? Interview percentages Questionnaire percentages Cognitive: 1 Guess its meaning 32 48 2 Find its meaning 4 16 3 Find its Chinese meaning 12 41 4 Find its English meaning 4 28 5 Look up dictionary 72 - 6 Look up English dictionary 20 15 7 Look up Chinese dictionary 4 45 8 Look up internet dictionary 20 - 9 Look up English-Chinese dictionary 16 45 10 Look up Chinese-English dictionary 4 45 11 Look up pc/phone dictionary 4 - 12 Search the internet for it 4 - Metacognitive: 13 Note its meaning 4 - 14 Note its background information 4 - 15 Note its history 4 - 16 Find its function 4 - 17 Know its usage 16 48 18 Notice its suffixes 4 15 Organizing information: 19 Write it in a vocabulary notebook 4 - 20 Separate short from long words 4 - Reading: 21 Read it 12 - 22 Try to read it 4 - 23 Learn how to read it 4 - Rehearsal or practice: 24 Read it aloud 4 - 25 Say it aloud 4 25 26 Knows it pronunciation 20 39 27 Recite it 24 - The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 437 2013
28 Recite its syllables 4 - 29 Recite it when meet again 4 - Social strategies: 30 Use in it conversation 4 14 31 Ask a teacher about it 8 16 32 Ask classmates about it 8 16 33 Ask friends about it 4 - 34 Use it in daily life 4 - Writing: 35 Write it down 20 23 36 Make a sentence with it 8 21 37 Connect sentences with it in 4 - 38 Make phrase with it 4 - Cognitive II: 39 Use the context to learn it 4 34 40 Try to remember it 12 39 41 Memorize it 12 - 42 Translate it 4 41 43 Memorize new words context 4 35 44 Remember it through its context 4 - 45 Try to recognize it next time 4 63 46 Use imagery to learn it 4 18 Consolidation strategy: 47 Do exercises about it 4 25 Determination strategy: 48 Ignore it 8 3
Table 3: Practice strategies in interview data #: Consolidation strategies: How do you practice new words? What strategies do you use? Interview percentages Questionnaire percentages Writing: 1 Writing it down 20 23 2 Write it many times 4 46 3 Write for many days 4 - 4 Making phrases 4 - 5 Making sentence 12 21 6 Write composition 4 - Metacognitive: 7 Knowing usage 4 48 Organizing information: The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 438 2013
8 Vocabulary notebook 4 30 9 Diary 4 - Consolidation strategy: 10 Doing exercises 12 25 11 Using examples 4 31 12 With spelling 16 38 Reading: 13 Reading it 8 - 14 Reading them again 4 24 15 Reading paragraph with new word 4 - 16 Read it while I write it 4 - 17 Reading books 4 - 18 Reading English books 4 - 19 Repeat read word lists 8 - 20 Vocabulary book 20 26 Determination strategy II: 21 Look for root word 4 15 22 Looking at it 4 40 23 Look up dictionary 8 - 24 Look up internet dictionary 4 - 25 Know its meaning (first) 4 - 26 Know its Chinese meaning 4 41 27 Remember English/Chinese meanings 4 35 28 Guessing meaning 4 48 Strategic: 29 Reviewing for exams 8 - Metacognitive II: 30 Noting sentence context 4 - 31 Noting usage 4 48 32 Noticing synonyms & comparing 4 20 33 With grammar 4 35 34 Studying 4 - Cognitive III: 35 Trying to remember 4 39 36 Memorizing words 20 - 37 Learning high frequency words 4 - 38 Memorizing suffixes 4 24 39 Memorizing sentences 4 - 40 Using imagery (in the mind) 4 18 41 Drawing pictures 4 4 42 Repeating new words 12 25 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 439 2013
43 Knowing its phonetic symbols 4 - 44 Its pronunciation 8 39 45 By reciting 28 - 46 Saying aloud 8 25 47 Reciting sentences 4 - 48 Remember it by its pronunciation 4 - Listening: 49 Listening to new words 20 11 50 Listen to pronunciation 4 11 51 Imitating audio 4 - 52 Through dictation 8 - Social strategies: 53 Practicing with classmates 16 15 54 Talk about it 4 - Productive strategies: 55 Sing along to a song 4 38 56 Watch and recite lyrics 4 - 57 Using in essays 12 - 58 Using in class 4 - 59 Using in dialogues 4 - 60 Using in life 4 - Non-practice: 61 By not using 4 - 62 Leaving it alone 4 3
Table 4: Memorization strategies in interview data #: Consolidation strategies: How do you memorize new words? Interview percentages Questionnaire percentages Memorization strategy: 1 By looking at the word many times 4 40 Memorization: 2 By following the rules of memorization 4 - 3 By memorizing 8 - 4 By memorizing frequently 4 - 5 By remembering it 4 - 6 By memorizing high frequency words 4 - 7 By memorizing sentences 8 - Cognitive: 8 By knowing phonetics 4 - 9 By pronunciation 28 - 10 By reciting 24 25 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 440 2013
11 By reciting many times 4 - 12 By reciting in my head 4 - 13 By reciting in class 4 - 14 By reciting sentences 8 - 15 By imaging new word 4 18 16 By connecting with Chinese meaning 4 41 17 By linking known words 4 33 18 By constructing meronyms 4 - 19 By memorizing large chunks of textbooks 4 - 20 By using flash cards 4 13 21 By using a vocabulary book 4 35 Determination strategies: 22 By guessing meaning 4 48 23 By look up dictionary 12 - 24 By look up internet dictionary 4 - Cognitive II: 25 By thinking about meaning 4 - 26 By learning its spelling 8 38 27 By knowing its part of speech 4 35 28 By learning its suffixes 8 20 29 By learning synonyms 4 20 30 By noticing similarity 4 33 31 By knowing how to read it 4 - Reading: 32 By reading it while I write it 4 - 33 By reading 12 - 34 By reading aloud 4 - 35 By reading many times 16 - 36 By reading books 4 - Cognitive III: 37 By learning roots 4 24 38 By learning affixes 4 24 39 By learning antonyms 8 20 Writing: 40 By writing down 52 - 41 By writing down many times 4 46 42 By making sentences 16 21 43 By remembering through grammar 4 - Cognitive IV: 44 By learning usage 8 48 45 By studying example sentences 4 31 The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 441 2013
46 By doing exercises 8 25 47 By repetition 20 - 48 By reviewing for exams 8 - 49 By answering questions 8 - Rehearsal: 50 By using it immediately 4 - Discovery strategy: 51 By finding new words in newspapers 4 - Listening strategies: 52 By listening to new words 4 11 53 By dictation 4 - Social strategy: 54 By asking others 4 16 55 By practicing with classmates 4 15 Strategic: 56 By thinking in English 4 33 57 By paying more attention next time 4 -
Table 5: How would you rate your English competence? #: Belief statements: Interview percentages BALLL percentages CCL percentages 1 just so so 4 - - 2 medium 52 (60) 61 3 average 4 - - 4 poor 28 - - 5 bad 4 - - 6 not sure 4 - - 7 through exams 4 - -
Table 6: What makes a good teacher of English? #: Belief statements: Interview percentages BALLL percentages CCL percentages Personality traits: 1 apologizes when makes a mistake 4 - - 2 isn't serious 4 - 39 3 interested in his/her job 4 - - 4 a friend of students 4 - 54 5 often chats with students 4 - - 6 loves students 8 - - 7 passionate about teaching English 4 - - The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 442 2013
8 loves his job 4 - - 9 careful 4 - - 10 open 4 - - 11 considerate 4 - - 12 should love English 4 - - 13 has good relationships with students 4 - - 14 friendly 8 - - 15 patient 16 - - 16 hard-working 4 - - 17 responsible 20 - - 18 humorous 16 - - 19 encourages enthusiasm for English 4 - - 20 inspires students 4 - - 21 passionate about English 4 - - 22 cares for students 8 - - 23 has nice/good personality 8 - - 24 has a nice character 4 - - 25 responsible for students lives 4 - - 26 devoted to teaching English 4 - - 27 enthusiastic about English 4 - - 28 good at English 4 - - 29 a leader 4 - - Other traits: 30 knows much 4 - - 31 knows the international situation 4 - - 32 allows cool down time 4 - - 33 helps shy students 4 - - 34 helps students pass tests 12 - 26 35 helps students remember words 4 - - 36 helps students enjoy English 8 - - 37 helps students with their English 4 - 41 38 teaches English less rigidly 4 - - 39 teaches English less seriously 4 - - 40 teaches how to be a person 4 - - 41 gets students to like English 4 - - 42 gets students to learn English 4 - - 43 gets students to learn more knowledge 4 - - 44 enlightens students 4 - - 45 meets students needs 4 - - 46 understands students 12 - - 47 is logical 4 - - The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 443 2013
48 good at managing classroom 4 - - 49 makes students interested in English 4 - - 50 makes English interesting 4 - - 51 makes English sound beautiful 12 - - 52 makes English attractive 4 - - 53 makes classes interesting 8 - - 54 makes students good at English 4 - - 55 makes students love the class 4 - - 56 doesn't teach only for exams 4 - - 57 shares English learning experience 4 - - Teacher qualities: - 58 tries to answers students questions 4 - - 59 understands textbooks 8 - - 60 has standard English 4 - - 61 has good English pronunciation 12 - - 62 speaks fluent English 4 - - 63 has no accent 4 - - 64 has competence in the 4 skills 4 - - 65 has good English skills 8 - - 66 has high level of English 12 - - 67 has English competence 4 - - 68 has knowledge of English 32 - - 69 knows English culture 12 - - 70 knows English habits 4 - - 71 knows a lot about English 4 - - 72 knows much vocabulary 4 - - 73 is knowledgeable 4 - 52 74 is a skilful teacher 4 - - 75 uses professional skills 8 - - 76 uses efficient teaching methods 4 - - 77 has good teaching skill 12 - - 78 has good teaching method 8 - - 79 has good teaching technique 8 - - 80 knows grammar 4 - - Teaching tools: 81 uses multimedia 4 - - 82 uses movies 4 - - 83 uses dialogue 8 - - 84 uses songs 4 - - 85 uses easy words 4 - - What the teacher should teach: The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 444 2013
86 teaches culture 12 - - 87 teaches students how to learn 4 - - 88 teach useful skills 4 - - 89 teaches student to learn fast 4 - - 90 teaches more vocabulary 4 - - 91 teaches useful knowledge 4 - - 92 teaches real life English 4 - - 93 teaches news 4 - - 94 teaches history 4 - - 95 teaches sentences 4 - - 96 teaches grammar 12 - - 97 teaches listening skill 4 - - 98 teaches the four skills 4 - - 99 teaches comparative English/Chinese 4 - - 100 teaches how to use English 4 - - 101 teaches socio-pragmatic English 4 - - 102 teaches for communication 4 - -
Table 7: What is involved in learning another language? #: Belief statements: Interview percentages BALLL percentages CCL percentages 1 the same as learning Chinese 4 - - 2 alphabet 16 - - 3 phonetic symbols 12 - - 4 words 44 - - 5 phrases 4 - - 6 sentences 16 - - 7 grammar 44 - - 8 language structure 4 - - 9 passages 8 - - 10 writing English 24 - - 11 speaking English 28 - - 12 pronunciation 32 - - 13 culture 56 - - 14 the four skills 4 - - 15 reading English 16 - - 16 usage 8 - - 17 rhetorical devices 4 - - 18 pure linguistics 8 - - 19 listening in English 12 - - 20 thinking style 4 - - The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 445 2013
21 history 16 - - 22 learning dialogues 4 - - 23 learning to communicate 8 - - 24 the same as learning Japanese 4 - - 25 the same as learning French 8 - - 26 not sure 12 - - 27 different from learning Chinese 4 - -
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 446 2013
APPENDIX 12
Participant information sheets for Chinese English Majors [for the multi-questionnaire]
Project title: Vocabulary learning strategies: one of the ways Chinese English Majors cognitively orient themselves to the task of learning English vocabulary To: Chinese English Majors Phase: one
My name is Robert Easterbrook. I am a student at the University of Canberra, Australia, enrolled in a higher degree by research program (doctorate) in the Faculty of Arts and Design. I am conducting research for my doctoral thesis. My research focuses on vocabulary learning strategies and beliefs about language and language learning. It is not my intention to evaluate your learning and beliefs, as in a test. My intention is to understand what you do when you learn English vocabulary, and understand what you believe about language and how to learn it. The information you give me will help me understand your way of learning English vocabulary, as well as understand your beliefs about language and language learning.
You are a student of English, so I am inviting you to help me with my research. I will ask you to complete a long questionnaire, which will take you about between 30 and 50 minutes to complete. I will also ask you to complete a think-aloud, a written diary, and an interview. You are free to choose to participate in any or all of these parts, the choice is yours. However, I really would like you to do the questionnaire first then choose one or all the other parts to do. Each activity you do will be talked about in detail in a moment but separately as part of this information briefing session. However, your help is voluntary. And that means you can stop helping me at any time during the research activity before 31 st July 2010. You need not give me a reason nor will I question you about your decision to stop helping me.
All your names and information will be kept confidential. No one except myself will have access to the information you give me. Neither your name nor the name of your school / college / university will be mentioned when I write about your responses in my doctoral thesis. The head of your school / college / university has been informed of my research and has agreed to let me ask you to help me and agreed to let you help me.
Participant Information Sheet continued Project title: Vocabulary learning strategies: one of the ways Chinese English Majors cognitively orient themselves to the task of learning English vocabulary
To: Chinese English Majors Phase: two
1. To better understand what you do when you learn vocabulary, as well as understand what you believe about language and how to learn it, I would like you to complete a survey / questionnaire. The survey / questionnaire has five parts: Part A will ask you for some personal information; Part B will ask you about your English vocabulary learning and how you do it; Part C will ask you about your general beliefs about language and language learning; Part D will ask you about your beliefs about language and language learning because you are Chinese and may have different beliefs about this subject compared to people from other cultures; Part E will ask you about your knowledge of English vocabulary. The purpose of this vocabulary test is simply to know how much English vocabulary you actually know, but not to evaluate you. The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 447 2013
2. To better understand what you really do when you learn vocabulary, I would like you to do two activities when you actually learn English vocabulary during the semester. The first activity I will ask you to do a think-aloud and the second activity I will ask you to do is write a diary. A think-aloud is to speak aloud what you are doing in your head when you learn a new word, either when you first meet it (see it or hear it) or what you do with it after you have met it. You will complete a short training session on how to do the think- aloud and diary, and will be take you about 15 to 20 minutes. You can do it immediately after the information briefing session or at a time that is good for you. I will give you some questions to help you as you do this activity. However, I would like you to record yourself speak aloud. If you have a cell phone it will be very easy for you to record yourself speak aloud. A brief explanation is provided next. Please remember that your help is voluntary and you can stop helping me at any time during the think-aloud and written diary activity if you feel uncomfortable doing them.
I will briefly explain what you do when you do the think-aloud activity. When you do the think-aloud I would like you to say what you are doing in your head when you meet a new word. I want you to tell me how you learn the new word. I want you to answer these questions as you do the activity: How long do you look at the word when you meet it? What is the first thing you notice about it? Do you think about its sound first or think about its spelling? Do you think about its parts, how the word is made? Do you try to connect it in your mind to something else you know or just try to memorize it? If this isnt completely clear now it will be after the after you have had some training, which Ill explain more about in a moment.
Writing a diary is the second activity. Getting you to write a vocabulary-learning diary will help me learn even more about what you do when you learn English vocabulary. It will help you too. It will help you say more about what you do when you met a new word and how you learn it. So what you will do is, after you record yourself speak aloud, write about it in a diary. Writing about it will help you say more about it since you will have taken some time to think about what you did.
Lastly, to help me to better understand what you do when you learn English vocabulary, I would like you to email me your think-aloud recordings and written diary entries. Using your cell phone you can easily record yourself speaking aloud; just speak as if you are speaking to me. For example, before you start speaking, tell me the date and then speak about the vocabulary you will begin learning at that moment. I will give you an email address to send your audio recordings and written diary entries to once you have decided you want to do these activities. I would like you to send me your recordings and written diary entries as regularly as possible, say every few days. I would like you to do this until the day before your exam.
3. In order to better understand your responses on the survey / questionnaire and what you say in your recordings and your written diary, I would like to interview you at the end of the semester (before you rush off home for the summer holiday). The time for the interview will depend on you, of course. When you feel the best time to do the interview has arrived (after your exam), please email me and tell me the best time for the interview and we will arrange a time together. The interview will not last longer than an hour, but it will be recorded, with your permission.
In short, all the information you give me (i.e. personal information, survey / questionnaire responses, think- aloud recordings and written diary entries, will be summarized and presented to you (when summarization is complete) so that you can review it for any errors and make corrections to it before it is presented in my thesis. You dont have to if you dont want to; it is just a suggestion. Please express your interest in doing this by leaving your email address in the space provided at the bottom of the Informed Consent Form you will sign before beginning your participation the research project.
All the information you give me will be stored in a locked cupboard, or on a password protected computer or data storage disk, during the time the research project is being conducted. Neither your name nor the name of your school / college / university will be mentioned in my doctoral thesis. The head of your school / college / university has been informed of the research and has given permission for it to be conducted. However, your help is voluntary. And that means you can stop helping me at any time during the research activity before 31 st July 2010. You need not give me a reason nor will I question you about your decision to stop helping me.
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 448 2013
Thank you very much for your time and help with my research project. If you have any questions or wish to know more, please contact me or my supervisor:
Robert Easterbrook Faculty of Arts and Design University of Canberra Canberra, Australia Ph: +61 02 6201 5656 Cell: +61 0404770023 Email: robert_easterbrook@yahoo.com.au My chair of the supervisory committee: Dr. Elke Stracke Faculty of Art and Design University of Canberra Canberra, Australia Phone: +61 02 6201 2492 Email: Elke.Stracke@canberra.edu.au
This research activity was approved by the University of Canberra Human Research Ethics Committee on (Date) for a period of three years from (date). Reference: (number)
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 449 2013
APPENDIX 13
Participant information sheets for Chinese English Majors [for the interviews]
Project title: The process of English vocabulary learning in China To: Chinese English Majors Phase: Interview
My name is Robert Easterbrook. I am a student at the University of Canberra, Australia, enrolled in a higher degree by research program (doctorate) in the Faculty of Arts and Design. I am conducting research for my doctoral thesis. My research focuses on the process of English vocabulary learning in China. I will gather information on vocabulary learning strategies and beliefs about language and language learning. It is not my intention to evaluate your learning and beliefs, as in a test. My intention is to understand what you do when you learn English vocabulary, and understand what you believe about language and how to learn it. The information you give me will help me understand your way of learning English vocabulary, as well as understand your beliefs about language and language learning.
You are a student of English, so I am inviting you to help me with my research. I will ask you to answer some questions which will take you about one to two hours to complete. However, your help is voluntary. And that means you can stop helping me at any time during the research activity before 31 st July 2013. You need not give me a reason nor will I question you about your decision to stop helping me.
Your name and information will be kept confidential. No one except myself will have access to the information you give me. Neither your name nor the name of your school / college / university will be mentioned when I write about your responses in my doctoral thesis.
The time for the interview will depend on you, of course. When you feel the best time to do the interview has arrived (after your exam), please email me and tell me the best time for the interview and we will arrange a time together. The interview will not last longer than two hours, but it will be recorded, with your permission.
In short, all the information you give me in the interview will be summarized and presented to you (when summarization is complete) so that you can review it for any errors and make corrections to it before it is presented in my thesis. You dont have to if you dont want to; it is just a suggestion.
All the information you give me will be stored in a locked cupboard, or on a password protected computer or data storage disk, during the time the research project is being conducted
Thank you very much for your time and help with my research project. If you have any questions or wish to know more, please contact me or my supervisor:
Robert Easterbrook Faculty of Arts and Design Room: 19 Building 20 University of Canberra Canberra, Australia Cell: +61 0404770023 Email: robert_easterbrook@yahoo.com.au My chair of the supervisory committee: Dr. Eleni Petraki Faculty of Art and Design University of Canberra Canberra, Australia Phone: +61 02 6201 5219 Email: Eleni.Petraki@canberra.edu.au
This research activity was approved by the University of Canberra Human Research Ethics Committee on (Date) for a period of three years from (date). Reference: (number)
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 450 2013
APPENDIX 14
Informed Consent for Chinese English Majors [for the multi-questionnaire]
I _______________________ have read the Information Sheet concerning the research project and understand what it is about. All my questions have been satisfactorily answered. I understand I can get more information about the project if I wish.
I know that: 1. my participation in the research project is voluntary 2. I can stop helping at any time without a reason or be questioned about my decision to stop helping 3. the information obtained about me (i.e. the personal information, survey / questionnaire responses, think- aloud recordings, diary entries, and interview recordings) will be stored in a lockable cupboard or on password secure data storage disk. 4. this research involves me completing a long survey / questionnaire, completing two activities (i.e. think- aloud and written diary), and participating in an interview. And that if the information being obtained makes me feel hesitant or uncomfortable, I can refuse to give information or participate in the research project. 5. my responses on the survey / questionnaire, the think-aloud recordings and the diary entries, and the interview responses will be summarized and presented in a doctoral thesis, and a copy of it will be available in Harbin University library but that my name and the name of my school / college / university will not be mentioned in the doctoral thesis.
I therefore agree to take part in this research project.
If you are interested in receiving a brief summary of my research report, which I will email to you, please leave your email address in the space below:
Email:
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 451 2013
APPENDIX 15
Informed Consent for Chinese English Majors [for the interviews]
I _______________________ have read the Information Sheet concerning the research project and understand what it is about. All my questions have been satisfactorily answered. I understand I can get more information about the project if I wish.
I know that: 1. my participation in the research project is voluntary 2. I can stop helping at any time without a reason or be questioned about my decision to stop helping 3. the information obtained about me in the interview will be stored in a lockable cupboard or on password secure data storage disk. 4. this research involves me completing a one to two hour interview. And that if the information being obtained makes me feel hesitant or uncomfortable, I can refuse to give information or participate in the research project. 5. my responses in the interview responses will be summarized and presented in a doctoral thesis, but that my name and the name of my school / college / university will not be mentioned in the doctoral thesis.
I therefore agree to take part in this research project.
If you are interested in receiving a brief summary of my research report, which I will email to you, please leave your email address in the space below:
Email:
The Process of Vocabulary Learning Robert M. Easterbrook 452 2013