Soft Computing Unit-5 by Arun Pratap Singh

UNIT : V
SOFT COMPUTING
II SEMESTER (MCSE 205)

PREPARED BY ARUN PRATAP SINGH

PREPARED BY ARUN PRATAP SINGH 1

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GENETIC ALGORITHM:
In the computer science field of artificial intelligence, genetic algorithm (GA) is
a search heuristic that mimics the process of natural selection. This heuristic (also sometimes
called a metaheuristic) is routinely used to generate useful solutions to optimization and search
problems. Genetic algorithms belong to the larger class of evolutionary algorithms (EA), which
generate solutions to optimization problems using techniques inspired by natural evolution, such
as inheritance, mutation, selection, and crossover.
Genetic algorithms find application in bioinformatics, phylogenetic, computational
science, engineering, economics, chemistry,manufacturing, mathematics, physics, pharmacome
trics and other fields.

UNIT : V


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In a genetic algorithm, a population of candidate solutions (called individuals, creatures,
or phenotypes) to an optimization problem is evolved toward better solutions. Each candidate
solution has a set of properties (its chromosomes or genotype) which can be mutated and altered;
traditionally, solutions are represented in binary as strings of 0s and 1s, but other encodings are
also possible.


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The evolution usually starts from a population of randomly generated individuals, and is
an iterative process, with the population in each iteration called a generation. In each generation,
the fitness of every individual in the population is evaluated; the fitness is usually the value of
the objective function in the optimization problem being solved. The more fit individuals
are stochastically selected from the current population, and each individual's genome is modified
(recombined and possibly randomly mutated) to form a new generation. The new generation of
candidate solutions is then used in the next iteration of the algorithm. Commonly, the algorithm
terminates when either a maximum number of generations has been produced, or a satisfactory
fitness level has been reached for the population.
A typical genetic algorithm requires:
1. a genetic representation of the solution domain,
2. a fitness function to evaluate the solution domain.
A standard representation of each candidate solution is as an array of bits. Arrays of other types
and structures can be used in essentially the same way. The main property that makes these
genetic representations convenient is that their parts are easily aligned due to their fixed size,
which facilitates simple crossover operations. Variable length representations may also be used,
but crossover implementation is more complex in this case. Tree-like representations are explored
in genetic programming and graph-form representations are explored in evolutionary
programming; a mix of both linear chromosomes and trees is explored in gene expression
programming.
Once the genetic representation and the fitness function are defined, a GA proceeds to initialize
a population of solutions and then to improve it through repetitive application of the mutation,
crossover, inversion and selection operators.


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WORKING PRINCIPLE OF GENETIC ALGORITHMS:


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Genetic Algorithms are search algorithms that are based on concepts of natural selection and
natural genetics. Genetic algorithm was developed to simulate some of the processes observed
in natural evolution, a process that operates on chromosomes (organic devices for encoding the
structure of living being). The genetic algorithm differs from other search methods in that it
searches among a population of points, and works with a coding of parameter set, rather than the
parameter values themselves. It also uses objective function information without any gradient
information. The transition scheme of the genetic algorithm is probabilistic, whereas traditional
methods use gradient information. Because of these features of genetic algorithm, they are used
as general purpose optimization algorithm. They also provide means to search irregular space
and hence are applied to a variety of function optimization, parameter estimation and machine
learning applications.
Basic Principle
The working principle of a canonical GA is illustrated in Fig. 1. The major steps involved are the
generation of a population of solutions, finding the objective function and fitness function and the
application of genetic operators. These aspects are described briefly below. They are described
in detail in the following subsection.

1: The Working Principle of a Simple Genetic Algorithm


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2: The basic GA operations: One generation is broken down into a selection phase and
recombination phase. Strings are assigned into adjacent slots during selection.
An important characteristic of genetic algorithm is the coding of variables that describes the
problem. The most common coding method is to transform the variables to a binary string or
vector; GAs perform best when solution vectors are binary. If the problem has more than one
variable, a multi-variable coding is constructed by concatenating as many single variables coding
as the number of variables in the problem. Genetic Algorithm processes a number of solutions
simultaneously. Hence, in the first step a population having P individuals is generated by pseudo
random generators whose individuals represent a feasible solution. This is a representation of
solution vector in a solution space and is called initial solution. This ensures the search to be
robust and unbiased, as it starts from wide range of points in the solution space.
In the next step, individual members of the population are evaluated to find the objective function
value. In this step, the exterior penalty function method is utilized to transform a constrained
optimization problem to an unconstrained one. This is exclusively problem specific. In the third
step, the objective function is mapped into a fitness function that computes a fitness value for
each member of the population. This is followed by the application of GA operators.


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Working Principle
To illustrate the working principles of GAs, an unconstrained optimization problem is considered.
Let us consider following maximization problem,

(1)
where, and are the lower and upper bound the variable can take. Although a
maximization problem is considered here, a maximization problem can also be handled using
GAs. The working of GAs is completed by performing the following tasks.

OPERATORS OF GENETIC ALGORITHM :
A genetic operator is an operator used in genetic algorithms to maintain genetic diversity, known
as mutation and to combine existing solutions into others, crossover. The main difference
between them is that the mutation operators operate on one chromosome, that is, they are unary,
while the crossover operators are binary operators.
Genetic variation is a necessity for the process of evolution. Genetic operators used in genetic
algorithms are analogous to those in the natural world: survival of the fittest, or selection;
reproduction (crossover, also called recombination); and mutation.


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DELETION AND INVERSION :


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FITNESS FUNCTION:

A fitness function is a particular type of objective function that is used to summarise, as a
single figure of merit, how close a given design solution is to achieving the set aims.
In particular, in the fields of genetic programming and genetic algorithms, each design solution is
represented as a string of numbers (referred to as a chromosome). After each round of testing,
or simulation, the idea is to delete the 'n' worst design solutions, and to breed 'n' new ones from
the best design solutions. Each design solution, therefore, needs to be awarded a figure of merit,
to indicate how close it came to meeting the overall specification, and this is generated by applying
the fitness function to the test, or simulation, results obtained from that solution.
The reason that genetic algorithms cannot be considered to be a lazy way of performing design
work is precisely because of the effort involved in designing a workable fitness function. Even
though it is no longer the human designer, but the computer, that comes up with the final design,
it is the human designer who has to design the fitness function. If this is designed badly, the
algorithm will either converge on an inappropriate solution, or will have difficulty converging at all.
Moreover, the fitness function must not only correlate closely with the designer's goal, it must also
be computed quickly. Speed of execution is very important, as a typical genetic algorithm must
be iterated many times in order to produce a usable result for a non-trivial problem.
Fitness approximation may be appropriate, especially in the following cases:
Fitness computation time of a single solution is extremely high
Precise model for fitness computation is missing
The fitness function is uncertain or noisy.
Two main classes of fitness functions exist: one where the fitness function does not change, as
in optimizing a fixed function or testing with a fixed set of test cases; and one where the fitness
function is mutable, as in niche differentiation or co-evolving the set of test cases.
Another way of looking at fitness functions is in terms of a fitness landscape, which shows the
fitness for each possible chromosome.
Definition of the fitness function is not straightforward in many cases and often is performed
iteratively if the fittest solutions produced by GA are not what is desired. In some cases, it is very
hard or impossible to come up even with a guess of what fitness function definition might
be. Interactive genetic algorithms address this difficulty by outsourcing evaluation to external
agents (normally humans).


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As mentioned earlier, GAs mimic the survival-of-the-fittest principle of nature to make
a search process. Therefore, GAs are naturally suitable for solving maximization
problems. Maximization problems are usually transformed into maximization problem
by suitable transformation. In general, a fitness function is first derived from the
objective function and used in successive genetic operations. Fitness in biological sense
is a quality value which is a measure of the reproductive efficiency of chromosomes. In
genetic algorithm, fitness is used to allocate reproductive traits to the individuals in the
population and thus act as some measure of goodness to be maximized. This means that
individuals with higher fitness value will have higher probability of being selected as
candidates for further examination. Certain genetic operators require that the fitness
function be non-negative, although certain operators need not have this requirement.
For maximization problems, the fitness function can be considered to be the same as
the objective function or . For minimization problems, to generate non-
negative values in all the cases and to reflect the relative fitness of individual string, it
is necessary to map the underlying natural objective function to fitness function form.
A number of such transformations is possible. Two commonly adopted fitness
mappings is presented below.

(4)
This transformation does not alter the location of the minimum, but converts a
minimization problem to an equivalent maximization problem. An alternate function
to transform the objective function to get the fitness value as below.

(5)
where, is the objective function value of individual, is the population
size and is a large value to ensure non-negative fitness values. The value of V
adopted in this work is the maximum value of the second term of equation 5 so that
the fitness value corresponding to maximum value of the objective function is zero.
This transformation also does not alter the location of the solution, but converts a
minimization problem to an equivalent maximization problem. The fitness function
value of a string is known as the string fitness.


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ENCODING IN GENETIC ALGORITHM :


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OPTIMIZATION :


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GENETIC MODELING :


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JOB-SHOP SCHEDULING PROBLEM (JSSP):
Job shop scheduling (or job-shop problem) is an optimization problem in computer
science and operations research in which ideal jobs are assigned to resources at particular times.
The most basic version is as follows:
We are given n jobs J1, J2, ..., Jn of varying sizes, which need to be scheduled on m identical
machines, while trying to minimize the makespan. The makespan is the total length of the
schedule (that is, when all the jobs have finished processing). Nowadays, the problem is
presented as an online problem (dynamic scheduling), that is, each job is presented, and
the online algorithm needs to make a decision about that job before the next job is presented.
This problem is one of the best known online problems, and was the first problem for
which competitive analysis was presented, by Graham in 1966.
[1]
Best problem instances for basic
model with makespan objective are due to Taillard.


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Problem variations:
Many variations of the problem exist, including the following:
Machines can be related, independent, equal
Machines can require a certain gap between jobs or no idle-time
Machines can have sequence-dependent setups
Objective function can be to minimize the make span, the Lp norm, tardiness, maximum
lateness etc. It can also be multi-objective optimization problem
Jobs may have constraints, for example a job i needs to finish before job j can be started
(see workflow). Also, the objective function can be multi-criteria.
Jobs and machines have mutual constraints, for example, certain jobs can be scheduled on
some machines only


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Set of jobs can relate to different set of machines
Deterministic (fixed) processing times or probabilistic processing times
There may also be some other side constraints

NP-hardness:
If one already knows that the travelling salesman problem is NP-hard (as it is), then the job-shop
problem is clearly also NP-hard, since the TSP is special case of the JSP with (the
salesman is the machine and the cities are the jobs).
Problem representation:
The disjunctive graph
[4]
is one of the popular models used for describing the job shop scheduling
problem instances.
[5]

A mathematical statement of the problem can be made as follows:
Let and be two finite sets. On account
of the industrial origins of the problem, the are called machines and the are called jobs.
Let denote the set of all sequential assignments of jobs to machines, such that every job is
done by every machine exactly once; elements may be written as matrices, in
which column lists the jobs that machine will do, in order. For example, the matrix

means that machine will do the three jobs in the order , while
machine will do the jobs in the order .
Suppose also that there is some cost function . The cost function may
be interpreted as a "total processing time", and may have some expression in terms of
times , the cost/time for machine to do job .
The job-shop problem is to find an assignment of jobs such that is a
minimum, that is, there is no such that .

The problem of infinite cost :
One of the first problems that must be dealt with in the JSP is that many proposed solutions have
infinite cost: i.e., there exists such that . In fact, it is quite simple to
concoct examples of such by ensuring that two machines will deadlock, so that each waits
for the output of the other's next step.


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TRAVELING SALESMAN PROBLEM :
"The traveling salesman problem, or TSP for short, is this: given a finite number of 'cities' along with
the cost of travel between each pair of them, find the cheapest way of visiting all the cities and
returning to your starting point."
A solution: distance = 941

The traveling salesman must visit every city in his territory exactly once (possibly then return to
the starting point).
Given the cost of travel between all cities, how should he plan his itinerary for minimum total
cost of the entire tour?
TSP NP-Complete
Complexities :
Testing every possibility for an N city tour would be O(N!) math additions.
A 30 city tour would take additions.
Assuming 1 billion additions per second, this would take over 8,000,000,000,000,000
years, i.e., 8 million billion years.
The age of the universe since the big bang is only about 14 billion years.

GA approach :
Can find a pretty good solution in less than a minute


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Representation: random permutation, example of a tour for 9 cities,
(6 7 8 9 3 4 1 2 5)
Each represent an individual animal or organism
Population: a group of random tours
A community of individuals


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A solution, cost = 800


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A solution, distance = 652

Best Solution (Distance = 420)


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I have developed a solution to the Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP) using a Genetic
Algorithm (GA). In the Traveling Salesman Problem, the goal is to find the shortest distance
between N different cities. The path that the salesman takes is called a tour.

Testing every possibility for an N city tour would be N! math additions. A 30 city tour would have
to measure the total distance of be 2.65 X 10
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different tours. Assuming a trillion additions per
second, this would take 252,333,390,232,297 years. Adding one more city would cause the time
to increase by a factor of 31. Obviously, this is an impossible solution.

A genetic algorithm can be used to find a solution is much less time. Although it might not find the
best solution, it can find a near perfect solution for a 100 city tour in less than a minute. There are
a couple of basic steps to solving the traveling salesman problem using a GA.
First, create a group of many random tours in what is called a population. This algorithm
uses a greedy initial population that gives preference to linking cities that are close to each
other.
Second, pick 2 of the better (shorter) tours parents in the population and combine them
to make 2 new child tours. Hopefully, these children tour will be better than either parent.
A small percentage of the time, the child tours are mutated. This is done to prevent all
tours in the population from looking identical.
The new child tours are inserted into the population replacing two of the longer tours. The
size of the population remains the same.
New children tours are repeatedly created until the desired goal is reached.
As the name implies, Genetic Algorithms mimic nature and evolution using the principles
of Survival of the Fittest.
The two complex issues with using a Genetic Algorithm to solve the Traveling Salesman
Problem are the encoding of the tour and the crossover algorithm that is used to combine the
two parent tours to make the child tours.
In a standard Genetic Algorithm, the encoding is a simple sequence of numbers and Crossover
is performed by picking a random point in the parent's sequences and switching every number
in the sequence after that point. In this example, the crossover point is between the 3
rd
and
4
th
item in the list. To create the children, every item in the parent's sequence after the
crossover point is swapped.

Parent 1 F A B | E C G D
Parent 2 D E A | C G B F
Child 1 F A B | C G B F
Child 1 D E A | E C G D


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The difficulty with the Traveling Salesman Problem is that every city can only be used once in a
tour. If the letters in the above example represented cities, this child tours created by this
crossover operation would be invalid. Child 1 goes to city F & B twice, and never goes to cities
D or E.

The encoding cannot simply be the list of cities in the order they are traveled. Other encoding
methods have been created that solve the crossover problem. Although these methods will not
create invalid tours, they do not take into account the fact that the tour "A B C D E F G" is the
same as "G F E D C B A". To solve the problem properly the crossover algorithm will have to
get much more complicated.

My solution stores the links in both directions for each tour. In the above tour example, Parent 1
would be stored as:

City First Connection Second Connection
A F B
B A E
C E G
D G F
E B C
F D A
G C D

The crossover operation is more complicated than combining 2 strings. The crossover will take
every link that exists in both parents and place those links in both children. Then, for Child 1 it
alternates between taking links that appear in Parent 2 and then Parent 1. For Child 2, it
alternates between Parent 2 and Parent 1 taking a different set of links. For either child, there is
a chance that a link could create an invalid tour where instead of a single path in the tour there
are several disconnected paths. These links must be rejected. To fill in the remaining missing
links, cities are chosen at random. Since the crossover is not completely random, this is
considered a greedy crossover.

Eventually, this GA would make every solution look identical. This is not ideal. Once every tour
in the population is identical, the GA will not be able to find a better solution. There are two ways


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around this. The first is to use a very large initial population so that it takes the GA longer to
make all of the solutions the same. The second method is mutation, where some child tours
are randomly altered to produce a new unique tour.

This Genetic Algorithm also uses a greedy initial population. The city links in the initial tours are
not completely random. The GA will prefer to make links between cities that are close to each
other. This is not done 100% of the time, becuase that would cause every tour in the initial
population to be very similar.

There are 6 parameters to control the operation of the Genetic Algorithm:
Population Size - The population size is the initial number of random tours that are
created when the algorithm starts. A large population takes longer to find a result. A
smaller population increases the chance that every tour in the population will eventually
look the same. This increases the chance that the best solution will not be found.
Neighborhood / Group Size - Each generation, this number of tours are randomly chosen
from the population. The best 2 tours are the parents. The worst 2 tours get replaced by
the children. For group size, a high number will increase the likelyhood that the really good
tours will be selected as parents, but it will also cause many tours to never be used as
parents. A large group size will cause the algorithm to run faster, but it might not find the
best solution.
Mutation % - The percentage that each child after crossover will undergo mutation When
a tour is mutated, one of the cities is randomly moved from one point in the tour to another.
# Nearby Cities - As part of a greedy initial population, the GA will prefer to link cities that
are close to each other to make the initial tours. When creating the initial population this
is the number of cities that are considered to be close.
Nearby City Odds % - This is the percent chance that any one link in a random tour in
the initial population will prefer to use a nearby city instead of a completely random city. If
the GA chooses to use a nearby city, then there is an equally random chance that it will
be any one of the cities from the previous parameter.
Maximum Generations - How many crossovers are run before the algorithm is
terminated.
The other options that can be configured are (note: these are only available in the downloadable
version):
Random Seed - This is the seed for the random number generator. By having a fixed
instead of a random seed, you can duplicate previous results as long as all other
parameters are the same. This is very helpful when looking for errors in the algorithm.
City List - The downloadable version allows you to import city lists from XML files. Again,
when debugging problems it is useful to be able to run the algorithm with the same exact
parameters.
The starting parameter values are:


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Parameter Initial Value
Population Size 10,000
Group Size 5
Mutation 3 %
# Nearby Cities 5
Nearby City Odds 90 %

Note: I originally wrote this program in 1995 in straight C. The tours in the population were stored
as an array of 32 bit int's, where each bit indicated a connection. Ex: If tour[0] =
00000000000001000000010000000000 in binary, then city 0 connected to city 11 and 19. That
implementation was much faster than the current C# version. The greedy part of crossover could
be performed by doing a binary AND on the two tours. While that code was very fast, it had a lot
of binary operations, was limited in the number of cities it could support, and the code wasn't
readable. Hopefully, this new version will allow for more re-use.


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APPLICATIONS OF GENETIC ALGORITHMS :
The keys of the success in GA applications are effective GA representation and meaningful
fitness evaluation. The demand of Genetic Algorithm comes from their grace and simplicity as
robust search algorithms. Also from their power to discover good solution quickly for complex
high- dimensional problems. The benefits of using the GA approach is the ease to handle
arbitrary kinds of constraints and objectives. For problem solving and modeling Gas have been
used. GA are applied to number of engineering and scientific problems, in business and
entertainment including the followings-
1. Automatic Programming - These algorithms are used to evolve computer programs for
unique tasks and to design other computational structures. For instance, storage
network and cellular automata.
2. Optimization These algorithm used in a various optimization tasks which include
numerical optimization and combinatorial optimization problems like circuit design. Job
shop scheduling (JSP) and travelling salesman problem.
3. Models of Social Systems- These algorithms are used to study evolutionary aspects of
social systems like the evolution of communication and trail following behavior in ants
and the evolution of cooperation.
4. Ecological Models- To model ecological phenomenon like host-parasite co-evolutions,
biological arm races, and symbiosis and resources flow in ecological GAs are used.
5. Economical Models- To model processes of innovation, the development of bidding
strategies and the emergence of economic markets GAs are used.
6. Population Genetics Models- Genetic algorithms are employed to study questions in
population genetics like under what situations will a gene for recombination be
evolutionary viable?
7. Immune System Models- To model various aspects of the natural immune system
which include somatic mutation during an individuals lifetime and discovery of multi-
gene families during evolutionary time GAs are used.
8. Machine And Robot Learning- Genetic algorithms are used to control and design
robots, symbolic production systems, to evolve rules for learning classifier and to design
neural networks. These algorithms are also used machine learning applications that
includes prediction and classification.
9. Interaction between Evolution and Learning- To study how individual learning and
species evolution affect one another GAs are used.


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SOME OTHER APPLICATIONS OF GENETIC ALGORITHM
Airlines Revenue Management.
Artificial creativity
Audio watermark insertion/detection
Automated design = computer-automated design
Biology and computational chemistry
Control engineering
Financial Mathematics
File allocation for a distributed system
Filtering and signal processing
Finding hardware bugs


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Game theory equilibrium resolution
Economics
Mechanical engineering
Mobile communications infrastructure optimization
Power electronics design

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GENETIC ALGORITHM AND TRADITIONAL METHOD:

GAs are radically different from most traditional optimization methods. Genetic algorithms work
with a string coding of variables instead of the variables. The advantages of working with a coding
of variable is that coding discretizes the search space even though the function may be
continuous. On the other hand, since GA requires only function values at discrete points, a
discrete or discontinuous function can be handled with no extra cost. This allows GA to be applied
to a wide variety of problems. Genetic algorithm operators exploits the similarities in string
structure to make an effective search. Genetic algorithm works with a population of points instead
of a single points instead of a single point. In GA, previously found good information is emphasized
using reproduction operator and propagated adaptively through crossover and mutation
operators. Genetic algorithm is a population based search algorithm and multiple optimal
solutions can be captured. Hence reducing the effort to use the algorithm many times.


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Multi modal function
Even though Gas, are different than most traditional search algorithms, there are some
similarities. In traditional search methods, where a search direction is used to find a new point, at
least two points are either implicitly or explicitly used to define the search direction. In the cross
over operator, two points are used to create new points. Thus, cross over operator is similar to a
directional search method with an exception that the search direction is not fixed for all points in
the population and that no effort is made to find the optimal point in any particular direction. Since
two points used in crossover operator are chosen at random, many search directions are possible.
Among them, some may lead to global basin and some may not. The reproduction operator has
an indirect effect of filtering the good search direction and helps to guide the search. The purpose
of mutation operator is to create a point in the vicinity of the current point. The search in the
mutation operator is similar to a local search method such as exploratory search used in Hooke-
Jeeves method.
ISSUES OF GENETIC ALGORITHM:-
The following issues are important while applying GA to practical problems, namely
1. Choosing basic implementation issues such as
a. Representation
b. Population size and mutation rate
c. Selection, deletion policies
d. Crossover and mutation operators.
2. Termination criterion
3. Performance and scalability
4. Solution is only as good as the evaluation functions.
BENEFITS OF GENETIC ALGORITHM:-
The benefits of genetic algorithm are-


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1. Easy to understand.
2. Modular, separate from application
3. Supports multi-objective optimization
4. Good for noisy environment
5. We always get an answer and the answer gets better with the time.
6. Inherently parallel and easily distributed.
7. There are many ways to speed up and improve a GAs basic applications as knowledge
about the problem domain is general.
8. Easy to exploit for previous or alternate solutions.
9. Flexible in forming building blocks for hybrid applications.

EVOLUTIONARY COMPUTATION :
In computer science, evolutionary computation is a subfield of artificial intelligence (more
particularly computational intelligence) that involves continuous optimization and combinatorial
optimization problems. Its algorithms can be considered global optimization methods with
a metaheuristic or stochastic optimization character and are mostly applied for black box problems
(no derivatives known), often in the context of expensive optimization.
Evolutionary computation uses iterative progress, such as growth or development in a population.
This population is then selected in a guided random search using parallel processing to achieve
the desired end. Such processes are often inspired by biological mechanisms of evolution.
As evolution can produce highly optimised processes and networks, it has many applications
in computer science.

Techniques-
Evolutionary computing techniques mostly involve metaheuristic optimization algorithms.
Broadly speaking, the field includes:
Evolutionary algorithms
Gene expression programming
Genetic algorithm
Genetic programming
Evolutionary programming
Evolution strategy
Differential evolution
Swarm intelligence
Ant colony optimization
Particle swarm optimization
Artificial Bee Colony Algorithm


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Bees algorithm
Artificial life (also see digital organism)
Artificial immune systems
Cultural algorithms
Harmony search
Learning classifier systems
Learnable Evolution Model
Self-organization such as self-organizing maps, competitive learning

Evolutionary algorithms
Evolutionary algorithms form a subset of evolutionary computation in that they generally only
involve techniques implementing mechanisms inspired by biological evolution such as
reproduction, mutation, recombination, natural selection and survival of the fittest. Candidate
solutions to the optimization problem play the role of individuals in a population, and the cost
function determines the environment within which the solutions "live" (see also fitness
function). Evolution of the population then takes place after the repeated application of the above
operators.
In this process, there are two main forces that form the basis of evolutionary
systems: Recombination and mutation create the necessary diversity and thereby facilitate
novelty, while selection acts as a force increasing quality.
Many aspects of such an evolutionary process are stochastic. Changed pieces of information due
to recombination and mutation are randomly chosen. On the other hand, selection operators can
be either deterministic, or stochastic. In the latter case, individuals with a higher fitness have a
higher chance to be selected than individuals with a lower fitness, but typically even the weak
individuals have a chance to become a parent or to survive.

Evolutionary algorithm :
In artificial intelligence, an evolutionary algorithm (EA) is a subset of evolutionary computation,
a generic population-based metaheuristic optimization algorithm. An EA uses mechanisms
inspired by biological evolution, such as reproduction, mutation, recombination,
and selection. Candidate solutions to the optimization problem play the role of individuals in a
population, and the fitness function determines the quality of the solutions (see also loss
function). Evolution of the population then takes place after the repeated application of the above
operators. Artificial evolution (AE) describes a process involving individual evolutionary
algorithms; EAs are individual components that participate in an AE.


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Evolutionary algorithms often perform well approximating solutions to all types of problems
because they ideally do not make any assumption about the underlying fitness landscape; this
generality is shown by successes in fields as diverse
as engineering, art, biology, economics, marketing, genetics, operations research, robotics, social
sciences, physics, politics and chemistry
.

Techniques from evolutionary algorithms applied to the modeling of biological evolution are
generally limited to explorations of micro evolutionary processes. The computer
simulations Tierra and Avida attempt to model macro evolutionary dynamics.
In most real applications of EAs, computational complexity is a prohibiting factor. In fact, this
computational complexity is due to fitness function evaluation. Fitness approximation is one of
the solutions to overcome this difficulty. However, seemingly simple EA can solve often complex
problems; therefore, there may be no direct link between algorithm complexity and problem
complexity.
Implementation of biological processes :
1. Generate the initial population of individuals randomly - first Generation
2. Evaluate the fitness of each individual in that population
3. Repeat on this generation until termination (time limit, sufficient fitness achieved, etc.):
1. Select the best-fit individuals for reproduction - parents
2. Breed new individuals through crossover and mutation operations to give birth
to offspring
3. Evaluate the individual fitness of new individuals
4. Replace least-fit population with new individuals

Evolutionary algorithm types :
Similar techniques differ in the implementation details and the nature of the particular applied
problem.
Genetic algorithm - This is the most popular type of EA. One seeks the solution of a problem
in the form of strings of numbers (traditionally binary, although the best representations are
usually those that reflect something about the problem being solved), by applying operators
such as recombination and mutation (sometimes one, sometimes both). This type of EA is
often used in optimization problems.
Genetic programming - Here the solutions are in the form of computer programs, and their
fitness is determined by their ability to solve a computational problem.
Evolutionary programming - Similar to genetic programming, but the structure of the program
is fixed and its numerical parameters are allowed to evolve.


73
Gene expression programming - Like genetic programming, GEP also evolves computer
programs but it explores a genotype-phenotype system, where computer programs of
different sizes are encoded in linear chromosomes of fixed length.
Evolution strategy - Works with vectors of real numbers as representations of solutions, and
typically uses self-adaptive mutation rates.
Differential evolution - Based on vector differences and is therefore primarily suited
for numerical optimization problems.
Neuro evolution - Similar to genetic programming but the genomes represent artificial neural
networks by describing structure and connection weights. The genome encoding can be direct
or indirect.
Learning classifier system - Here the solutions are classifiers (rules or conditions). A
Michigan-LCS works with individual classifiers whereas a Pittsburgh-LCS uses populations of
classifier-sets. Initially, classifiers were only binary, but now include real, neural net, or S-
expression types. Fitness is determined with either a strength or accuracy based
reinforcement approach.

SWARM INTELLIGENCE :
Swarm intelligence (SI) is artificial intelligence based on the collective behavior of
decentralized, self-organized systems
Swarm intelligence (SI) is the collective behavior of decentralized, self-organized systems,
natural or artificial. The concept is employed in work on artificial intelligence. The expression was
introduced by Gerardo Beni and Jing Wang in 1989, in the context of cellular robotic systems.
[1]

SI systems consist typically of a population of simple agents or boids interacting locally with one
another and with their environment. The inspiration often comes from nature, especially biological
systems. The agents follow very simple rules, and although there is no centralized control
structure dictating how individual agents should behave, local, and to a certain degree random,
interactions between such agents lead to the emergence of "intelligent" global behavior, unknown
to the individual agents. Examples in natural systems of SI include ant colonies, bird flocking,
animal herding, bacterial growth, and fish schooling. The definition of swarm intelligence is still
not quite clear. In principle, it should be a multi-agent system that has self-organized behaviour
that shows some intelligent behaviour.
The application of swarm principles to robots is called swarm robotics, while 'swarm intelligence'
refers to the more general set of algorithms. 'Swarm prediction' has been used in the context of
forecasting problems.


74
Example algorithms :
Particle swarm optimization
Particle swarm optimization (PSO) is a global optimization algorithm for dealing with problems in
which a best solution can be represented as a point or surface in an n-dimensional space.
Hypotheses are plotted in this space and seeded with an initial velocity, as well as a
communication channel between the particles. Particles then move through the solution space,
and are evaluated according to some fitness criterion after each timestep. Over time, particles are
accelerated towards those particles within their communication grouping which have better fitness
values. The main advantage of such an approach over other global minimization strategies such
as simulated annealing is that the large number of members that make up the particle swarm
make the technique impressively resilient to the problem of local minima.
Ant colony optimization
Ant colony optimization (ACO), introduced by Dorigo in his doctoral dissertation, is a class
of optimization algorithms modeled on the actions of an ant colony. ACO is a probabilistic
technique useful in problems that deal with finding better paths through graphs. Artificial 'ants'
simulation agentslocate optimal solutions by moving through a parameter spacerepresenting
all possible solutions. Natural ants lay down pheromones directing each other to resources while
exploring their environment. The simulated 'ants' similarly record their positions and the quality of
their solutions, so that in later simulation iterations more ants locate better solutions.
Artificial bee colony algorithm
Artificial bee colony algorithm (ABC) is a meta-heuristic algorithm introduced by Karaboga in
2005, and simulates the foraging behaviour of honey bees. The ABC algorithm has three phases:
employed bee, onlooker bee and scout bee. In the employed bee and the onlooker bee phases,
bees exploit the sources by local searches in the neighbourhood of the solutions selected based
on deterministic selection in the employed bee phase and the probabilistic selection in the
onlooker bee phase. In the scout bee phase which is an analogy of abandoning exhausted food
sources in the foraging process, solutions that are not beneficial anymore for search progress are
abandoned, and new solutions are inserted instead of them to explore new regions in the search
space. The algorithm has a well-balanced exploration and exploitation ability.

Differential evolution
Differential evolution is similar to genetic algorithm and pattern search. It uses multiagents or
search vectors to carry out search. It has mutation and crossover, but do not have the global best
solution in its search equations, in contrast with the particle swarm optimization.


75
The bees algorithm
The bees algorithm in its basic formulation was created by Pham and his co-workers in 2005 and
further refined in the following years.
[7]
Modelled on the foraging behaviour ofhoney bees, the
algorithm combines global explorative search with local exploitative search. A small number of
artificial bees (scouts) explores randomly the solution space (environment) for solutions of high
fitness (highly profitable food sources), whilst the bulk of the population search (harvest) the
neighbourhood of the fittest solutions looking for the fitness optimum. A deterministics recruitment
procedure which simulates the waggle dance of biological bees is used to communicate the
scouts' findings to the foragers, and distribute the foragers depending on the fitness of the
neighbourhoods selected for local search. Once the search in the neighbourhood of a solution
stagnates, the local fitness optimum is considered to be found, and the site is abandoned. In
summary, the Bees Algorithm searches concurrently the most promising regions of the solution
space, whilst continuously sampling it in search of new favourable regions.
Artificial immune systems
Artificial immune systems (AIS) concerns the usage of abstract structure and function of the
immune system to computational systems, and investigating the application of these systems
towards solving computational problems from mathematics, engineering, and information
technology. AIS is a sub-field of Biologically inspired computing, and natural computation, with
interests in Machine Learning and belonging to the broader field of Artificial Intelligence.
Grey wolf optimizer
The Grey wolf optimizer (GWO) algorithm mimics the leadership hierarchy and hunting
mechanism of gray wolves in nature proposed by Mirjalili et al. in 2014.
[8]
Four types of grey
wolves such as alpha, beta, delta, and omega are employed for simulating the leadership
hierarchy. In addition, three main steps of hunting, searching for prey, encircling prey, and
attacking prey, are implemented to perform optimization.
Bat algorithm
Bat algorithm (BA) is a swarm-intelligence-based algorithm, inspired by the echolocation behavior
of microbats. BA uses a frequency-tuning and automatic balance of exploration and exploitation
by controlling loudness and pulse emission rates.
Gravitational search algorithm
Gravitational search algorithm (GSA) based on the law of gravity and the notion of mass
interactions. The GSA algorithm uses the theory of Newtonian physics and its searcher agents
are the collection of masses. In GSA, there is an isolated system of masses. Using the
gravitational force, every mass in the system can see the situation of other masses. The
gravitational force is therefore a way of transferring information between different masses
(Rashedi, Nezamabadi-pour and Saryazdi 2009).
[10]
In GSA, agents are considered as objects


76
and their performance is measured by their masses. All these objects attract each other by a
gravity force, and this force causes a movement of all objects globally towards the objects with
heavier masses. The heavy masses correspond to good solutions of the problem. The position of
the agent corresponds to a solution of the problem, and its mass is determined using a fitness
function. By lapse of time, masses are attracted by the heaviest mass. We hope that this mass
would present an optimum solution in the search space. The GSA could be considered as an
isolated system of masses. It is like a small artificial world of masses obeying the Newtonian laws
of gravitation and motion (Rashedi, Nezamabadi-pour and Saryazdi 2009). A multi-objective
variant of GSA, called Non-dominated Sorting Gravitational Search Algorithm (NSGSA), was
proposed by Nobahari and Nikusokhan in 2011.
Altruism algorithm
Researchers in Switzerland have developed an algorithm based on Hamilton's rule of kin
selection. This algorithm shows how altruism in a swarm of entities can, over time, evolve and
result in more effective swarm behaviour.
Glowworm swarm optimization
Glowworm swarm optimization (GSO), introduced by Krishnanand and Ghose in 2005 for
simultaneous computation of multiple optima of multimodal functions.
[14][15][16][17]
The algorithm
shares a few features with some better known algorithms, such as ant colony
optimization and particle swarm optimization, but with several significant differences. The agents
in GSO are thought of as glowworms that carry a luminescence quantity called luciferin along with
them. The glowworms encode the fitness of their current locations, evaluated using the objective
function, into a luciferin value that they broadcast to their neighbors. The glowworm identifies its
neighbors and computes its movements by exploiting an adaptive neighborhood, which is
bounded above by its sensor range. Each glowworm selects, using a probabilistic mechanism, a
neighbor that has a luciferin value higher than its own and moves toward it. These movements
based only on local information and selective neighbor interactionsenable the swarm of
glowworms to partition into disjoint subgroups that converge on multiple optima of a given
multimodal function.
Self-propelled particles
Self-propelled particles (SPP), also referred to as the Vicsek model, was introduced in 1995 by
Vicsek et al. as a special case of the boids model introduced in 1986 byReynolds. A swarm is
modelled in SPP by a collection of particles that move with a constant speed but respond to a
random perturbation by adopting at each time increment the average direction of motion of the
other particles in their local neighbourhood. SPP models predict that swarming animals share
certain properties at the group level, regardless of the type of animals in the swarm.Swarming
systems give rise to emergent behaviours which occur at many different scales, some of which


77
are turning out to be both universal and robust. It has become a challenge in theoretical physics
to find minimal statistical models that capture these behaviours.
Stochastic diffusion search
Stochastic diffusion search (SDS) is an agent-based probabilistic global search and optimization
technique best suited to problems where the objective function can be decomposed into multiple
independent partial-functions. Each agent maintains a hypothesis which is iteratively tested by
evaluating a randomly selected partial objective function parameterized by the agent's current
hypothesis. In the standard version of SDS such partial function evaluations are binary, resulting
in each agent becoming active or inactive. Information on hypotheses is diffused across the
population via inter-agent communication. Unlike the stigmergic communication used in ACO, in
SDS agents communicate hypotheses via a one-to-one communication strategy analogous to the
tandem running procedure observed in Leptothorax acervorum.
[27]
A positive feedback
mechanism ensures that, over time, a population of agents stabilize around the global-best
solution. SDS is both an efficient and robust global search and optimization algorithm, which has
been extensively mathematically described. Recent work has involved merging the global search
properties of SDS with other swarm intelligence algorithms.
Multi-swarm optimization
Multi-swarm optimization is a variant of particle swarm optimization (PSO) based on the use of
multiple sub-swarms instead of one (standard) swarm. The general approach in multi-swarm
optimization is that each sub-swarm focuses on a specific region while a specific diversification
method decides where and when to launch the sub-swarms. The multi-swarm framework is
especially fitted for the optimization on multi-modal problems, where multiple (local) optima exist.

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