FRACTURE TOUGHNESS

TESTI NG AND ITS

APPLI CATI ONS
A s ympos i um pr esent ed at t he
SIXTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL MEETING
AME R I C AN S OC I E T Y F OR T E S T I NG AND MAT E R I AL ~
Chi cago, Ill., J u n e 21-26, 1964
AS T M Special Technical Publication No. 381
|
Published by the
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS
1916 Race St., Philadelphia 3, Pa.
in cooperation with the
NATI ONAL AERONAUTI CS AND SPACE ADMI NI STRATI ON
9 by American Society for Testing and Materials 1965
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 65-16811
Pri nt ed in Baltimore, Md.
April, 1965
Second Pri nt i ng, May 1970
Thi rd Pri nt i ng, Januar y 1975
Fourt h Pri nt i ng, October 1981
F ORE WORD
The development of various new high-strength alloys and the broadening
range of their applications, particularly in aerospace and in cryogenics, has
brought about increased emphasis on the study of fracture characteristics.
As a result, the technology of testing for fracture toughness and crack propa-
gation has grown rapidly in recent years. So, too, has understanding of how
to apply this testing technology to design problems such as selection of
materials, heat treatment, welding procedures, structural shape and size,
and effects of environment.
This collection of papers constitutes an authoritative and reasonably
complete statement of the current procedure and concepts in the field of
fracture mechanics. It should thus be of primary value to those concerned
with fracture testing and with applications of test data.
This publication is a cooperative effort of the American Society for Test-
ing and Materials and the National Aeronautics and Space Administra-
tion. I t helps to fulfill the obligation of the ASTM to provide the technical
community with test methods, and with a sound understanding of their
usefulness and their limitations. Through its Special Committee on Fracture
Testing of High-Strength Materials (now ASTM Committee E-24 on Frac-
ture Testing of Metallic Materials), ASTM has provided important tech-
nical leadership. This volume is the latest in a series of valuable publications
on fracture testing and its application sponsored by this committee.
By cooperation with the ASTM, NASA is helping to fulfill its obligation
to provide for the widest practicable and appropriate dissemination of re-
sults from its activities. Not only have aerospace problems directly furthered
activity on fracture mechanics, but NASA scientists and engineers have
directly contributed much to this new technology. It is the purpose of this
publication to make the information in this important field as widely avail-
able as possible.
The Symposium on Fracture Toughness Testing and Its Applications was
held at the Sixty-seventh ASTM Annual Meeting, in Chicago, Ill., June
21-26, 1964. It was sponsored by the ASTM Special Committee on Fracture
Testing of High-Strength Materials. Chairman of the committee is J. R.
Low, General Electric Co. Symposium chairman was W. F. Brown, Jr.,
National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
The symposium comprised three papers sessions and a panel discussion.
Co-chairmen of the first session, on basic aspects of fracture mechanics,
were T. J. Dolan, University of Illinois, and Harold Liebowitz, Office of
Naval Research. Co-chairmen of the second session, on test methods, were
Edward Steigerwald, Thompson Ramo Wooldridge, and Z. P. Saperstein,
Douglas Aircraft Co. Co-chairmen of the third session, on practical applica-
tions, were B. M. Wundt, General Electric Co., and C. M. Carman, U. S.
Army Ordnance. Mr. Brown was chairman of the panel discussion, and the
other panelists were V. Weiss, S. Yukawa, P. Paris, J. E. Srawley, C. F.
Tiffany, G. R. Irwin, T. J. Dolan, J. A. Kies, and W. F. Payne.
i l l
NO'rE--The Society is not responsible, as a body, for the statements
and opinions advanced in this publication.
C ONT E NT S
PAGE
Basic Aspects of Fracture Mechanics
Cri t i cal Appr ai sal of Fr a c t ur e Me c h a n i c s - - V. Wei ss and S. Yukawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Hi st or i cal Revi ew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Th e Sur f ace- Ener gy- Pl ast i c Wor k Anal ogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
I nt e r pr e t a t i on of Fr a c t ur e Toughnes s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Pl as t i ci t y Anal ysi s and Ef f ect s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
I nhomogenei t i es, Scat t er , and Size Ef f ect s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Out l ook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Di scussi on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
St r ess Anal ysi s of Cr a c k s - - Pa u l C. Par i s and George C. M. Sih . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Cr ack- Ti p St r ess Fi el ds f or I s ot r opi c El ast i c Bodi es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
El e me nt a r y Di mensi onal Consi der at i ons f or Det er mi nat i on of St r es s - I nt ens i t y
Fact or s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
St r es s - I nt ens i t y Fa c t or s f r om West er gaar d St ress Funct i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
St r es s - I nt ens i t y Fact or s f r om General Compl ex St ress Func t i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
St r es s - I nt ens i t y Fact or s f or Some Thr ee- Di mens i onal Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Edge Cracks i n Semi -i nfi ni t e Bodi es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Two- Di mensi onal Pr obl ems of Pl at e St r i ps wi t h Tr ans ver s e Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Rei nf or ced Pl ane Sheet s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
The r ma l St resses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
St r es s - I nt ens i t y Fa c t or s f or t h e Bendi ng of Pl at es and Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Coupl e- St r ess Pr obl ems wi t h Cr acks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Es t i ma t i on of St r es s - I nt ens i t y Fact or s for Some Cases of Pr act i cal I nt e r e s t . . . . . . . 48
St r ess Fi el ds and I nt e ns i t y Fact or s f or Homogeneous Ani sot r opi c Medi a . . . . . . . . . . 52
Cr acks i n Li near Vi s coehs t i c Medi a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Some Special Cases of Nonhomogeneous Medi a wi t h Cr acks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
I ner t i al Ef f ect s on t he St ress Fi el d of a Movi ng Cr ack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Ene r gy- Ra t e Anal ysi s of Cr ack Ext ens i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Th e E q u ; , , a l e ~ qf ~ne r gy- Ra t e and St r es s - I nt ens i t y Fa c t or Appr oaches . . . . . . . . 59
Ot her Equi va l e nt Me t h o d s of St r ess Anal ysi s of Cracks and Not ches . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Li mi t at i ons of t h e Cr ack- Ti p St ress Fi el d Anal ysi s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Appendi x I - - T h e Wes t er gaar d Me t hod of St ress Anal ysi s of Cr acks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Appendi x I I - - A Ha ndbook of Basi c Sd u t i o n s for St r es s - I nt ens i t y Fact or s and
Ot he r For mul as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Appendi x I I I - - No t a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Di scussi on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Pl as t i ci t y As pect s of Fr a c t ur e Me c h a n i c s - - F. A. McCf i nt ock and G. R. I r wi n . . . . . . 84
Ki n d s of El ast i c a nd Pl ast i c St ress and St r ai n Fi el ds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Longi t udi nal ( or Paral l el ) Shear, Mode I I I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
I ni t i al St r ai n Di s t r i but i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Gener al Aspect s e,f St abl e and Uns t abl e Cr ack Ext ens i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Loadi ng Wi t hout Cr ack Gr owt h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Fr a c t ur e Cr i t er i a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
I ni t i at i on of Cr ack Ext ens i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Cr ack Gr owt h and I ns t abi l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Empi r i cal Tr end of Hi gh- St r es s Level Kc Resul t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Cr ack- Openi ng Consi der at i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Empi r i cal Re pr e s e nt a t i on of Cr ack- Ext ens i on Obser vat i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Vi C O N T E N T S
PAGE
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Appendix--Summary of Relationships Between Linear-Elastic and Plasticity View-
points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II
Crack-Velocity Considerations--J. M. Krafft and G. R. Irwin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II 0
Running Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Crack Border Instability in Kr Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 ,~
Instability at a Plane-Strain Crack Border . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
General Strain-Rate Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Influence of Temperature and Loading Rate upon KI, Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Initiation Kx9 in a Mild Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Model for Brittle Fracture by Tensile Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Adiabatic Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Initiation K],(r) in 6A1-4V Titanium Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Comparison with Precracked Charpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Influence of Flow Strength Speed Versus Temperature Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Equivalence of Loading Rate to Crack Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Velocity Prior to Crack Arrest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Crack-Arrest Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
8
Test Me t hods
Fracture Toughness Testing--W, F. Brown, Jr., and J. E. Srawley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Quasi-Two-Dimensional Prototype Specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Criterion of Fracture Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Crack Extension Resistance and Occurrence of Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Actual Cracks in Specimens of Finite Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Dependence of 9, and Fracture Appearance on Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
~t, Measurement at Meta-instability or "Pop-in". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Practical Specimen Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Symmetrical Plate Specimens for General 9~ Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Effective Crack Length and Plastic Zone Correction Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
~ Measurement Capacity in Relation to Specimen Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Variation of 9~ with Crack Length and Specimen Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Thickness of Symmetrical Plate Specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Plastic Zone Correction Term; fix, and Kie Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Specimens Suitable for 9Ir Measurement Only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Single-Edge-Notched Tension Specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I60
Notched Bend Specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Cracked Charpy Specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Surface-Cracked Plate Specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
CircumferentiaUy Notched Round Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Summary Comparison of Specimens for ~rr Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Instrumentation and Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Cinematography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Electrical Potential Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Testing Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17S
Reduction of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Advantages and Limitations of Potential Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Displacement Gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Gage Types and Testing Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Reduction of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Advantages and Limitations of Displacement Gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Sensitivity of Displacement Gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
CONTENTS vi i
PAGE
Acous t i c Me t h o d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Ex a mp l e s of Da t a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Ad v a n t a g e s a n d Li mi t a t i o n s of Acous t i c Me t h o d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Co n t i n u i t y Ga ge s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Ap p e n d i x - - Pr a c t i c a l Fr a c t ur e To u g h n e s s Speci mens ; De t a i l s of Pr e pa r a t i on, Te s t -
i ng, a n d Re p o r t i n g Da t a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Speci men Ma c h i n i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Fa t i g u e Cr a c ki ng a n d He a t Tr e a t me n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Te s t i n g Pr oc e dur e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Da t a Re p o r t i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Di s cus s i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Ev a l u a t i o n of Pr opos e d Re c o mme n d e d Pr a c t i c e for Sh a r p - No t c h Te ns i on T e s t i n g - - R.
H. He y e r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Te s t Speci mens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Pr oc e dur e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Ev a l u a t i o n Te s t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
S u mma r y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Di s cus s i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
El ect r on F r a c t o g r a p h y - - A Tool f or t h e St u d y of Mi c r o me c h a n i s ms of Fr a c t u r i n g
Pr o c e s s e s - - C. D. Be a c h e m a n d R. M. N. Pel l oux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Us e s of El e c t r on Fr a c t o g r a p h y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Fr a c t ur e Me c h a n i s ms St udi ed b y El e c t r on Fr a c t o g r a p h y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Cl e a va ge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Quas i - cl eavage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Coal escence of Mi cr o- voi ds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
I n t e r g r a n u l a r Separ at i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Fa t i gue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
F a i l u r e An a l y s i s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
S u mma r y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Di s cus s i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Practical Applications
Appl i ed Fr a c t u r e Me c h a n i c s - - C. F. Ti f f a n y a n d J. N. Ma s t e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
T h e Sel ect i on of a Fr a c t u r e - To u g h n e s s Speci men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Th e Appl i cat i on of Fr a c t u r e Me c ha ni c s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
T h e Pr edi ct i on of Cr i t i cal Fl a w Sizes a n d Th e i r Rol e i n Ma t e r i a l Sde c t i on . . . . . 259
T h e Es t i ma t i o n of t h e Li f e of Pr e s s ur e Vessel s Subj ect ed t o Cycl i c a nd Sus t a i ne d
St r esses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Th e De t e r mi n a t i o n of No n d e s t r u c t i v e I ns pe c t i on Ac c e pt a nc e Li mi t s . . . . . . . . . . 275
Concl us i ons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Di s cus s i on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Fr a c t ur e To u g h n e s s Te s t i n g i n Al l oy De v e l o p me n t - - R. P. Wei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Sel ect i on of Fr a c t u r e To u g h n e s s P a r a me t e r a n d Te s t Me t h o d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Fr a c t u r e Te s t i n g i n Al l oy De v e l o p me n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Re l a t i ons hi ps Be t we e n Mi c r os t r uc t ur e a n d To u g h n e s s i n Que nc he d a n d Te m-
per ed Low- Al l oy Ul t r a h i g h - St r e n g t h St eel s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Ef f ect of Sul f ur on Fr a c t ur e To u g h n e s s of AI SI 4345 St eel s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Fr a c t u r e To u g h n e s s Ani s ot r opy i n a Ma r a g i n g St eal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
S u mma r y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Fr a c t ur e To u g h n e s s Te s t i ng a t Al coa Re s e a r c h La b o r a t o r i e s - - J . G. Ka u f ma n a n d H.
Y. Huns i c ke r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Te a r Te s t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Sh a r p - No t c h Te ns i on Te s t i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Fr a c t u r e To u g h n e s s Te s t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Cor r el at i on Be t we e n Te a r Te s t s a n d Fr a c t u r e To u g h n e s s Te s t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
v i i i CONTENTS
P A G E
A l l o y D e v e l o p m e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 9 9
S t r a i n - H a r d e n i n g A l l o y s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 0 0
P r e c i p i t a t i o n - H a r d e n i n g A l l o y s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 0 2
High-Strength Aluminum-Zinc-Magnesium-Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Alloys for Cryogenic Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
The Application of Fracture Toughness Testing to the Development of a Family of
Alioy Steels--J. S. Pascover, M. Hill, and S. J. Matas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Test Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Anticipated Use of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Selection Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Application of Selection Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Testing of Sheet Materials at Ultrahigh-Strength Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Testing of Tough Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Specific Examples of the Use of Fracture Mechanics in Alloy and Process Devel-
opment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Study of Thermal Treatments on Strength and Toughness o[ HP 94-45 Steel . . . . 316
The Effects of Anisotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Welding Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Appendix--Cost of Various Types of Specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Fracture Testing of Weldments--J. A. Kies, H. L. Smith, H. E. Romine, and H.
Bemstein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
The Bend Specimen and Testing Fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Formulas and Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Demonstration of Linearity Between KI~ and Nominal Fiber Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Limitations on Specimen Size and Notch Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Comparison of Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness by the Slow Bend Test and by the
Single-Edge-Notch Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Material and Ku Test Results for i-in- Thick Plate of 18 Per Cent Marag-
ing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Tungsten Inert Gas Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Metal Inert Gas Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Summary of the Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Appendix--Failure Anal~ sis Example--Weld Flaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Incorporation of Fracture Information in Specifications--W. F. Payne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Specimen Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
The Use of Subsize Specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Toughness Variations in Commercial Mill Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Effect of Flaw Geometry and Multiple Flaw Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Quantitative Inspection Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Appendix I--Comparison of Critical Crack-Size Determination with Gross- and
Net-Stress Criteria for Surface-Cracked Specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Appendix II--Calculation of Equivalent Crack Size for Various Crack Geometries
and Interaction of Multiple Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Panel Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS TESTI NG AND ITS APPLI CATI ON
I NTRODUCTI ON
BY W. F. BROWN, j ~. l
The phenomenon of structural failure
by catastrophic crack propagation at
average stresses well below the yield
strength has been known for many
years. Rashes of such brittle failures
have occurred with increasing frequency
as the strength and size of our engineer-
ing structures have increased. In the past,
each series of failures has given rise to a
set of empirical tests and procedures
t hat sometimes provided a solution to
the specific problem at hand but did not
result in a generally useful approach
t hat would permit avoiding future fail-
ures.
Recent military and aerospace re-
quirements for very-high-strength, Iight-
weight hardware have given added im-
portance to the problem of brittle frac-
ture and greatly emphasized the need
for a quant i t at i ve approach to the gen-
eral problem of crack tolerance in struc-
tures. This need was dramatically high-
lighted several years ago by the repeated
failures of early Polaris rocket motor
cases at stresses well below the design
value. The ASTM Special Committee
on Fracture Testing of High Strength
Materials was formed at the request of
the Office of the Secretary of Defense to
assist in providing a solution to this and
related problems.
Over a period of the last five years
this committee has been concerned with
the question of how to evaluate the
1 Chairman of the symposium committee,
NASA-Lewi~ Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio.
i x
strength of metals in the presence of
cracks or crack-like defects. The goal
has been to provide laboratory tests and
analytical techniques which will permit
a quant i t at i ve measure of crack toler-
ance useful not only in evaluating mate-
rials for a given application but also in
development of rational procedure for
design against fracture. To achieve this
goal requires the development of an
essentially new branch of engineering
science, and this, of course, is an evolu-
tionary process which will take con-
siderable time to complete. However,
with the Irwin linear elastic fracture
mechanics as a basis, considerable prog-
ess has been made in the desired direc-
tion, and t oday there are available re-
liable if somewhat overconservative
procedures for avoiding failure by frac-
ture in a new structure.
The pri mary purpose of this sym-
posium was to review the methods for
fracture toughness testing as proposed
by the ASTM Special Committee on
Fracture Testing of High Strength
Materials, with a view toward defining
their limitations and the extent to which
t hey can be applied in structural design
and alloy development. With this in
mind the authors were asked to direct
at t ent i on more toward clarification of
concepts and procedures rather t han
toward presentation of new information.
In order to further assist in this review
function, the last session of the sym-
posium consisted of a panel discussion
x FRACTURE TOUGHNESS TESTING
which gave those concerned with frac-
ture testing an opport uni t y to put
questions to a group of persons who
have been active in the work of the
ASTM Fract ure Testing Committee.
There are, of course, many fracture
test methods other t han those discussed
in this volume. Some of these often pro-
vide useful information regarding the
fracture behavior of metallic materials.
The pre-cracked Charpy impact test is
a recent example of such a test which is
easy to perform and uses only small
specimens. Some efforts have been made
to demonstrate a correlation between the
results of pre-cracked Charpy tests and
fracture toughness tests on larger speci-
mens. A paper by G. M. 0r ner and C.
E. Hart bower on this topic was pre-
sented at the symposium meeting, but
because of space limitations does not
appear in this volume. However, the
reader should note t hat the panel dis-
cussion contains a considerable amount
of information regarding the use of the
pre-cracked Charpy test and references
to investigations in this area.