JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU.

EMILE;
OR,
CONCERNING EDUCATION.
Extracts
C O N T A I N I N G T H E PRI NCI PAL E L E ME N T S O F PEDAGOGY F O U N D I N T H E F I RST
T H R E E BOOKS. WI T H AN I N T RO DUC T I O N . AND N O T E S BY
JULES STEEG, DEPUTE, PARI S, FRANCE.
TRANSLATED BY
ELEANOR WORTHINGTON,
FORMERLY OF THE COOK CO. NORMAL SCHOOL, I LL.
BOSTON:
D. C. HEAT H & COMPANY.
1889.
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883, by
GINN, HEATH, & CO.,
I the Office of the Library of Congress, at Washington.
T R A N S L A T O R ' S P R E F A C E .
" A/ I " " J ULES STEEGr has r ender ed a r eal servi ce t o
__T_J_. Fr e nc h and Amer i can t eacher s by hi s j udi ci ous
select i ons from Rous s eau' s Smi l e . For t he t hr ee-vol ume
novel of a hundr ed year s ago, wi t h i t s l ong di squi si t i ons and
di gr essi ons, so dear t o t he hear t of our pat i ent ances t or s ,
is now di st ast ef ul t o all but l over s of t he cur i ous i n books .
' ' Smi l e " is li ke an ant i que mi r r or of br as s ; i t reflects t he
f eat ur es of educat i onal humani t y no less fai t hfully t ha n one
of mor e moder n const r uct i on. I n t hese few pages will be
f ound t he ger m of all t hat is useful i n pr es ent s ys t ems of
educat i on, as well as mos t of t he ever -r ecur r i ng mi s t akes of
wel l -meani ng zeal ot s .
The ei ght eent h cent ur y t r ans l at i ons of t hi s wonderful
book have for ma ny r eader s t he di s advant age of an En g -
li sh st yl e l ong di sused. I t is hopped t hat t hi s at t empt at a
new t r ans l at i on ma y, wi t h all i t s def ect s, have t he one
mer i t of bei ng i n t he di al ect of t he ni net eent h cent ur y, a nd
may t hus r each a wi der circle of r eader s .
I N T R O D U C T I O N .
J
EAN" JACQUES ROUSSEAU' S book on education has had a
powerful influence t hroughout Europe, and even in t he New
World*- I t was in its day a ki nd of gospel. I t had its share in
bringing about t he Revolution which renovated the. entire aspect
of our country. Many of t he reforms so lauded by it have since
t hen been carried into effect, and at this day seem every-day
affairs. I n t he eighteenth century they were unheard-of dari ng;
they were mere dreams.
Long before t hat time t he i mmort al satirist Rabelais, and, after
him, Michael Montaigne, had already divined the t rut h, had
pointed out serious defects in education, and t he way to reform.
No one followed out their suggestions, or even gave t hem a
hearing. Rout i ne went on its way. Exercises of memor y, t he
science t hat consists of mere words, pedantry, barren and vain-
glorious, held fast their "bad eminence." The child was treated
as a machine, or as a man in miniature,, no account being t aken
of his nat ure or of his real needs; without any greater solici-
tude about reasonable method t he hygiene of mi nd t han
about t he hygiene of the body.
Rousseau, who had educated himself, and very badly at t hat ,
was impressed wi t h t he dangers of t he education of his day. A
mother having" asked" his advice,^ he took up t he pen t o write i t ;
and, little by little, his counsels grew into a book, "a large work,
a pedagogic romance.
This romance, when it appeared in 1762, created a great noise
and a great scandal. The Archbishop of Paris, Christophe de
Beaumont, saw in it a dangerous, mischievous work, and gave
himself t he trouble of wri t i ng a long encyclical letter in order
to point out t he book to t he reprobation of t he faithful. Thi s
document of twenty-seven chapters is a formal refutation of the
theories advanced in "Emi l e. "
The archbishop declares t hat t he pl an of education proposed
by the author, "f ar from being in accordance wi t h Christianity,
is not fitted t o form citizens, or even men. " He accuses Rous-
seau of irreligion and of - bad f ai t h; he denounces hi m to the
temporal power as animated "by a spirit of insubordination
and of revolt." He sums up by solemnly condemning t he book
"as containing an abominable doctrine, calculated to overthrow
natural law, and t a destroy t he foundations of t he Christian
religion; establishing maxi ms contrary to Gospel morali t y; hav-
ing a tendency to disturb the peace of empires, to stir up sub-
jects to revolt against their sovereign; as containing a great
number of propositions respectively false, scandalous, full of ha-
tred toward t he Church and its ministers, derogating from t he
respect due to Holy Scripture and t he traditions of t he Church,
erroneous, impious, blasphemous, and heretical. "
I n those days, such a condemnation was a serious mat t er ; its
consequences to an author mi ght be terrible. Rousseau had
barely time to flee. Hi s arrest was decreed by t he parliament
of Paris, and his book was burned by the executioner. A few
years before this, the author would have r un t he risk of being
burned with his book.
As a fugitive, Rousseau did not find a safe ret reat even in
his own country. He was obliged to leave Geneva, where his
book was also condemned, and Berne, where he_ had sought
refuge, but whence he was driven by intolerance. He owed i t
to the protection of Lord Keith, governor of Neufchatel, a
principality belonging to t he Ki ng of Prussia, t hat he lived for
some time i n peace in t he little town of Motiers in t he Yal de
Travers.
I t was from t hi s place t hat he replied to t he archbishop of
Pari s by an apology, a long-winded work in which he repels,
one after another, t he imputations of his accuser, and sets forth
anew with greater urgency his philosophical and religious prin-
ciples. Thi s work, wri t t en on a rat her confused plan but with
impassioned eloquence, manifests a lofty and sincere spirit. I t
is said t hat t he archbishop was deeply touched by it, and never
afterward spoke of t he author of " Emi l e " without extreme
reserve, sometimes even eulogizing his character and his virtues.
The renown of t he book, condemned by so high an authority,
was immense. Scandal, by at t ract i ng public at t ent i on to it,
did it good service. What was most serious and most sugges-
tive in i t was not, perhaps, seized upon; but the "cr aze" of
which it was t he object had, notwithstanding, good results.
Mothers were won over, and resolved to nurse t hei r own infants;
great lords began to learn handicrafts, like Rousseau' s imagi-
nary pupi l ; physical exercises came into fashion; t he spirit of
innovation was forcing itself a way.
I t was not among ourselves, however, t hat the theories of
Rousseau were most eagerly experimented upon; it was among
foreigners, in Germany, in Switzerland, t hat they found more
resolute partisans, and a field more ready to receive them.
Three men above all the rest are noted for havi ng popularized
t he pedagogic met hod of Rousseau, and for havi ng been inspired
in their labors by "Emi l e. " These were Basedow, Pestalozzi,
and Froehel.
Basedow, a German theologian, had devoted himself entirely
to dogmatic controversy, unt i l t he reading of " Emi l e " had t he
effect of enlarging his ment al horizon, and of revealing to hi m
his t rue vocation. He wrote i mport ant books to show how
Rousseau' s method could be applied in different departments of
instruction, and founded at Dessau, in 1774, an institution to
bri ng t hat method wi t hi n t he domain of experience.
Thi s institution, to which he gave t he name of " Phi lant hro-
pi num, " was secular in t he t rue sense of the word; and at t hat
time this was in itself a novelty. I t was open to pupils of
every belief and every nationality, and proposed to render study
easy, pleasant, and expeditious to them, by following the direc-
tions of nat ure itself. I n the first r ank of his disciples may
be placed Campe, who succeeded hi m in t he management of t he
Phi lant hropi num.
Pestalozzi of Zurich, one of t he foremost educators of modern
times, also found his whole life transformed by the reading of
"Emi l e, " which awoke in hi m the genius of a reformer. He
himself also, in 1775, founded a school, in order to put in
practice there his progressive and professional method of teach-
ing, which was a fruitful development of seeds sown by Rous-
seau in his book. Pestalozzi left numerous writings, romances,
treatises, reviews, all having for sole object the popularization
of his ideas and processes of education. The most distin-
guished among his disciples and continuators is Froebel, t he
founder of those pri mary schools or asylums known by the
name of "ki ndergart ens, " and t he author "of highly esteemed
pedagogic wor.ks> _ -
These various attempts, these new and - ingenious processes
which, step by step, have made their,, way among us, and are
beginning t o make their workings felt, even in i nst i t ut i ons most
stoutly opposed to progress, are all traceable to Rousseau' s
"Emi l e. "
I t is therefore not too much for Frenchmen, for teachers,
for parents, for every one in our country who is interested in
what concerns teaching,* to go back to t he source of so great a
movement.
I t is true t hat " Emi l e " contains pages t hat have outlived
their day, many odd precepts, many false ideas, many disputable
and destructive t heori es; but at t he same time we find in it so
many sagacious observations, such upri ght counsels, suitable
even to modern times, so lofty an ideal, t hat , in spite of every-
t hi ng, we cannot read and study i t without profit. There is no
one who does not know the book by name and by reput at i on;
but how many parents, and even teachers, have never read i t !
Thi s is because a large part of t he book is no longer in
accordance with the actual condition of t hi ngs; because its very
plan, its fundamental idea, are outside of t he t rut h. We are
obliged t o exercise judgment, to make selections. Some of it
must be t aken, some left untouched. Thi s is what we have
done in t he present edition.
We have not, indeed, the presumption to correct Rousseau, or
t o substitute an expurgated " Emi l e " for t he authentic "Emi l e. "
We have simply wished to draw t he attention of t he teachers
of childhood to those pages of this book which have least grown
old,.which can still be of service, can hasten t he downfall of the
old systems, can emphasize, by their energy and beauty of lan-
guage, methods already i naugurat ed and reforms already under-
taken. These methods and reforms cannot be too often recom-
mended and set in a clear light. We have desired to call to
t he rescue this powerful and impassioned writer, who brings to
bear upon every subject he
:
approaches t he magical attractiveness
of his style.
There is absolutely not hi ng practicable in his system. I t con-
sists in isolating a child from t he rest of t he world; in creating
expressly for hi m a tutor, who is a phoenix among his ki nd;
in depriving him of father, mother, brothers, and sisters, his
companions in st udy; in surrounding hi m wi t h a perpetual char-
latanism, under the pretext of following nat ur e; and in showing
hi m only t hrough the veil of a factitious atmosphere the society
in whi ch. he is to live. And, nevertheless, at each step it is
sound reason by which we are met ; by an astonishing paradox,
this whimsicality is full of good sense; this dream overflows
with realities; this improbable and chimerical romance contains
t he substance and t he marrow of a rational and t ruly modern
treatise on pedagogy. Sometimes we must read ^between the
lines, add what experience has t aught us since t hat day, trans-
pose into an atmosphere of open democracy these pages, wri t t en
under t he old order of things, but even t hen quivering wi t h t he
new world which they were bri ngi ng to light, and for which
they prepared t he way.
Re a di ng' "Emi l e " in t he light of modern prejudices, we can
see in it more t han t he author wittingly put into i t ; but not
more t han logic and t he instinct of genius set down there.
To unfold the powers of children in due proportion to their
age; not to transcend their ability; to arouse in t hem t he sense
of t he observer and of t he pioneer; to make t hem discoverers
rat her t han i mi t at ors; to teach t hem accountability to them-
selves and not slavish dependence upon t he words of ot her s; to
address ourselves more to t he will t han to custom, to t he reason
rat her t han to t he memory; to substitute for verbal recitations
lessons about t hi ngs; t o lead to theory by way of a r t ; to assign
to physical movements and exercises a promi nent place, from
the earliest hours of life up to perfect mat ur i t y; such are the
principles scattered broadcast in this book, and forming a happy-
counterpoise to the oddities of which Rousseau was perhaps most
proud.
He takes t he child in its cradle, almost before its bi r t h; he
desires t hat mothers should fulfil the sacred dut y of nursi ng
t hem at t he breast. If there must be a nurse, he knows how
to choose her, how she ought to be treated, how she should be
fed. He watches over t he movements of t he new
:
born child,
over its first playthings. All these counsels bear t he st amp of
good sense and of experience; or, rather, they result from a
power of divination singular enough in a man who was not
willing to t ake care of his own children. I n this way, day
by day, he follows up t he physical and moral development of
t he little being, all whose ideas and feelings he analyzes, whom
he guides wi t h wisdom and with t act t hroughout t he mazes of
a life made up of convention and artifice.
We have carefully avoided suppressing t he fictions of t he
gardener and of t he mount ebank; because they are characteristic
of his manner, and because, after all, these pre-arranged scenes
which, as t hey stand, are anyt hi ng in t he world rat her t han
real teaching, contain, nevertheless, ri ght notions, and opinions
which may suggest to intelligent teachers processes in prudent
education. Such teachers will not copy the form; they will
not i mi t at e t he awkward clap-trap; but, yielding to t he inspi-
ration of t he domi nant idea, t hey will, in a way more in
accordance wi t h nat ure, manage to thrill with life t he teaching
of facts, and will aid t he mi nd in giving bi rt h to its ideas.
This is t he old method of Socrates, t he eternal method of
reason, t he only method which really educates.
We have brought this volume t o an end wi t h t he t hi rd book
of "Emi l e. " The fourth and fifth books which follow are not
wi t hi n t he domain of pedagogy. They contain admirable pages,
which ought to be r ead; which occupy one of t he foremost
places in our li t erat ure; which deal wi t h philosophy, wi t h
ethics, wi t h theology; but they concern themselves with t he
manner of directing young men and women, and no longer
wi t h childhood. The author conducts his Emi le even as far as
to his bet rot hal ; he devotes an entire book to t he betrothed
herself, Sophie, and closes his volume only after he has uni t ed
t hem in marriage.
We will not go so far. We will leave Emile upon t he con-
fines of youth, at t he t i me when he escapes from school, and
when he is about beginning to feel t hat he is a man. At this
difiicult and critical period t he teacher no longer suffices. Then,
above all things, is needed all t he influence of t he family; t he
father' s example, t he mother' s clear-sighted tenderness, worthy
friendships, an environment of meritorious people, of upri ght
minds animated by lofty ideas, who at t ract wi t hi n their orbit
this ardent and inquisitive being, eager for novelty, for action,
and for independence.
Artifices and stratagems are t hen no longer good for any-
t hi ng; t hey are very soon laid open to t he light. All t hat
can be required of a teacher is t hat he shall have furnished
his pupils with a sound and strong education, drawn from t he
sources of reason, experience, and nat ur e; t hat he shall have
prepared t hem to learn to form judgments, t o make use of
their faculties, to enter valiantly upon study and upon life. I t
seems to us t hat t he pages of Rousseau here published may be
a useful guide in t he pursui t of such a result.
JULES STEEG.
EMILE;
OR,
OONOEKNTETG EDUCATI ON.
BOOK FIEST.
TPI E first book, after some general remarks upon education, treats
especially of early infancy; of the first years of life; of t he care to
be bestowed upon very young children; of the nursi ng of t hem; of
the laws of health.
He makes education begin at bi rt h; expresses himself on the sub-
ject of the habits t o be given or to be avoided; discusses the use and
meaning of tears, outcries, gestures, also the language t hat should
be used wi t h young children, so that, from their tenderest years,
the inculcating of false ideas and the giving a wrong bent of mind
may be avoided.
G E N E R A L R E M A R K S .
Th e Obj e c t of Ed u c a t i o n .
C
OMI NG from t he ha nd of t he Aut hor of all t hi ngs ,
ever yt hi ng is g o o d ; i n t he ha nds of ma n, ever yt hi ng
degener at es. Ma n obli ges one soil t o nour i sh t he pr oduct i ons
of anot her , one t r ee t o' be a r t he frui t s of anot her ; he mi ngl es
and conf ounds cl i mat es, el ement s , seasons ; he mut i l at es hi s
dog, hi s hor se, hi s sl ave. He over t ur ns ever yt hi ng, disfig-
ur es e ve r yt hi ng; he l oves deformi t y, mo n s t e r s ; he desi r es
t hat not hi ng shoul d be as nat ur e made i t , not even ma n hi m-
self. To pl ease hi m, ma n mus t be br oken in li ke a h o r s e ;
man mus t be adapt ed t o ma n ' s own f ashi on, li ke a t r ee in
hi s ga r de n.
1
1
It is useless to enlarge upon the absurdity of this theory, and upon the
flagrant contradiction into which Rousseau allows himself to fall. If he is
We r e i t not for all t hi s, mat t er s would be still wor se. No
one wishes* t o be a hal f-devel oped bei ng ; and in t he pr es ent
condi t i on of t hi ngs , a ma n left t o hi mself among ot her s from
his bi r t h woul d be t he mos t def or med among t hem al l .
Pr ej udi ces, aut hor i t y, necessi t i es, exampl e, all t he soci al
i nst i t ut i ons i n whi ch we ar e s ubmer ged, woul d stifle nat ur e
in hi m, a nd woul d put not hi ng i n i t s pl ace. I n such a ma n
nat ur e woul d be li ke a shr ub s pr ung up by chance in t he
mi ds t of a hi ghway, and j ost l ed from all si des, be nt i n ever y
di rect i on, by t he pas s er s - by.
Pl a nt s ar e i mpr oved by cul t i vat i on, and me n by educat i on.
I f ma n wer e bor n l ar ge and s t r ong, his si ze and s t r engt h
woul d be usel ess t o hi m unt i l he had l ear ned t o us e t hem.
The y woul d be pr ej udi ci al t o hi m, by pr event i ng ot her s f r om
t hi nki ng of assi st i ng hi m ; a nd left t o hi mself he woul d di e of
wr et chedness bef or e he ha d known hi s own necessi t i es. We
pi t y t he s t at e of i nf ancy ; we clo not per cei ve t ha t t he huma n
r ace woul d have per i shed if ma n ha d not begun by bei ng a
chi ld.
We ar e bor n weak, we need s t r e ngt h; we ar e bor n dest i -
t ut e of all t hi ngs , we need a s s i s t a nc e ; we ar e bor n st upi d,
we need j udgment . Al l t ha t we have not at our bi r t h, a nd
t ha t we need when gr own up, is gi ven us by educat i on.
Thi s educat i on comes t o us from na t ur e itself, or from
ot her men, or from ci r cums t ances . Th e i nt er nal devel op-
me nt of our facult i es a nd of our or gans is t he education^
na t ur e gi ves us ; t he use we ar e t a ught t o ma ke of t hi s devel -
opment is t he educat i on we get from ot her me n ; and what
we l ear n, by our own exper i ence, about t hi ngs t ha t i nt er est
us , is t he educat i on of ci r cums t ances .
right, man ought to be left without education, and the earth without culti-
vation. This would not be even the savage state. But want of space forbids
lis to pause at each like statement of-our author, who at once busies himself
in nullifying it.
Each of lis is t her ef or e f or med by t hr ee ki nds of t eacher s .
The pupi l i n whom t hei r different l essons cont r adi ct one
anot her is badl y educat ed, and will never be in har mony wi t h
hi mself; t he one i n whom t hey all t ouch upon t he samo
poi nt s and t e nd t owar d t he same obj ect advances t owar d
t ha t goal onl y, and li ves accor di ngl y. He al one is well edu-
cat ed.
No w of t hese t hr ee different educat i ons, t ha t of nat ur e does
not depend upon us ; t hat of ci r cumst ances depends upon us
onl y i n cer t ai n r espect s ; t ha t of men is t he onl y one of
whi ch we ar e r eal l y mas t er s , a nd t hat solely becaus e we
t hi nk we ar e. Fo r who can hope t o di r ect ent i rel y t he speech
a nd conduct of all who s ur r ound a child ?
As soon, t her ef or e, as educat i on becomes an ar t , i t s suc-
cess is al most i mpossi bl e, si nce t he agr eement of ci rcum-
st ances necessar y t o t hi s success is i ndependent of per s onal
effort. Al l t ha t t he ut mos t car e can do i s t o appr oach
mor e or l ess near l y our obj e c t ; but , for at t ai ni ng i t , speci al
good f or t une is needed.
Wh a t is t hi s obj ect ? Th a t of nat ur e itself, as has j us t
been pr oved. Si nce t he agr eement of t he t hr ee educat i ons
i s neces s ar y t o t hei r per f ect i on, i t i s t owar d t he one f or whi ch
we our sel ves can do not hi ng t ha t we mus t di r ect bot h, t he
ot her s. But per haps t hi s wor d " n a t u r e " has t oo vague a
meani ng ; we mus t her e t r y t o define i t .
I n t he nat ur al or der of t hi ngs , all me n bei ng equal , t he
vocat i on common t o all is t he s t at e of ma n h o o d ; a nd who-
ever i s well t r ai ned for t hat , cannot fulfil badl y a ny vocat i on
whi ch depends upon it. Whe t he r my pupi l be dest i ned
for t he- a r my, . t he chur ch, or t he bar , mat t er s li t t le t o rne.
Bef or e he can t hi nk of adopt i ng t he vocat i on of hi s pa r e nt s ,
nat ur e calls upon hi m t o be a man. Ho w t o li ve is t he
business* I wi sh t o t each hi m. On l eavi ng my ha nds he will
not , I admi t , be a magi s t r at e, a soldi er, or a pr i e s t ; first of
all he will be a ma n. Al l t hat a ma n ought t o be he c a n
be, at need, as well as any one else can. For t une will in
vai n al t er his posi t i on, for he will al ways occupy hi s own.
Our r eal s t udy is t ha t of t he s t at e of ma n. He among us
who bes t knows how t o bear t he good and evil f or t unes of
t hi s life i s, i n my opi ni on, t he best educat ed ; whence it fol-
lows t ha t t r ue educat i on consi st s less i n pr ecept t han in pr ac-
t i ce. We begi n t o i ns t r uct our sel ves when we begi n t o live ;
our educat i on commences wi t h t he commencement of our
life ; our first t eacher is our nur s e. Fo r t hi s r eason t he wor d
" e duc a t i on" had among t he anci ent s anot her meani ng whi ch
we no l onger at t ach t o i t ; i t signified nut r i ment .
We mus t t hen t ake a br oader vi ew of t hi ngs , and consi der
i n our pupi l ma n in t he abs t r act , ma n expos ed t o all t he acci -
dent s of huma n life. I f ma n were bor n at t ached t o t he soil
of a count r y, if t he s ame season cont i nued t hr oughout t he
year , if ever y one hel d hi s f or t une by such a t enur e t ha t he
could never change i t , t he est abl i shed cust oms of t o- day
woul d be i n cer t ai n r es pect s good. Th e chi ld educat ed for
hi s posi t i on, a nd never l eavi ng it, could not be expos ed t o t he
i nconveni ences of anot her .
But seei ng t ha t huma n affairs ar e changeabl e, seei ng t he
r est l ess and di s t ur bi ng spi ri t of t hi s cent ur y, whi ch over-
t ur ns ever yt hi ng once in a gener at i on, can a mor e sensel ess
met hod be i magi ned t ha n t o educat e a child as if he were
never t o l eave hi s r oom, as if he wer e obl i ged t o be cons t ant l y
s ur r ounded by hi s s er vant s ? I f t he poor cr eat ur e t akes but
one s t ep on t he ear t h, if he comes down so much as one st ai r ,
he i s r ui ned. Thi s i s not t eachi ng hi m t o endur e pai n ; i t is
t r ai ni ng hi m t o feel i t mor e keenl y.
We t hi nk onl y of pr es er vi ng t he chi ld : t hi s is not enough.
We ought t o t each hi m t o pr es er ve hi mself when he i s a ma n ;
t o bear t he bl ows of fat e ; t o br ave bot h weal t h and wr et ched-
ness ; t o li ve, if need be , a mong t he snows of I cel and or upon
t he bur ni ng r ock of Ma l t a . I n vai n you t a ke pr ecaut i ons
agai nst hi s dyi ng, he mus t di e aft er a l l ; and if hi s deat h be
not i ndeed t he r esul t of t hose ver y pr ecaut i ons , t hey ar e none
t he . l ess mi s t aken. I t is less i mpor t ant t o keep hi m from
dyi ng t ha n i t is t o t each hi m how t o l i ve. To live is not
mer el y t o br eat he, i t is t o act . I t is t o ma ke use of our
or gans , of our senses, of our facult i es, of all t he power s
whi ch bear wi t ness t o us of our own exi s t ence. He who has
li ved mos t is not he who has number ed t he mos t year s , but
he who has been mos t t r ul y consci ous of what life i s. A ma n
ma y have hi mself bur i ed at t he age of a hundr ed ye a r s , who
di ed from t he hour of his bi r t h. He woul d have gai ned
s omet hi ng by goi ng t o hi s gr ave i n yout h, if up t o t hat t i me
he ha d onl y l i ved.
The Ne w- b o r n Chi l d.
T H E new-bor n child needs t o st r et ch a nd t o move his l i mbs
so as t o dr aw t hem out of t he t or por in whi ch, rolled i nt o a
bal l , t hey have so l ong r emai ned. We do st r et ch hi s l i mbs ,
i t i s t r ue, but we pr event hi m from movi ng t hem. Wc even
const r ai n hi s head i nt o a ba by' s cap. I t seems as if we wer e
afraid he mi ght appear t o be ali ve. The i nact i on, t he con-
s t r ai nt i n whi ch we keep hi s l i mbs , cannot fail t o i nt er f er e
wi t h t he ci r cul at i on of t he bl ood a nd of t he secr et i ons, t o
pr event t he child from gr owi ng s t r ong and s t ur dy, and t o
change hi s const i t ut i on. I n r egi ons wher e t hese e xt r a va ga nt
pr ecaut i ons ar e not t aken, t he men ar e a l l l ar ge, s t r ong, a nd
well pr opor t i oned. Count r i es in whi ch chi l dr en ar e swaddl ed
swar m wi t h hunchbacks , wi t h cr i ppl es, wi t h per s ons cr ook-
kneed, s t unt ed, r i cket y, def or med in all ki nds of wa}
T
s. Fo r
fear t ha t t he bodi es of chi ldren ma y be- def or med by free
movement s , we has t en t o def or m t hem by put t i ng t hem i nt o
a pr ess. Of our own accor d we cr i ppl e t he m t o pr event
t hei r l ami ng t hemsel ves.
Mus t not such a cruel const r ai nt have an influence upon
t hei r t emper as well as upon t hei r const i t ut i on ? Thei r first
feeli ng i s a feeli ng of cons t r ai nt and of sufferi ng. To* all
t hei r necessar y movement s t hey find onl y obst acl es. Mor e un-
f or t unat e t han chai ned cr i mi nal s, they make frui t less efforts,
t hey fret t hemsel ves, t hey cr y. Do you t ell me t ha t t he first
sounds t hey make ar e cries ? I can well* beli eve i t ; you
t hwar t t hem from t he t i me t hey ar e bor n. The first gifts
t hey recei ve from you are chai ns, t he first t r e a t me nt t hey
under go is t or ment . Ha vi ng not hi ng free but t he voi ce, why
should t hey not use i t in compl ai nt s ? The y cr y on account
of t he suffering you cause t hem ; if you wer e pi ni oned in t he
s ame way, }^our own cri es would be l ouder .
Whe nc e ari ses t hi s unr eas onabl e cust om of s waddl i ng chil-
dr en? Fr om an unna t ur a l cust om. Si nce t he t i me when
mot her s , despi si ng t hei r first dut y, no l onger wi sh t o nur s e
t hei r own chi ldren at t he br eas t , i t has been neces s ar y t o i n-
t r us t t he li t t le ones t o hi r ed women. The s e , finding t hem-
sel ves i n t hi s way t he mot her s of s t r ange chi l dr en, con-
cer ni ng whom t he voi ce of nat ur e is si lent t o t hem, seek
onl y t o spar e t hemsel ves annoyance. A chi ld at l i ber t y
woul d r equi r e i ncessant wa t c hi ng; but af t er he is well
swaddl ed, t hey t hr ow hi m i nt o a cor ner wi t hout t r oubl i ng
t hemsel ves at all on account of hi s cr i es. Pr ovi ded t her e ar e
no pr oof s of t he nur s e ' s car el essness, pr ovi ded t h a t - t h e
nur sl i ng does not br eak hi s l egs or hi s a r ms , . wha t does i t
mat t er , af t er all.,, t ha t he is pi ni ng, a way,Lor t h a t he cont i nues
feeble for t he r est of hi s life? Hi s l i mbs ar e. pr es er ved at
t he expens e of hi s life, a nd what ever ha ppe ns , t he nur s e i s
held free from bl ame.
I t is pr et ended t ha t chi l dren, when left free, ma y put t hem-
selves i nt o bad posi t i ons, and make movement s li able t o
i nj ur e t he pr oper conf or mat i on of t hei r l i mbs. Thi s is one
of t he weak ar gument s of our false wi sdom, whi ch no exper i -
ence has ever confi rmed. Of t ha t mul t i t ude of chi ldren who,
among nat i ons mor e sensi bl e t han our sel ves, ar e br ought up
i n t he full f r eedom of t hei r l i mbs, not one is seen t o wound
or l ame himself. They cannot gi ve t hei r movement s force
enough t o ma ke t hem da nge r ous ; and when t hey as s ume a
hur t f ul posi t i on, pai n soon wa r ns t hem t o change i t .
We have not yet br ought our sel ves t o t he poi nt of swad-
dl i ng puppi es or ki t t e n s ; do we see t ha t any i nconveni ence
r esul t s t o t he m from t hi s negl i gence ? Chi l dr en are heavi er ,
i nde e d; but in pr opor t i on t hey ar e weaker . The y can
scar cel y move t hemsel ves at a l l ; how can t hey l ame t hem-
sel ves? I f lai d upon t he back t hey woul d di e i n t ha t
posi t i on, li ke t he t or t oi se, wi t hout bei ng abl e ever t o t ur n
t hemsel ves agai n.
[ Thi s want of i nt el l i gence i n the care bes t owed upon young chil-
dren i s seen parti cul arl y i n t hos e mot hers who gi ve t hems el ves no
concern about thei r own, do not t hems el ves nurse t hem, i nt rust
t hem t o hi rel i ng nurses. Thi s cus t om i s f at al t o al l ; first to the
chi l dren and finally t o f ami l i es, where barrenness becomes the rul e,
where womau sacri fi ces t o her own conveni ence t he j oys and t he
duti es of mot herhood. ]
Woul d you r ecal l ever y one t o hi s hi ghest dut i es ? Begi n
wi t h t he mot her s ; you will be ast oni shed at t he changes you
will effect. Fr o m t hi s first depr avi t y all ot her s come i n suc-
cessi on. Th e ent i r e mor al or der i s changed ; nat ur al feeli ng
is ext i ngui s hed in all hear t s . Wi t hi n our homes t her e is
less cheerfulness ; t he t ouchi ng si ght of a gr owi ng fami ly
no l onger at t aches t he hus band or at t r act s t he at t ent i on
of s t r anger s . The mot her whose chi l dren ar e not seen is
less r espect ed. The r e is no such t hi ng as a fami ly li vi ng
t oge t he r ; habi t no l onger s t r engt hens t he t i es of bl ood.
Ther e ar e no l onger f at her s and mot her s and chi l dr en and
br ot her s and si st er s. The y all scarcely know one anot her ;
how t hen shoul d t hey love one anot her ? Ea c h one t hi nks
only of himself. Wh e n home is a mel anchol y, lonely pl ace,
we mus t i ndeed go elsewhere t o enj oy our sel ves.
Ba t let mot her s only vouchsafe t o nour i sh t hei r chi l dr en,
1
and our manner s will reform t hemsel ves ; t he feeli ngs of na-
t ur e will r e- awaken in all hear t s . The St at e will be r epeo-
pl e d; t hi s chief t hi ng, t hi s one t hi ng will br i ng all t he r es t
i nt o or der agai n. The at t r act i ons of home life pr es ent t he
best ant i dot e t o ba d mor al s . Th e bust l i ng life of li t t le chil-
dr en, consi der ed so t i r esome, becomes pl e a s a nt ; i t ma ke s
t he fat her and t he mot her mor e necessar y t o one anot her ,
mor e dear t o one a not he r ; i t dr aws closer bet ween t hem t he
conj ugal t i e. Wh e n t he fami ly is spr i ght l y and ani mat ed,
domest i c car es f or m t he dear es t occupat i on of t he wife and
t he sweet est r ecr eat i on of t he hus band. Thus t he cor r ect i on
of t hi s one abuse woul d soon r esul t in a gener al r ef or m ;
nat ur e would r es ume all her r i ght s .
1
Wh e n women ar e once
mor e t r ue mot her s , men will become t r ue f at her s and hus -
ba nds .
If mot her s ar e not r eal mot her s , chi ldren ar e not r eal chil-
dr en t owar d t hem. Thei r dut i es t o one anot her ar e r eci pr o-
cal, and if t hese be badl y fulfilled on t he one si de, t hey
.will be negl ect ed on t he ot her si de. The chi ld ought t o
1
The voice of Rousseau was lieard. The nursing of children by their
own mothers, which had gone into disuse as vulgar and troublesome, be-
came a fashion. Great ladies prided themselves upon returning to the
usage of nature, and infants were brought in with the dessert to give an
exhibition of maternal tenderness. This affectation died out, but in most
families the good and wholesome custom of motherhood was retained.
This page of Rousseau's contributed its share to the happy result.
love hi s mot her before he knows t ha t it is hi s dut y t o love
her . I f t he voice of nat ur al affection be not s t r engt hened by
habi t and by car e, i t will gr ow dumb even in chi l dhood; a nd
t hus t he hear t di es, so t o speak, before it is bor n. Thus
from t he out set we ar e beyond t he pal e of nat ur e.
The r e i s an opposi t e way by whi ch a woman goes beyond
i t ; t ha t i s, when, i nst ead of negl ect i ng a mot her ' s car es , she
car r i es t hem t o e xc e s s ; when she makes her chi ld her i dol.
She i ncr eases and f ost er s his weaknes s t o pr event hi m
from feeling it. Hopi ng t o shel t er hi m from t he l aws of na-
t ur e, she war ds from hi m shocks of pai n. She does not
consi der how, for t he sake of pr eser vi ng hi m for a mo-
ment from some i nconveni ences, she is heapi ng upon hi s
head f ut ur e acci dent s and pe r i l s ; nor how cruel i s t he cau-
t i on whi ch pr ol ongs t he weaknes s of chi l dhood in one who
mus t bear t he f at i gues of a gr own- up ma n. The fable s ays
t hat , t o r ender her son i nvul ner abl e, Thet i s pl unged hi m i nt o
t he St y x . Thi s allegory is beaut i ful and clear. Th e cruel
mot her s of whom I am speaki ng do f ar ot herwi se ; by pl ung-
i ng t hei r chi ldren i nt o effeminacy t hey open t hei r por es t o
ills of ever y ki nd, t o whi ch, when gr own up, t hey fall a cer-
t ai n pr ey.
Wa t c h nat ur e carefully, and follow t he pat hs she t r aces out
for you. She gi ves chi ldren cont i nual exer ci se ; she s t r engt h-
ens t hei r const i t ut i on by or deal s of ever y ki nd ; she t eaches
t hem ear l y what pai n and t r oubl e mean. The cut t i ng of
t hei r t eet h gi ves t hem fever, s har p fits of colic t hr ow t hem
i nt o convul si ons, l ong coughi ng chokes t hem, wor ms t or ment
t hem, r epl et i on cor r upt s t hei r blood, different l eavens fer-
ment i ng t her e cause danger ous er upt i ons. Ne a r l y t he whole
of i nf ancy is si ckness and d a n g e r ; half t he chi l dr en bor n
i nt o t he wor l d di e before t hei r ei ght h year . Thes e t r i al s
pas t , t he child has gai ned s t r engt h, and as soon as he
can use life, i t s pr i nci pl e becomes mor e as s ur ed.
Thi s is t he l aw of nat ur e. Wh y do you oppos e her ? Do you
not see t hat in t hi nki ng t o correct her you des t r oy her wor k
and count er act t he effect of all her car es ? I n your opi ni on,
t o do wi t hout what she is doi ng wi t hi n is t o r edoubl e t he
danger . On t he cont r ar y, it is really t o aver t , t o mi t i gat e
t hat danger . Exper i ence t eaches t hat mor e chi l dr en who ar e
deli cat ely r ear ed di e t han ot her s . Pr ovi ded we do not ex-
ceed t he meas ur e of t hei r s t r engt h, i t is bet t er t o emplo}^ i t
t ha n t o hoar d i t . Gi ve t hem pr act i ce, t hen, i n t he t r i al s t hey
will one day have t o endur e. I nur e t hei r bodi es t o t he
i ncl emenci es of t he s eas ons , of cl i mat es, of e l e me nt s ; t o
hunger , t hi r st , f a t i gue ; pl unge t he m i nt o t he wat er of t he
St yx. Bef or e t he habi t s of t he body ar e acqui r ed we can
gi ve i t such as we pl ease wi t hout r i sk. But when once
i t has r eached i t s full vi gor , any al t er at i on is per i l ous t o
i t s well-bei ng. A child will endur e changes whi ch a ma n
could not bear' . The fibres of t he f or mer , soft and pli a-
bl e, t ake wi t hout effort t he be nt we gi ve t h e m; t hose of
ma n, mor e har dened, do not wi t hout vi olence change t hose
t hey have recei ved. We ma y t her ef or e ma ke a child r obus t
wi t hout expos i ng hi s life or his he a l t h; a nd even if t her e
wer e some r i sk we still ought not t o hes i t at e. Si nce t her e
ar e r i sks i nsepar abl e from huma n life, can we do bet t er t ha n
t o t hr ow t hem back upon t hat per i od of life when t hey are
l east di s advant ageous ?
A child becomes mor e pr eci ous as he advances in age
To t he val ue of hi s per son is added t hat of t he car es he has
cost us ; if we lose hi s li fe, hi s own consci ousness of deat h is
added t o our sense of l oss. Above all t hi ngs , t hen, in wat ch-
i ng over hi s pr eser vat i on we must t hi nk of t he f ut ur e. We
mus t ar m hi m agai ns t t he mi sf or t unes of yout h before he has
r eached t hem. For , if t he val ue of life i ncr eases up. t o t he
age when life becomes useful, wha t folly i t is t o s par e t he child
some t r oubl es, and t o heap t hem upon t he age of r e a s on!
Ar e t hese t he counsel s of a mas t er ?
I n all ages suffering is t he lot of ma n . Eve n t o t he car es
of self-preservat i on pai n is j oi ned. Ha ppy ar e we, who in
chi ldhood ar e acquai nt ed wi t h only physi cal mi s f or t une s
mi sfort unes far l ess cruel, less pai nful t ha n ot he r s ; mi sfor-
t unes whi ch far mor e r ar el y make us r enounce life. We do
not ki ll our sel ves on account of t he pai ns of g o ut ; sel dom do
any but t hose of t he mi nd pr oduce des pai r .
1
We pi t y t he lot of i nf ancy, and i t is our own lot t ha t we
ought t o pi t y. Our gr eat es t mi sf or t unes come t o us from
our sel ves.
At bi r t h a chi ld cries ; hi s earl i est i nf ancy is s pent i n cry-
i ng. Somet i mes he is t ossed, he is pet t ed, t o appeas e h i m;
somet i mes he i s t hr eat ened, beat en, t o ma ke hi m keep qui et .
We ei t her do as he pl eases, or else we exact f r om hi m wha t
we pl ease ; we ei t her submi t t o hi s whi ms , or ma ke hi m s ub-
mi t t o our s . Ther e i s no mi ddl e cour se ; he mus t ei t her gi ve
or recei ve or der s. Thus hi s first i deas ar e t hose of absol ut e
rule and of sl aver y. Before he knows how t o s peak, he
commands ; before he i s able t o act , he o b e y s ; and some-
t i mes he is puni s hed before he knows what hi s f aul t s ar e, or
r at her , bef or e he is capabl e of commi t t i ng t hem. Thus do
we ear l y pour i nt o hi s young hear t t he passi ons t hat ar e
af t er war d i mput ed t o nat ur e ; and, after havi ng t a ke n pai ns
t o make hi m wi cked, we compl ai n of finding hi m wi cked.
A child pas s es si x or seven }^ears of hi s life i n t hi s ma nne r
in t he ha nds of women, t he vi ct i m of hi s own capr i ce a nd of
t hei r s. Af t er havi ng ma de hi m l ear n t hi s and t h a t , aft er
i Thi s remark is not a just one. How often have we seen unhappy
creatures disgusted with life because of some dreadful and incurable mal-
ady ? It is true that suicide, being an act of madness, is more frequently
caused by those troubles which imagination delights itself in magnifying
up to the point of insanity.
havi ng l oaded hi s memor y ei t her wi t h wor ds he cannot under -
s t and, or wi t h f act s whi ch ar e of no use t o hi m, a f t e r havi ng
stifled his nat ur al di sposi t i on by t he passi ons we have cr eat ed
T
we put t hi s artificial cr eat ur e i nt o t he ha nds of a t ut or who
finishes t he devel opment of t he artificial ger ms he finds
al r eady f or med, and t eaches hi m ever yt hi ng except t o know
himself, ever yt hi ng except t o know how t o live and how
t o make hi mself happy. Fi nal l y, when t hi s ensl aved chi ld, t hi s
li t t le t yr ant , full of l ear ni ng and devoi d of sense, enf eebl ed
ali ke i n mi nd and body, is cast upon t he wor l d, he t her e by
hi s unfi t ness, by hi s pr i de, and by all hi s vi ces, makes us de-
plore huma n wr et chednes s and per ver s i t y. We decei ve our-
selves ; t hi s is t he ma n our whi ms have cr eat ed. Na t ur e
ma ke s me n by a different pr ocess.
Do you t hen wi sh hi m t o pr eser ve hi s or i gi nal f or m?
Pr es er ve i t from t he moment he ent er s t he wor l d. As soon as
he is bor n t ake possessi on of hi m, and do not l eave hi m unt i l
he is a ma n. Wi t hout t hi s you will never succeed. As t he
mot her is t he t r ue nur s e, t he fat her is t he t r ue t eacher .
Let t hem be of one mi nd as t o t he or der in whi ch t hei r func-
t i ons ar e fulfilled, as well as in r egar d t o t hei r pl an ; let t he
child pas s from t he hands of t he one i nt o t he ha nds of t he
ot her . He will be bet t er educat ed by a f at her who is j udi -
ci ous, even t hough of moder at e at t ai nment s , t han by t he
mos t skilful mas t er in t he wor l d. For zeal will suppl e-
ment t al ent bet t er t ha n t al ent can suppl y what only zeal
can gi ve.
A f at her , when he br i ngs hi s chi l dr en i nt o exi st ence and
s uppor t s t hem, has , in so doi ng, fulfilled only a t hi r d par t of
hi s t as k. To t he huma n r ace he owes men ; t o soci et y, men
fitted for s oci et y; t o t he St at e, ci t i zens. Eve r y ma n who
3an pa y t hi s t r i pl e debt , and does not pay i t , is a gui l t y ma n ;
and if he pa ys it by hal ves, he i s per haps mor e gui l t y st i ll.
He who cannot fulfil t he dut i es of a f at her has no r i ght t o
be a fat her. No t pover t y, nor sever e l abor , nor huma n r e-
spect can r el ease hi m from t he dut y of s uppor t i ng hi s chil-
dr en and of educat i ng t hem himself. Reader s , you ma y be-
lieve my wor ds . I pr ophes y t o any one who has nat ur al
feeli ng and negl ect s t hese sacr ed dut i e s , t hat he will l ong
shed bi t t er t ear s over t hi s fault , and t hat for t hose t ear s he
will find no cons ol at i on.
1
[ I t bei ng s uppos ed that t he father i s unabl e or unwi l l i ng t o charge
hi msel f personal l y wi t h t he educat i on of hi s s on, he mus t charge a
thi rd person wi t h i t ; mus t seek out a mast er, a t eacher f or the
chi l d. ]
The qualifications .of a good t ut or ar e ver y freely di s-
cussed. The first quali fi cat i on I shoul d r equi r e in hi m,
and t hi s one pr es uppos es ma ny ot her s , i s, t hat he shal l
not be capabl e of selli ng himself. The r e ar e empl oyment s
so noble t hat we cannot fulfil t he m for money wi t hout show-
i ng our sel ves unwor t hy t o fulfil t hem. Such an empl oyment
is t hat of a soldi er ; such a one is t ha t of a t eacher . Wh o ,
t hen, shall educat e my chi ld? I have t old you al r ead}
r
,
yourself. I c a nnot ! Th e n ma ke for yoursel f a friend who
can. I see no ot her al t er nat i ve.
A t eacher ! what a gr eat soul he ought t o be ! Tr ul y, t o
form a ma n, one mus t be ei t her hi mself a fat her, or else
somet hi ng mor e t ha n human. An d t hi s is t he office you
calmly ent r us t t o hi r el i ngs !
2
1
This is an allusion to one of the most unfortunate episodes in the life of
Rousseau,his abandoning of the children whom Therese Levasseur bore
him, and whom he sent to a foundling hospital because he felt within him.
neither courage to labor for their support, nor capacity to educate them.
Sad practical defect in this teacher of theories of education!
2
For the particular example of education which he supposes, Rousseau
creates a tutor whom he consecrates absolutely, exclusively, to the work.
He desires one so perfect that he calls him a prodigy. Let us not blame
The Ea r l i e s t Ed u c a t i o n .
Chi l dr en' s first i mpr essi ons ar e pur el y t hose of f eel i ng;
t hey per cei ve only pl easur e and pai n. Unabl e ei t her t o
move about , or t o gr as p anyt hi ng wi t h t hei r ha nds , t hey
need a gr eat deal of t i me t o f or m sensat i ons whi ch r epr es ent ,
and so ma ke t hem awar e of object s out si de of t hemsel ves.
But , dur i ng all t hi s t i me, whi le t hese obj ect s ar e ext endi ng,
and, as i t wer e, r ecedi ng from t hei r eyes, as s umi ng, t o t hem,
f or m and di mensi on, t he cons t ant l y r ecur r i ng sensat i ons
begi n t o subj ect t he li t t le cr eat ur es t o t he sway of habi t . We
see t hei r eyes i ncessant l y t ur ni ng t owar d t he l i ght ; and, if it
comes t o t hem from one si de, unwi t t i ngl y t aki ng t he di rec-
t i on of t hat s i de ; so t hat t hei r faces ought t o be carefully
t ur ned t owar d t he l i ght , lest t hey become squi nt -eyed, or
accust om t hemsel ves t o look awr y. The y shoul d, al so, ear l y
accust om t hemsel ves t o dar knes s , or else t hey will cry and
s cr eam as soon as t hey ar e left i n t he da r k. Food and sl eep,
if t oo exact l y pr opor t i oned, become neces s ar y t o t hem aft er
t he l apse of t he s ame i nt er val s ; and soon t he desi re ari ses
not from necessity* but from habi t . Or r at her , habi t adds a
new want t o t hose of nat ur e, and t hi s mus t be pr event ed.
The onl y habi t a child shoul d be allowed t o f or m is t o con-
t r act no habi t s what ever . Let hi m not be car r i ed upon one
ar m mor e t han upon a not he r ; let hi m not be accust omed t o
him for this. The ideal of those who assume the noble and difficult office
of a teacher of childhood cannot be placed too high. As to the pupil,
Rousseau imagines a child of average ability, in easy circumstances, and of
robust health. He makes him an only son and an orphan, so that no fam-
ily vicissitudes may disturb the logic of his plan.
All this maybe summed up by saying that he considers the child in him-
self with regard to his individual development, and without regard to his
relations to ordinary life. This at the same time renders his task easy, and
deprives him of an important element of education.
put f or t h one ha nd r at her t ha n t he ot her , or t o use i t of t ener ;
nor t o desi r e t o eat , t o sl eep, t o act in any way, at r egul ar
h o ur s ; nor t o be unabl e t o s t ay al one ei t her by ni ght or by
day. Pr epar e l ong bef or ehand for t he t i me when he shall
freely use all hi s s t r engt h. Do t hi s by l eavi ng hi s body
under t he cont r ol of i t s nat ur al bent , by fitting hi m t o be
al ways mas t er of himself, and t o car r y out hi s own will i n
ever yt hi ng as soon as he has a will of hi s own.
Si nce t he only ki nds of obj ect s pr es ent ed t o hi m are li kely
t o ma ke hi m ei t her t i mi d or cour ageous, why shoul d not hi s
educat i on begi n before he s peaks or unde r s t a nds ? I woul d
habi t uat e hi m t o seei ng new obj ect s, t hough t hey be ugl y,
r epul si ve, or si ngul ar . But let t hi s be by degr ees, and from
a di st ance, unt i l he has become accust omed t o t hem, and,
from seei ng t hem handl ed by ot her s , shall at l ast handl e
t hem himself. If dur i ng hi s i nfancy he has seen wi t hout
fear frogs, s er pent s , crawfi shes, he will, when gr own up, see
wi t hout s hr i nki ng any ani mal t hat may be shown hi m. Fo r
one who dai l y sees fri ght ful obj ect s, t her e ar e none such.
Al l chi ldren ar e afrai d of ma s ks . I begi n by showi ng
Emi l e t he mas k of a pl eas ant f ace. By and by some one
put s t he ma s k upon hi s own face, so t hat t he child can see
i t . I begi n t o l a ugh; ever y one else l aughs, and t he chi ld
wi t h t he r est . By degr ees I fami li ari ze hi m wi t h l ess comel y
mas ks , and finally wi t h r eal l y hi deous ones . I f I have ma n-
aged t he pr ocess well, he will, far from bei ng fri ght ened at
t he l ast mas k, l augh at i t as he l aughed at t he first. Af t er
t hat , I shall not fear hi s bei ng f r i ght ened by any one wi t h a
mas k.
Whe n, i n t he farewell scene bet ween He c t or and Andr o-
mache, t he li t t le As t y a n a x , terrified at t he pl ume floating
from a hel met , fails t o r ecogni ze hi s f at her , t hr ows himself,
cr yi ng, upon hi s nur s e' s br eas t , and wi ns from hi s mot her a
smi le br i ght wi t h t ear s , what ought t o be done t o soot he hi s
f ear ? Pr eci sel y what He c t or does. He pl aces t he hel met
oh t he gr ound, and t hen car esses hi s chi ld. At a mor e t r an-
qui l moment , t hi s should not have been all. Th e y should
have dr awn near t he hel met , pl ayed wi t h i t s pl umes , caused
t he chi ld t o handl e t hem. At l ast t he nur s e shoul d have
lifted t he hel met a nd l aughi ngl y set i t on her own head
if, i ndeed, t he hand of a woman dar ed t ouch t he ar mor of
Hect or .
If I wi sh t o fami li ari ze Emi l e wi t h t he noi se of fire-arms,
I first bur n some powder in a pi st ol . The qui ckl y vani shi ng
flame, t he new ki nd of l i ght ni ng, gr eat l y pl eases hi m. I
r epeat t he pr ocess, usi ng mor e powder . By degr ees I put
i nt o t he pi st ol a small char ge, wi t hout r a mmi ng i t d o wn ;
t hen a l ar ger char ge ; finally, I accust om hi m t o t he noi se of
a gun, t o bombs , t o cannon- s hot s , t o t he mos t terrific noi ses.
I have not i ced t hat chi ldren ar e r ar el y af r ai d of t hunder ,
unl ess, i ndeed, t he t hunder -cl aps ar e so fri ght ful as act ual l y
t o wound t he or gan of hear i ng. Ot her wi se, t hey fear i t onl y
when t he}
7
have been t aught t hat t hunder somet i mes wounds
or ki lls. Whe n r eason begi ns t o affright t hem, l et habi t
r eas s ur e t hem. By a slow a nd well conduct ed pr ocess t he
ma n or t he chi ld is r ender ed f ear l ess of ever yt hi ng.
I n t hi s out set of life, whi le me mor y and i magi nat i on ar e
still i nact i ve, t he chi ld pa}
T
s at t ent i on onl y t o wha t act ual l y
affects hi s senses. The first mat er i al s of hi s knowl edge ar e
hi s s ens at i ons . If, t her ef or e, t hes e ar e pr es ent ed t o hi m i n
sui t abl e or der , hi s memor y can her eaf t er pr es ent t hem t o hi s
under s t andi ng in t he same or der . But as he at t ends t o hi s
sensat i ons onl y, i t will at first suffice t o show hi m vei y
clearly t he connect i on bet ween t hese s ens at i ons , and t he
object s whi ch gi ve ri se t o t hem. He is eager t o t ouch ever y-
t hi ng, t o handl e ever yt hi ng. Do not t hwar t t hi s r est l ess
des i r e; it suggest s t o hi m a ver y neces s ar y appr ent i ces hi p.
I t is t hus he l ear ns t o feel t he heat a nd col dness, har dnes s
and soft ness, heavi ness and l i ght ness of bodi es ; t o j udge of
t hei r si ze, t hei r shape, and all t hei r sensi ble qual i t i es, by
looki ng, by t ouchi ng, by l i s t eni ng; above all, by compar i ng
t he r esul t s of si ght wi t h t hose of t ouch, est i mat i ng wi t h t he
eye t he sensat i on a t hi ng pr oduces upon t he fingers.
By movement alone we l ear n t he exi st ence of t hi ngs whi ch
ar e not our s el ves ; and i t is by our own movement s al one
t ha t we gai n t he i dea of ext ens i on.
Becaus e t he child has not t hi s i dea, he st r et ches out hi s
hand indifferently t o sei ze an obj ect whi ch t ouches hi m, or
one whi ch is a hundr ed paces di s t ant from hi m. Th e effort
he makes i n doi ng t hi s appear s t o you a si gn of domi nat i on,
an or der he gi ves t he object t o come near er , or t o you t o
br i ng it t o hi m. I t is not hi ng of t he ki nd. I t means only
t hat t he obj ect seen first wi t hi n t he br ai n, t hen upon t he eye,
is now seen at a r m' s l engt h, and t ha t he does not concei ve
of any di st ance be
i
yond his r each. Be careful , t hen, t o wal k
oft en wi t h hi m, t o t r ans por t hi m from one pl ace t o anot her ,
t o let him feel t he change of posi t i on, and, i n t hi s way t o
t each hi m how t o j udge of di st ances. Wh e n he begi ns t o
know t hem, change t he pl an ; car r y hi m only wher e i t is
conveni ent for you t o do so, and not wher ever i t pl eases hi m.
For as soon as he is no l onger decei ved by t he senses, hi s
at t empt s ar i se f r om anot her cause. Thi s change is r emar k-
able and demands expl anat i on.
The uneas i nes s ar i si ng from our want s expr es s es itself by
si gns whenever hel p i n suppl yi ng t hes e want s is ne e de d;
hence t he cri es of chi l dr en. They cr y a gr eat deal , and t hi s
is nat ur al . Si nce all t hei r sensat i ons ar e t hose of feeli ng,
chi ldren enj oy t hem in si lence, when t he sensat i ons ar e
pl e a s a nt ; ot her wi se t hey expr es s t hem i n t hei r own l anguage,
and as k relief. Now as l ong as chi ldren ar e awake t hej
r
cannot be i n a s t at e of indifference ; t hey ei t her sleep or ar e
moved by pl easur e and pai n.
Al l our l anguages ar e t he r esul t of ar t . Whe t he r t her e is
a nat ur al l anguage, common t o all ma nki nd, has l ong been a
mat t er of i nvest i gat i on. Wi t hout doubt t her e is such a
l anguage, and i t is t he one t hat chi ldren ut t er before t hey
know how t o t al k. Thi s l anguage is not ar t i cul at e, but i t is
accent uat ed, sonor ous, i nt elli gi ble. The usi ng of our own
l anguage has led us t o" negl ect t hi s, even so far as t o forget
i t al t oget her , Le t us s t udy chi l dr en, and we shall soon
acqui r e i t agai n from t hem. Nur s es ar e our t eacher s i n t hi s
l anguage. The y under s t and all t hei r nur sl i ngs saj
T
, t hey
ans wer t hem, t hey hol d r eal l y connect ed di al ogues wi t h
t hem. An d , al t hough t hey pr onounce wor ds , t hese wor ds
ar e ent i r el y usel ess ; t he chi ld under s t ands , not t he meani ng
of t he wor ds , but t he accent whi ch accompani es t hem.
To t he l anguage of t he voi ce is added t he no less forcible
l anguage of ges t ur e. Thi s gest ur e is not t ha t of chi l dr en' s
feeble ha nds ; i t is t hat seen in t hei r faces. I t is ast oni shi ng
t o see how much expr essi on t hese i mmat ur e count enances
alread}
T
have. Fr om moment t o moment , t hei r feat ures
change wi t h i nconcei vabl e qui ckness. On t he m you see t he
smi l e, t he wi sh, t he fear, spr i ng i nt o life, a nd pas s away,
li ke so ma ny l i ght ni ng flashes. Ea c h t i me you seem t o see
a different count enance. The y cer t ai nl y have much mor e
flexible facial muscl es t ha n our s . On t he ot her hand, t hei r
dull eyes t el l us al most not hi ng at all.
Such i s nat ur al l y t he charact er, of t hei r expr essi on when
all t hei r wa nt s ar e physi cal . Sensat i ons ar e made known by
gr i maces , sent i ment s by l ooks.
As t he first s t at e of man is wr et chedness a nd weaknes s ,
so hi s first ut t er ances ar e compl ai nt s and t ear s . The child
feels hi s need and cannot satisfy i t ; he i mpl or es ai d from
ot her s by cr yi ng. I f he is hungr y or t hi r st y, he cri es ; if he
i s t oo cold or t oo war m, he cries ; if he wi shes t o move or t o
be ke pt at r est , he c r i e s ; if he wi shes t o sleep or t o be
moved about , he cri es. The l ess cont r ol he ha s of hi s own
mode of li vi ng, t he of t ener he as ks t hose about hi m to
change i t . He has but one l anguage, becaus e he feels, so t o
speak, but one s or t of di scomfort . I n t he i mper f ect condi -
t i on of hi s or gans , he does not di st i ngui sh t hei r different
i mpr es s i ons ; all ills pr oduce in hi m onl y a sensat i on of
pai n.
Fr om t hi s cr yi ng, r egar ded as so li t t le wor t hy of at t ent i on,
ari ses t he first r el at i on of ma n t o all t ha t s ur r ounds hi m ;
j us t her e is f or ged t he first l i nk of t hat l ong chai n whi ch
const i t ut es soci al or der .
Whe n t he chi ld cri es, he is ill at e a s e ; he has some wa nt
t hat he cannot sat i sfy. We exami ne i nt o i t , we s ear ch
for t he want , find it, and z^elieve i t . Wh e n we cannot find
i t , or reli eve i t , t he cr yi ng cont i nues . We ar e annoyed by
i t ; we car ess t he chi ld t o make hi m keep qui et , we r ock hi m
and si ng t o hi m, t o lull hi m asl eep. I f he per s i s t s , we gr ow
i mpa t i e nt ; we t hr e a t e n h i m; br ut al nur s es somet i mes st r i ke
hi m. Thes e ar e s t r ange l essons for hi m upon hi s ent r ance
i nt o life.
Th e first cr yi ng of chi ldren i s a pr ayer . I f we do not
heed i t well, t hi s cr yi ng soon becomes a command. The y
begi n by as ki ng our a i d ; t hey end by compel l i ng us t o ser ve
t hem. Thus from t hei r ver y weaknes s , whence comes , at first,
t hei r feeli ng of dependence, spr i ngs af t er war d t he i dea of
empi r e, a nd of commandi ng ot her s . But as t hi s i dea is
awakened less by t hei r own wa nt s , t ha n by t he fact t ha t we
ar e ser vi ng t hem, t hose mor al r esul t s whose i mmedi at e cause
is not in na t ur e , ar e her e per cei ved. We t her ef or e see why,
even at t hi s eart y age, i t is i mpor t ant t o di scer n t he hi dden
pur pose whi ch di ct at es t he ges t ur e or t he cr y.
Whe n t he chi ld st r et ches f or t h his ha nd wi t h an effort, but
wi t hout a s ound, he t hi nks he can r each some obj ect , be-
cause he does not pr oper l y est i mat e i t s di s t a nc e ; he is
mi st aken* But if, whi le st r et chi ng out hi s hand, he com-
pl ai ns and cri es, he is no l onger decei ved as t o t he di s t ance.
He is commandi ng t he obj ect t o come t o hi m, or is di r ect i ng
you t o br i ng i t t o hi ni . I n t he first case, car r y hi m to t he
obj ect slowly, and wi t h shor t s t e ps ; in t he second case, do
not even appear t o unde r s t a nd hi m. I t is wor t h while t o
habi t uat e hi m early not t o command peopl e, for he is not
t hei r ma s t e r ; nor t hi ngs , for t hey cannot under s t and hi m.
So, when a child want s somet hi ng he sees, and we mean t o
gi ve i t t o hi m, i t is bet t er t o car r y hi m t o t he object t han t o
fet ch t he object t o hi m. Fr om t hi s pr act i ce of our s he will
i ear n a l esson sui t ed t o his age, and t her e is no bet t er way
of suggest i ng t hi s lesson t o hi m.
Ma x i ms t o Ke e p u s Tr ue t o Na t u r e .
R E A S O N alone t eaches us t o know good a nd evi l. Con-
sci ence, whi ch makes us love t he one and hat e t he ot her , is
i ndependent of r eas on, but cannot gr ow s t r ong wi t hout i t s
ai d. Before r eachi ng year s of r eas on, we do good and evil
unconsci ousl y. Ther e is no mor al char act er in our act i ons,
al t hough t her e somet i mes is in our feeling t owar d t hose
act i ons of ot her s whi ch r el at e t o us . A chi ld li kes t o di st ur b
ever yt hi ng he sees ; he br e a ks , he s hat t er s ever yt hi ng wi t hi n
hi s r each ; he l ays hol d of a bi r d j us t as he would l ay hol d of
a s t one, a nd s t r angl es i t wi t hout knowi ng what he is doi ng.
Wh y is t hi s ? At first vi ew, phi l osophy woul d account for
it on t he gr ound of vi ces nat ur al t o us pr i de, t he spi ri t of
domi nat i on, self-love, t he wi ckedness of manki nd. I t woul d
per haps add, t ha t t he sense of his own weaknes s makes t he
child eager t o do t hi ngs r equi r i ng s t r engt h, a nd so pr ove t o
himself hi s own power . But see t hat old ma n, infirm and
br oken down, whom t he cycle of huma n life br i ngs back t o
t he weaknes s of chi l dhood. No t only does he r emai n
i mmovabl e and qui et , but he wi shes ever yt hi ng about hi m
t o be in t he s ame condi t i on. The sl i ght est change di st ur bs
and di squi et s h i m; he would li ke t o see st i llness r ei gni ng
ever ywher e. How could t he same power l essness, j oi ned t o
t he same pas s i ons , pr oduce such different effects in t he t wo
ages, if t he pr i mar y cause were not changed? An d wher e
can we seek for t hi s difference of cause, unl ess i t be in t he
physi cal condi t i on of t he t wo i ndi vi dual s ? The act i ve pr i n-
ciple common t o t he t wo is devel opi ng in t he one, a nd dyi ng
out in t he ot he r ; t he one is gr owi ng, a nd t he ot her i s wear -
i ng itself o ut ; t he one is t endi ng t owar d life, a nd t he ot her
t owar d deat h. Fai l i ng act i vi t y concent r at es itself i n t he
hear t of t he old ma n ; in t he child i t is s uper aboundi ng, a nd
r eaches out war d ; he seems t o feel wi t hi n hi m life enough t o
ani mat e all t hat s ur r ounds hi m. Whe t he r he makes or
unmakes mat t er s li t t le t o hi m. I t is enough t hat he changes
t he condi t i on of t hi ngs , and t hat ever y change is an act i on.
If he seems mor e i ncl i ned t o dest r oy t hi ngs , i t is not out of
per ver s enes s , but because t he act i on whi ch cr eat es is alwa}^s
s l ow; and t ha t whi ch dest ro}
T
s, bei ng mor e r api d, bet t er
sui t s hi s nat ur al spr i ght l i ness.
Whi l e t he Aut hor of nat ur e gi ves chi ldren t hi s act i ve pr i n-
ciple, he t a ke s car e t hat it shall do li t t le h a r m; for he l eaves
t hem li t t le power t o i ndul ge i t . But no sooner do t hey l ook
upon t hose about t hem as i ns t r ument s whi ch i t is t hei r
busi ness t o set in mot i on, t ha n t hey ma ke use of t hem i n
followi ng t hei r own i ncl i nat i ons a nd in ma ki ng up for t hei r
own wa nt of st r engt h. I n t hi s way t hey become di sagr ee-
abl e, t yr anni cal , i mper i ous, per ver se, unr ul y ; a devel opment
not ar i si ng from a nat ur al spi ri t of domi nat i on, but cr eat i ng
such a spi r i t . For no ver y l ong exper i ence is r equi si t e i n
t eachi ng how pl eas ant i t i s t o act t hr ough ot her s , and t o need
only move one ' s t ongue t o set t he wor l d in mot i on.
As we gr ow up, we gai n s t r engt h, we become less uneas y
and r est l ess, we shut our sel ves mor e wi t hi n our sel ves. Th e
soul and t he body put t hemsel ves in equi l i br i um, as i t wer e,
a nd nat ur e r equi r es no mor e mot i on t han is necessar y for our
pr es er vat i on.
But t he wi sh t o command out l i ves t he necessit}^ f r om
whi ch i t s pr a n g ; powe r t o cont r ol ot her s awakens and
gratifies self-love, and habi t makes it s t r ong. Thus need
gi ves pl ace t o wh i m; t hus clo pr ej udi ces and opi ni ons first
r oot t hemsel ves wi t hi n us .
The pr i nci pl e once under s t ood, we see clearly t he poi nt a t
whi ch we l eave t he pa t h of na t ur e . Le t us di scover wha t
we ought t o do, t o keep wi t hi n it.
Fa r from havi ng t oo much s t r engt h, chi l dr en have not
even enough for all t ha t nat ur e demands of t hem. We
ought , t hen, t o l eave t hem t he free use of all nat ur al s t r engt h
whi ch t hey cannot mi suse. Fi r s t maxi m.
We mus t ai d t hem, s uppl yi ng what ever t hey l ack i n i nt el -
l i gence, in s t r engt h, in all t hat bel ongs t o physi cal necessi t y.
Second ma xi m.
I n hel pi ng t hem, we mus t confine our sel ves t o what is
r eal l y of use t o t hem, yi el di ng not hi ng t o t hei r whi ms or
unr eas onabl e wi shes. For t hei r own capr i ce will not t r oubl e
t hem unl ess we our sel ves cr eat e i t ; i t i s not a nat ur al t hi ng.
Thi r d ma xi m.
We mus t s t udy carefully t hei r l anguage ai i d t hei r si gns, so
t hat , at an age when t hey cannot di ssembl e, we ma y j udge
whi ch of t hei r desi r es spr i ng from na t ur e itself, a nd whi ch
of t hem from opi ni on. Four t h maxi m.
Th e meani ng of t hes e r ul es i s, t o allow chi l dren mor e
per sonal f r eedom a nd less a ut hor i t y; t o l et t hem do mor e
for t hemsel ves, a nd exact less from ot her s . Thus accus-
t omed bet i mes t o desi re onl y what t hey can obt ai n or do for
t hems el ves , t hey will feel less keenl y t he wa nt of what ever is
not wi t hi n t hei r own power .
He r e t her e is anot her and ver y i mpor t ant r eas on for l eav-
i ng chi l dr en absol ut el y free as t o body and l i mbs, wi t h t he
sole pr ecaut i on of keepi ng t he m from t he danger of falli ng,
and of put t i ng out of t hei r r each ever yt hi ng t ha t can i njure
t hem.
Doubt l es s a child whose body and ar ms ar e free will cr y
less t ha n one bound fast in swaddl i ng cl ot hes. He who feels
only physi cal want s cri es onl y when he. suffers, and t hi s is a
gr eat advant age. Fo r t hen we know exact l y when he
r equi r es hel p, and we ought not t o del ay one moment in
gi vi ng hi m hel p, if possi bl e.
But if you cannot reli eve hi m, keep qui e t ; do not t r y t o
soot he hi m by pet t i ng hi m. Your car esses will not cure hi s
colic ; but he will r emember what he has t o do i n or der t o be
pet t ed. An d if he once di scover s t ha t he can, at will, bus y
you about hi m, he will have become your ma s t e r ; t he mi s-
chief is done.
If chi l dren were not so much t hwar t ed in t hei r move me nt s ,
t hey would not cry so muc h ; if we wer e less annoyed by
t hei r cr yi ng, we woul d t ake less pai ns t o hus h t hem ; if t hey
were not so often t hr eat ened or car essed, t hey woul d be l ess
t i mi d or l ess s t ubbor n, and mor e t r ul y t hemsel ves as nat ur e
made t hem. I t is not so oft en by l et t i ng chi l dren cr y, as by
hast eni ng t o qui et t hem, t hat we ma ke t hem r upt ur e t hem-
selves. The proof of t hi s is t hat t he chi l dren mos t negl ect ed
ar e l ess subj ect t han ot her s t o t hi s infirmity. I am far from
wi shi ng t hem t o be negl ect ed, however . On t he cont r ar y,
we ought t o ant i ci pat e t hei r want s , a nd not wai t t o be not i -
fied of t hese by t he chi l dr en' s cr yi ng. Ye t I woul d not have
t hem mi s under s t and t he car es we bes t ow on t hem. Wi r y
shoul d t hey consi der cr yi ng a faul t , when t hey find t ha t it
avai l s so muc h? Knowi ng t he val ue of t hei r si l ence, t hey
will be careful not t o be l avi sh of i t . The y wi ll, at l ast ,
ma ke i t so cost l y t ha t we can no l onger pay for i t ; a nd t hen
i t is t hat by cr yi ng wi t hout success t hey st r ai n, weaken, and
ki ll t hemsel ves.
Th e l ong cr yi ng fits of a child who is not compr essed or
ill, or allowed t o want for anyt hi ng, ar e from habi t and
obst i nacy. The y ar e by no means t he wor k of nat ur e, but
of t he nur s e, who, because she cannot endur e t he annoyance,
mul t i pl i es it, wi t hout reflecting t hat by st i lli ng t he child t o-
day, he is i nduced t o cr y t he mor e t o-mor r ow.
Th e only way t o cure or pr event t hi s habi t is t o pay no
at t ent i on t o i t . No one, not even a chi ld, li kes t o t ake
unneces s ar y t r oubl e.
The y ar e s t ubbor n in t hei r at t empt s ; but if you have mor e
firmness t han t he}
7
have obst i nac}
7
, t hey ar e di scour aged, and
do not r epeat t he at t empt . Thus we spar e t hem some t ear s ,
and accus t om t hem t o cry onl y when pai n forces t hem t o it.
Never t hel es s when t hey do cry from capr i ce or st ubbor n-
nes s , a sur e way t o pr event t hei r cont i nui ng i s, t o t ur n t hei r
at t ent i on t o some agr eeabl e a nd st r i ki ng object , a nd so make
t hem f or get t hei r desi r e t o cry. I n t hi s ar t mos t nur ses
excel , and when skilfully empl oyed, i t is ver y effective. But
i t is hi ghl y i mpor t ant t ha t t he chi ld shoul d not know of our
i nt ent i on t o di ver t hi m, a nd t hat he shoul d amus e himself
wi t hout at all t hi nki ng we have hi m i n mi nd. I n t hi s all
nur ses ar e unski l f ul .
Al l chi ldren ar e weaned t oo early. The pr oper t i me is
i ndi cat ed by t hei r t eet hi ng. Thi s pr ocess is usual l y pai nful
and di st r essi ng. By a mechani cal i nst i nct t he chi ld, at t hat
t i me, car r i es t o hi s mout h and chews ever yt hi ng he hol ds.
We t hi nk we ma ke t he oper at i on easi er by gi vi ng hi m for a
pl ayt hi ng some har d s ubs t ance, such as i vory or cor al . I
t hi nk we ar e mi s t aken. Fa r from soft eni ng t he gums , t hes e
har d bodi es, when appl i ed, r ender t hem har d and cal l ous,
and pr epar e t he way for a mor e pai nful and di st r essi ng l ac-
er at i on. Le t us al ways t a ke i nst i nct for gui de. We never
see puppi es t r y t hei r gr owi ng t eet h upon flints, or i r on, or
bones , but upon wood, or l eat her , or r a g s , upon soft mat e-
r i al s, whi ch gi ve way, and on whi ch t he t oot h i mpr esses itself.
We no l onger ai m at si mpl i ci t y, even wher e chi l dren ar e
concer ned. Gol den and si lver bel l s, cor al s, cr yst al s, t oys
of ever y pr i ce, of ever y sor t . Wh a t usel ess and mi schi ev-
ous affectations t hey a r e ! Le t t her e be none of t hem,
no bel l s, no t oys .
A li t t le t wi g covered wi t h i t s own l eaves a nd frui t , a
poppy- head, in whi ch t he seeds can be hear d r at t l i ng, a st i ck
of li quori ce he can suck and chew, t hese will amus e a child
qui t e as well as t he spl endi d baubl es , and will not di s advan-
t age hi m by accus t omi ng him t o l uxur y from his ver y bi r t h.
La n g u a g e .
F R O M t he t i me t hey ar e bor n, chi ldren hear peopl e s peak.
Thej
7
ar e spoken t o not only before t hey under s t and wha t
is sai d t o t hem, but bef or e t he}
7
can r epeat t he s ounds t hey
hear . Thei r or gans , still benumbed, a da pt t hemsel ves onl y
by degr ees t o i mi t at i ng t he sounds di ct at ed t o t hem, and it
i s not even cer t ai n t hat t hese s ounds ar e bor ne t o t hei r ear s
at first as di st i nct l y as t o our s .
I do not di sappr ove of a nur s e ' s amus i ng t he child wi t h
songs, and wi t h bl i t he and var i ed t ones . But T do di sap-
pr ove of her per pet ual l y deaf eni ng hi m wi t h a mul t i t ude of
useless wor ds, of whi ch he under s t ands only t he t one she
gi ves t hem.
I woul d li ke t he first ar t i cul at e sounds he mus t hear t o be
few in number , easy, di st i nct , oft en r epeat ed. The wor ds
t hey form shoul d r epr es ent onl y mat er i al object s whi ch can
be shown hi m. Our unf or t unat e r eadi ness t o cont ent our-
selves wi t h wor ds t hat have no meani ng t o us what ever ,
begi ns earli er t han we suppose. Eve n as in hi s swaddl i ng-
clot hes t he chi ld hear s hi s nur s e ' s babbl e, he hear s in class
t he ver bi age of hi s t eacher . I t st r i kes me t hat if he wer e t o
be so br ought up t ha t he could not unde r s t a nd i t at all, he
woul d-be ver y well i ns t r uct ed.
1
Eeflect i ons cr owd upon us when we set about di scussi ng
t he f or mat i on of chi l dr en' s l anguage, and t hei r ba by t al k
itself. I n spi t e of us , t hey al ways l ear n t o speak by t he
s ame pr ocess, and all our phi l osophi cal specul at i ons about i t
ar e ent i rel y usel ess.
They seem, at first, t o have a gr a mma r adapt ed t o t hei r
own age, al t hough i t s r ul es of s ynt a x ar e mor e gener al t ha n
our s. An d if we wer e t o pay close at t ent i on t o t hem, we
shoul d be ast oni shed at t he exact nes s wi t h whi ch t hey follow
cer t ai n anal ogi es, ver y fault y if you will, but ver y r egul ar ,
t hat ar e di spl easi ng only because har s h, or because us age
does not r ecogni ze t hem.
I t is unbear abl e pedant r y, and a mos t useless l abor , t o
1
No doubt this sarcasm is applicable to those teachers who talk so as to
say nothing. A teacher ought, on the contrary, to speak only so as to be
understood by the child. He ought to adapt himself to the child's ca-
pacity; to employ no useless or conventional expressions; his language
ought to arouse curiosity and to impart light.
at t empt cor r ect i ng in chi l dren ever y li t t le fault agai ns t us age ;
t hey never fail t hemsel ves t o cor r ect t hese f aul t s in t i me.
Al ways speak correct ly i n t hei r pr esence ; or der i t so t ha t
t hey ar e never so happy wi t h any one as wi t h you ; and r est
assur ed t hei r l anguage will i nsensi bl y be purified by your
own, wi t hout your havi ng ever r epr oved t hem. -
But anot her er r or , whi ch has an ent i ret y different bear i ng
on t he mat t er , and is no less easy t o pr event , is our bei ng
over -anxi ous t o ma ke t hem s peak, as if we f ear ed t hey
mi ght not of t hei r own accor d l ear n t o do so. Our i nj udi -
cious hast e has an effect exact l y cont r ar y t o what we wi sh.
On account of i t t hey l ear n mor e slowly and speak mor e
i ndi st i nct l y. The ma r ke d at t ent i on pai d t o ever yt hi ng t hey
ut t er makes i t unnecessar y for t hem t o ar t i cul at e di st i nct l y.
As t he}
7
har dl y condescend t o open t hei r l i ps, many r et ai n
t hr oughout life an i mperfect pr onunci at i on and a confused
manner of s peaki ng, whi ch ma ke s t hem near l y uni nt el l i gi bl e.
Chi l dr en who are t oo much ur ged t o s peak have not t i me
sufficient for l ear ni ng ei t her t o pr onounce carefully or t o
under s t and t hor oughl y what t hey ar e made t o s ay. If, in-
st ead, t he}
7
ar e left t o t hemsel ves, t hey at first pr act i se usi ng
t he syllables t hey can mos t r eadi l y ut t e r ; and gr adual l y
at t achi ng t o t hese some meani ng t hat can be gat her ed from
t hei r ges t ur es , t hey gi ve you t hei r own wor ds bef or e acqui r-
i ng your s . Thus t hey recei ve your s onl y after t hey under -
s t and t hem. No t bei ng ur ged t o use t hem, t hey not i ce
carefully wha t meani ng you gi ve t hem ; and, when t hey ar e
sur e of t hi s, t hey adopt i t as t hei r own.
The gr eat es t evil ar i si ng from our has t e t o ma ke chi ldren
speak bef or e t hey ar e old enough is not t hat our first t al ks
wi t h t hem, and t he first wor ds t hey use, have no meani ng
t o t hem, but t hat t hey have a meani ng different from our s ,
wi t hout our bei ng able t o per cei ve it. Thus , whi le t hey seem
t o be ans wer i ng us ver y cor r ect l y, t hey ar e r eal t y addr es s i ng
us wi t hout under s t andi ng us , and wi t hout our under s t andi ng
t hem. To such ambi guous di scour se is due t he sur pr i se we
somet i mes feel at t hei r s ayi ngs , t o whi ch we at t ach i deas t he
chi ldren t hemsel ves have not dr eamed of. Thi s i nat t ent i on
of our s t o t he t r ue meani ng wor ds have for chi ldren seems t o
me t he cause of t hei r first mi s t akes , and t hese er r or s, even
aft er chi l dr en ar e cured of t hem, influence t hei r t ur n of mi nd
for t he r emai nder of t hei r life.
Th e first devel opment s of chi ldhood occur al most all at
once. The child l ear ns t o s peak, t o eat , t o wal k, near l y at
t he s ame t i me. Thi s i s, pr oper l y, t he first epoch of his li fe.
Bef or e t hen he is not hi ng mor e t han he was before he was
bor n ; he has not a sent i ment , not an i de a ; he scar cel y has
sensat i ons ; he does not feel even his own exi st ence.
BOOK SECOND.
T H E second book t akes t he chi l d at about t he fifth year, and con-
duct s hi m t o about the t we l f t h year. l i e i s no l onger t he l i ttl e
chi l d; he i s t he young boy. Hi s educat i on becomes more i mpor-
tant. It cons i s t s not i n st udi es, in readi ng or wri t i ng, or in dut i es,
but i n wel l - choseu pl ays, in i ngeni ous recreat i ons, i n wel l - di rect ed
experi ment s.
There shoul d be no exaggerat ed precaut i ons, and, on the ot her
hand, no harshness, no puni shment s. We mus t l ove t he chi l d, aucl
encourage hi s pl ayi ng. To make hi m real i ze hi s weaknes s and t he
narrow l i mi t s wi t hi n whi ch it can work, t o keep t he chi l d depend-
ent onl y on ci rcumst ances, wi l l suffice, wi t hout ever maki ng hi m
f eel the yoke of the mast er.
The best educat i on i s accompl i shed in the count ry. Teachi ng by
means of t hi ngs . Cri ti ci sm of t he ordi nary met hod. Educat i on
of the s ens es by cont i nual l y exerci s i ng t hem.
A v o i d t a k i n g t o o ma n y P r e c a u t i o n s .
T
HI S is t he second per i od of life, and t he one at whi ch,
. pr oper l y s peaki ng, i nfancy e n d s ; for t he wor ds infans
and puer ar e not s ynonymous .
1
The first is i ncl uded in t he
second, a nd means one who cannot speak: t hus in Val er i us
Maxi m us we find t he expr essi on puerum infantem. But I
shall cont i nue t o empl oy t he wor d accor di ng t o t he us age of
t he Fr e nc h l anguage, unt i l I am descr i bi ng t he age for whi ch
t her e ar e ot her na me s .
1
Puer, child; infans, one who does not speak.
Wh e n chi l dr en begi n t o s peak, t hey cry l ess oft en. Thi s
st ep i n advance is na t ur a l ; one l anguage is subst i t ut ed for
anot her . As soon as the}* can ut t er t hei r compl ai nt s in
wor ds , why shoul d t hey cr y, unl ess t he suffering is t oo keen
t o be expr essed by wor ds ? I f t hey t hen cont i nue t o cry, it
is t he fault of t hose ar ound t hem. Af t er Emi l e has once
sai d, " I t hur t s me , " only acut e suffering can force hi m t o
cr y.
If t he chi ld is physi cal l y so del i cat e and sensi t i ve t ha t he
nat ur al l y cri es about not hi ng, I will soon exhaus t t he foun-
t ai n of hi s t ear s , by ma ki ng t hem ineffectual. So l ong as
he cri es, I will not go t o hi m ; as soon as he s t ops , I will
r un t o hi m. Ver y soon hi s met hod of calli ng me will be t o
keep qui et , or at t he ut mos t , t o ut t er a si ngle cr y. Chi l dr en
j udge of t he meani ng of si gns by t hei r pal pabl e effect; t hey
have no ot her r ul e. Wha t e ve r har m a chi ld may do himself,
he ver y r ar el y cri es when al one, unl ess wi t h t he hope of
bei ng hear d.
If he fall, if he br ui se hi s head, if hi s nose bl eed, if he
cut hi s finger, I shoul d, i nst ead of bust l i ng about hi m wi t h
a look of al ar m, r emai n qui et , at l east for a li t t le whi le.
The mi schi ef is done ; he must endur e i t ; all my anxi et y
will onl y ser ve t o fri ght en hi m mor e, and t o i ncr ease his sen-
si t i veness. Af t er all, when we hur t our sel ves, i t is less t he
shock whi ch pai ns us t ha n t he fri ght . I will s par e hi m at
l east t hi s l ast pa ng; for he will cer t ai nl y est i mat e hi s hur t
as he sees me est i mat e i t . I f he sees me r un anxi ousl y t o
comf or t a nd t o pi t y hi m, he will t hi nk hi mself seri ously h ur t ;
but if he sees me keep my pr esence of mi nd, he will soon
r ecover hi s own, a nd will t hi nk t he pai n cur ed when he no
l onger feels i t . At his age we l ear n our first l essons in cour-
age ; and by fearlessly endur i ng l i ght er sufferi ngs, we gr ad-
ually l ear n t o bear t he heavi er ones .
AVOI D TAKI NG TOO MANY PRECAUTI ONS. 41
Fa r from t aki ng car e t hat fimile does not hur t hi mself, I
shall be dissatisfied if he never does, and so gr ows up unac-
quai nt ed wi t h pai n. To suffer i s t he first and mos t neces-
sary t hi ng for hi m t o l ear n. Chi l dr en ar e li t t le a nd weak,
appar ent l y t ha t t hey may l ear n t hese i mpor t ant l essons. I f
a chi ld fall hi s whole l engt h, he will not br eak hi s l eg ; if he
st r i ke hi mself wi t h a st i ck, he will not br eak hi s a r m; if he
l ay hol d of an edged tool, he does not gr a s p it t i ght l y, and
will not cut hi mself ver y badl y.
Our pedant i c mani a for i nst r uct i ng cons t ant l y l eads us t o
t each chi l dr en what t he}' can l ear n far bet t er for t hemsel ves,
and t o lose si ght of what we al one can t each t hem. I s t her e
anyt hi ng mor e abs ur d t ha n t he pai ns we t ake in t eachi ng
t hem t o wal k? As if we had ever seen one, who, t hr ough
hi s nur s e' s negl i gence, di d not know how t o wal k when
gr own ! On t he cont r ar y, how ma ny peopl e do we see mov-
i ng awkwar dl y all t hei r li ves because t hey have been badl y
t a ught how t o wal k !
Emi l e shall have no head- pr ot ect or s , nor car r i ages , nor go-
car t s , nor l eadi ng-st r i ngs. Or at l east from t he t i me when
he begi ns t o be abl e t o put one foot before t he ot her , he
shall not be suppor t ed, except over paved pl a c e s ; a nd he
shall be hur r i ed over t hes e. I ns t ead of l et t i ng hi m suffocate
in t he exhaus t ed ai r i ndoor s, let him be t aken ever y day, far
out i nt o t he fields. Ther e let hi m r un about , pl ay, fall down
a hundr ed t i mes a d a y ; t he of t ener t he bet t er , as he will t he
sooner l ear n t o get up agai n by himself. The boon of free-
dom is wor t h ma ny s car s . My pupi l will have ma ny br ui ses,
but t o ma ke amends for t hat , he will be al ways l i ght -hear t ed.
Though your pupi l s ar e less oft en hur t , t hey ar e cont i nual l y
t hwar t ed, f e t t e r e d; t hey ar e al ways unha ppy. I doubt
whet her t he a dva nt a ge be on t hei r si de.
The devel opment of t hei r physi cal s t r engt h makes com-
pl ai nt less neces s ar y t o chi l dr en. Wh e n abl e t o hel p t hem-
sel ves, t hey have less need of t he hel p of ot her s . Knowl edge
t o di r ect t hei r s t r engt h gr ows wi t h t hat s t r engt h. At t hi s
second st age t he life of t he i ndi vi dual pr oper l y begi ns ; he
now becomes consci ous of hi s own bei ng. Me mor y ext ends
t hi s feeli ng of per sonal i dent i t y t o ever y mome nt of hi s ex-
i st ence ; he becomes r eal l y one, t he same one, and conse-
quent l y capabl e of happi nes s or of mi s er y. We mus t t her e-
fore, from t hi s moment , begi n t o r egar d hi m as a mor al
bei ng.
Chi l dho o d i s t o be Lo v e d .
A L T H O U G H t he l ongest t er m of human li fe, and t he pr oba-
bi l i t y, at any gi ven age, of r eachi ng t hi s t er m, have been
comput ed, not hi ng is mor e uncer t ai n t han t he cont i nuance of
each i ndi vi dual l i f e: ver y few at t ai n t he maxi mum. The
gr eat es t r i sks i n life ar e at i t s begi nni ng ; t he l ess one has
li ved, t he less pr ospect he has of li vi ng.
Of all chi ldren bor n, onl y about half r each y o ut h ; and i t
i s pr obabl e t ha t your pupi l ma y never at t ai n t o manhood.
Wh a t , t hen, mus t be t hought of t hat ba r ba r ous educat i on
whi ch sacrifices t he pr es ent t o ail uncer t ai n f ut ur e, l oads t he
chi ld wi t h ever y descr i pt i on of f et t er s, and begi ns, by mak-
i ng hi m wr et ched, t o pr epar e for hi m some f ar -away indefi-
ni t e happi nes s he ma y never e nj oy! Eve n supposi ng t he
obj ect of such an educat i on r eas onabl e, how can we wi t hout
i ndi gnat i on see t he unf or t unat e cr eat ur es bowed under an
i ns uppor t abl e yoke, doomed t o cons t ant l abor li ke so ma ny
gal l ey-sl aves, wi t hout any cer t ai nt y t ha t all t hi s t oi l will ever
be of use t o t hem ! The year s t ha t ought t o be br i ght a nd
cheerful ar e pas s ed in t ear s ami d puni s hment s , t hr eat s , and
sl aver y. For hi s own good, t he unha ppy chi ld is t or t ur e d;
CHI LDHOOD IS TO BE LOVED. 43
and t he deat h t hus s ummoned will sei ze on hi m unper cei ved
ami dst all t hi s mel anchol y pr epar at i on. Wh o knows how
ma ny chi l dr en di e on account of t he e xt r a va ga nt pr udence of
a f at her or of a t eacher ? Ha ppy in escapi ng hi s cr uel t y, i t
gi ves t hem one a d va n t a g e ; t hey leave wi t hout r egr et a life
whi ch t hey know onl y from i t s dar ker s i de.
1
0 men, be huma ne ! it is your hi ghest d ut y ; be humane
t o all condi t i ons of men, t o ever y age, t o ever yt hi ng not
ali en t o manki nd. Wh a t hi gher wi sdom is t her e for you
t ha n humani t y? Love chi l dhood; encour age i t s s por t s , i t s
pl eas ur es , i t s l ovabl e i ns t i nct s . Wh o among us has not at
t i mes l ooked back wi t h r egr et t o t he age when a smi le was
cont i nual l y on our l i ps, when t he soul was al ways at peace ?
Wh y should we r ob t hese li t t le i nnocent cr eat ur es of t he
enj oyment of a t i me so brief, so t r ans i ent , of a boon so
pr eci ous, whi ch t hey cannot mi s us e? Wh y will you fill wi t h
bi t t er ness and sor r ow t hese fleeting year s whi ch can no mor e
r et ur n t o t hem t ha n t o you? Do you know, you f at her s, t he
moment when deat h awai t s your chi l dren ? Do not st or e up
for your sel ves r emor se, by t aki ng from t hem t he bri ef
moment s nat ur e has gi ven t hem. As soon as t hey can
appr eci at e t he del i ght s of exi st ence, let t hem enj oy i t . At
what ever hour God ma y call t hem, l et t hem not di e wi t hout
havi ng t as t ed life at all.
You ans wer , " I t is t he t i me t o cor r ect t he evil t endenci es
of t he human hear t . I n chi l dhood, when sufferings ar e less
keenl y felt , t hey ought t o be mul t i pl i ed, so t hat fewer of
1
Reading these lines, we are reminded of the admirable works of Dick-
ens, the celebrated English novelist, who so touchingly depicts the suffer-
ings of children smade unhappy by the inhumanity of teachers, or neglected
as to their need of free air, of liberty, of affection: David Copperfield,
Hard Times, Nicholas Nickleby, Dombey and Son, Oliver Twist, Little Dor-
rit, and the like.
t hem will have t o be encount er ed dur i ng t he age of r eas on. "
But who has t ol d you t ha t i t is your pr ovi nce t o ma ke t hi s
ar r angement , a nd t ha t all t hese fine i ns t r uct i ons , wi t h whi ch
you bur den t he t ender mi nd of a chi ld, will not one day be
mor e per ni ci ous t han useful t o hi m ? Wh o assur es you t ha t
you s par e hi m anyt hi ng when you deal hi m afflictions wi t h
so l avi sh a ha nd ? Wh y do you cause hi m mor e unhappi nes s
t han he can bear , when you ar e not sur e t hat t he f ut ur e wi ll
compens at e hi m for t hese pr es ent evils ? An d how can you
pr ove t ha t t he evil t endenci es of whi ch you pr et end t o cur e
hi m will not ar i se from your mi s t aken care r at her t ha n f r om
nat ur e itself ! Unha ppy f or esi ght , whi ch r ender s a cr eat ur e
act ual l y mi ser abl e, in t he hope, well or ill f ounded, of one
day maki ng hi m happy !' I f t hese vul gar r eas oner s confound
li cense wi t h l i ber t y, and mi s t ake a spoi led child for a chi ld
who is made ha ppy, let us t each t he m t o di st i ngui sh t he t wo.
To avoi d bei ng mi sl ed, let us r emember what r eal l y ac-
cor ds wi t h our pr es ent abi l i t i es. Huma ni t y has i t s pl ace i n
t he gener al or der of t hi ngs ; chi l dhood has its pl ace in t he
or der of huma n li fe. Ma nki nd mus t be consi der ed i n t he
i ndi vi dual ma n, and chi ldhood in t he i ndi vi dual child. To
assi gn each hi s pl ace, and t o est abl i sh hi m in it t o di r ect
huma n passi ons as huma n nat ur e will per mi t i s all we can
do for hi s wel f ar e. The r est depends on out si de influences
not under our cont r ol .
Ne i t h e r S l a v e s no r Ty r a n t s .
H E al one has hi s own way who, t o compas s i t , does not
need t he ar m of anot her t o l engt hen hi s own. Consequent l y
f r eedom, and not aut hor i t y, is t he gr eat es t good. A ma n
who desi r es onl y what he can do for hi mself i s r eal l y free t o
do what ever he pl eases. Fr om t hi s axi om, if it be appl i ed
t o t he case of chi l dhood, all t he rules of educat i on will
follow.
A wi se ma n unde r s t a nds how t o r emai n i n hi s own pl ace ;
but a chi ld, who does not know hi s , cannot pr es er ve i t . As
mat t er s s t and, t her e ar e a t hous a nd ways of l eavi ng i t .
Thos e who gover n hi m ar e t o keep hi m in i t , and t hi s is not
an easy t as k. He ought t o be nei t her an ani mal nor a ma n,
but a chi ld. He shoul d feel his weaknes s , and yet not suffer
f r om i t . He should depend, not o b e y ; he shoul d de ma nd,
not command. He is subj ect t o ot her s onl y by r eas on of hi s
needs, a nd becaus e ot her s see bet t er t han he what i s useful
t o hi m, wha t will cont r i but e t o hi s well-bei ng or will i mpai r
i t . No one, not even hi s fat her, has a r i ght t o command a
child t o do what is of no use t o hi m what ever .
Accus t om t he child t o depend onl y on ci r cumst ances, and
as hi s educat i on goes on, you will follow t he or der of nat ur e.
Never oppose t o hi s i mpr udent wi shes anyt hi ng but physi cal
obst acl es, or puni s hment s whi ch ar i se from t he act i ons t hem-
sel ves, and which he will r emember when t he occasi on comes.
I t is enough t o pr event hi s doi ng har m, wi t hout f or bi ddi ng i t .
Wi t h hi m onl y exper i ence, or wa nt of power , shoul d t ake
t he place of l aw. Do not gi ve hi m anyt hi ng becaus e he
asks for i t , but becaus e he needs i t . Wh e n he act s , do not
let hi m know t ha t i t is from obedi ence; and when anot her
act s for hi m, let hi m not feel t hat he is exer ci si ng aut hor i t y.
Let hi m feel hi s l i ber t y as much in your act i ons as i n hi s
own. Ad d t o t he power he l acks exact l y enough t o ma ke
hi m free and not i mper i ous, so t hat , accept i ng your ai d wi t h
a ki nd of humi l i at i on, he ma y aspi r e t o t he moment when he
can di spense wi t h i t , and have t he honor of ser vi ng hi mself.
For s t r engt heni ng t he body and pr omot i ng i t s gr owt h, na t ur e
has means whi ch ought never t o be t hwar t ed. A chi ld ought
not t o be const r ai ned t o s t ay anywher e when he wi shes t o go
away, or t o go away when he wi shes t o s t ay. Wh e n t hei r
will is not spoi led by our own f aul t , chi ldren do not wi sh for
anyt hi ng wi t hout good r eas on. The y ought t o l eap, t o r un,
to shout , whenever t hey wi ll. Al l t hei r movement s ar e ne-
cessi t i es of nat ur e, whi ch is endeavor i ng t o s t r engt hen itself.
But we mus t t a ke heed of t hose wi shes t hey cannot t hem-
selves accompl i sh, but mus t fulfil by t he ha nd of anot her .
Ther ef or e car e shoul d be t aken t o di st i ngui sh t he r eal wa nt s ,
t he want s of nat ur e, from t hose whi ch ar i se from fancy or
from t he r e dunda nt life j us t ment i oned.
I have al r eady suggest ed what should be done when a
chi ld cri es for anyt hi ng. I will onl y add t hat , as soon as he
can as k i n wor ds for what he want s , and, t o obt ai n i t sooner ,
or t o over come a r ef usal , r ei nf or ces hi s r eques t by cr yi ng, i t
shoul d never be gr ant ed hi m. I f necessi t y has made hi m
s peak, you ought t o know it, and at once t o gr a nt what he
de ma nds . But yi el di ng t o hi s t ear s is encour agi ng hi m t o
shed t h e m: i t t eaches hi m t o doubt your good will, and t o
beli eve t ha t i mpor t uni t y has mor e influence over you t han
your own ki ndnes s of hear t has .
If he does not beli eve you good, he will soon be b a d ; if
he bel i eves you weak, he will soon be s t ubbor n. I t is of
gr e a t i mpor t ance t ha t you a t once consent t o what you do
not i nt end t o r ef use hi m. Do not r ef use oft en, but never
r evoke a r ef usal .
Above all t hi ngs , bewar e of t eachi ng t he chi ld empt y for-
mul as of pol i t eness whi ch shall ser ve hi m i ns t ead of magi c
wor ds t o subj ect t o hi s own wi shes all who s ur r ound hi m,
a nd t o obt ai n i ns t ant l y what he l i kes. I n t he artificial edu-
cat i on of t he r i ch t hey ar e infallibly ma de pol i t el y i mper i ous,
by havi ng pr escr i bed t o t hem wha t t er ms t o use so t hat no
one shal l dar e r esi st t hem. Such chi l dr en have nei t her t he
iiones nor t he speech of s uppl i a nt s ; t hey ar e as ar r ogant
when t hey r eques t as when t hey command, and even mor e
so, for i n t he former case t hey ar e mor e sure of bei ng obeyed.
Fr o m t he first i t i s r eadi l y seen t hat , comi ng from t hem,
u
I f
you pl e a s e " means " I t pl eases m e " ; and t hat
u
I b e g "
signifies " I or der you. " Si ngul ar pol i t eness t hi s, by whi ch
t hey only change t he meani ng of wor ds , and so never s peak
but wi t h aut hor i t y ! Fo r myself, I dr ead f ar less Emi l e' s
bei ng r ude t han hi s bei ng ar r ogant . I woul d r at her have
hi m s ay
u
Do t h i s " as if r eques t i ng t han " I beg y o u " as
if commandi ng. I at t ach far less i mpor t ance t o t he t er m he
uses t ha n t o t he meani ng he associ at es wi t h i t .
Over -st r i ct ness and over -i ndul gence ar e equal l y t o be
avoi ded. If you l et chi ldren suffer, you endanger t hei r
heal t h and t hei r life ; you make t hem act ual l y wr et ched. I f
you carefully s par e t hem ever y ki nd of annoyance, you ar e
st or i ng up for t hem much unha ppi ne s s ; you ar e maki ng
t hem deli cat e and sensi t i ve t o pai n ; you ar e r emovi ng t hem
from t he common l ot of ma n, i nt o whi ch, in spi t e of all
your car e, t hey will one clay r et ur n. To save t hem some
nat ur al di scomf or t s, you cont r i ve for t hem ot her s whi ch
nat ur e has not inflicted.
You will char ge me wi t h falli ng i nt o t he mi s t ake of t hose
f at her s I have r epr oached for sacrificing t hei r chi l dr en' s ha p-
pi ness t o consi der at i ons of a f ar -away fut ure t ha t ma y never
be. Not s o ; for t he freedom I gi ve my pupi l will a mpl y
suppl y hi m wi t h t he sl i ght di scomfort s t o whi ch I l eave hi m
exposed. I see t he li t t le r ogues pl ayi ng i n t he snow, bl ue
with cold, and scar cel y able t o move t hei r fingers. The}'
have only t o go and war m t hemsel ves, but t hey do not hi ng
of t he ki nd. I f t hey ar e compelled t o do so, t hey feel t he
const r ai nt a hundr ed t i mes mor e t han t hey do t he cold. Wh y
t hen do you compl ai n ? Shal l I ma ke your chi ld unha ppy if
I expose hi m only t o t hos e i nconveni ences he i s per f ect l y
wi lli ng t o endur e ? By l eavi ng hi m at l i ber t y. I do hi m ser-
vi ce n o w; by ar mi ng hi m agai ns t t he ills he mus t encount er ,
I do him servi ce for t he t i me t o come. I f he could choose
bet ween bei ng my pupi l or your s , do you t hi nk he would
hesi t at e a mome nt ?
Can we concei ve of any cr eat ur e' s bei ng t r ul y ha ppy out -
si de of what bel ongs t o i t s own pecul i ar nat ur e ? An d if we
woul d have a ma n exempt from all huma n mi sf or t unes, woul d
i t not es t r ange hi m from humani t y ? Undoubt edl y i t woul d ;
for we ar e so const i t ut ed t hat t o appr eci at e gr e a t good fort une
we mus t be acquai nt ed wi t h sli ght mi sf or t unes. I f t he body
be t oo much at ease t he mor al na t ur e becomes cor r upt ed.
The ma n unacquai nt ed wi t h suffering woul d not know t he
t ender feeli ngs of humani t y or t he sweet ness of c ompa s s i on;
he woul d not be a soci al b e i n g ; he woul d be a mons t er
a mong hi s ki nd.
Th e s ur es t way t o ma ke a child unha ppy is t o accus t om
hi m t o obt ai n ever yt hi ng he want s t o have. For , si nce hi s
wi shes mul t i pl y in pr opor t i on t o t he ease wi t h whi ch t hey ar e
grat i fi ed, your i nabi l i t y t o fulfil t hem will sooner or l at er
obl i ge you t o r ef use in spi t e of yourself, and t hi s unwont ed
refusal wi ll pai n hi m mor e t han wi t hhol di ng from hi m what
he de ma nds . At first he will want t he cane you hold ; soon
he will want your wat ch ; af t er war d he will wa nt t he bi rd he
sees flying, or t he s t ar he sees shi ni ng. He will wa nt ever y-
t hi ng he s ees , a nd wi t hout bei ng God hi msel f how can you
cont ent hi m ?
Ma n is nat ur al l y di sposed t o r egar d as hi s own what ever is
wi t hi n hi s power . I n t hi s sense t he pr i nci pl e of Hobbes is
cor r ect up t o a cer t ai n poi nt ; mul t i pl y wi t h our desi r es t he
means of sat i sf yi ng t hem, a nd each of us will make hi mself
mas t er of ever yt hi ng. Hence t he child who has onl y t o wi sh
in or der t o obt ai n hi s wi sh, t hi nks hi mself t he owner of t he
uni ver se. He r egar ds all me n as hi s sl aves, and when at l ast
he mus t be deni ed s omet hi ng, he, bel i evi ng ever yt hi ng possi -
ble when he commands i t , t akes refusal for an act of r ebel l i on.
At hi s age, i ncapabl e of r eas oni ng, all r easons gi ven seem t o
hi m only pr e t e xt s . He sees ill-will i n ever yt hi ng ; t he feeli ng
of i magi ned i njust i ce embi t t er s hi s t emper ; he begi ns t o hat e
evei ybody, and wi t hout ever bei ng t hankf ul for ki ndnes s , is
a ngr y at any opposi t i on what ever .
Wh o supposes t hat a child t hus ruled by anger , a pr ey t o
furious passi ons, can ever be ha ppy? He ha ppy? He is a
t y r a n t ; t hat i s, t he vi lest of sl aves, and at t he same t i me t he
most mi ser abl e of bei ngs . I have seen chi l dren t hus r ear ed
who want ed t hose about t hem t o push t he house down, t o gi ve
t hem t he weat her cock t hey saw on a st eepl e, t o st op t he
mar ch of a r egi ment so t hat t hey could enjoy t he dr um- beat
a li t t le l onge r ; a nd as soon as obedi ence t o t hese de ma nds
was del ayed t hey r ent t he ai r wi t h t hei r s cr eams , and would
li st en t o no one. I n A ^ain evei ybody t r i ed eager l y t o grat i fy
t hem. The ease wi t h whi ch t hey f ound t hei r wi shes obeyed
st i mul at ed t hem t o desi r e mor e, and t o be st ubbor n about
i mpossi bi l i t i es. Ever ywher e t hey found onl y cont r adi ct i ons,
i mpedi ment s, suffering, and sor r ow. Alwaj^s compl ai ni ng,
al ways r ef r act or y, al ways angr y, t hey s pent t he t i me in
cr yi ng and fret t i ng ; wer e t hese cr eat ur es happy ? Aut hor i t y
and weaknes s conjoi ned pr oduce only madnes s and wr et ched-
ness. One of t wo spoi led chi l dr en beat s t he t abl e, and t he
ot her has t he sea l as hed.
1
The y will have much t o beat and
t o lash before t hey ar e satisfied wi t h life.
1
Here he means Xerxes, Ki ng of Persia, who had built an immense
bridge of boats over the Hellespont to transport his army from Asia into
Europe. A storm having destroyed this bridge, the all-powerful monarch,
furious at the insubordination of the elements, ordered chains to be cast
into the sea, and had the rebellious waves beaten with rods.
I f t hese i deas of aut hor i t y and of t yr a nny ma ke t hem
unha ppy from t hei r ver y chi l dhood, how will i t be wi t h t hem
when t hey ar e gr own, and when t hei r r el at i ons wi t h ot her s
begi n t o be ext ended and mul t i pl i ed?
Accus t omed t o seei ng ever yt hi ng gi ve way bef or e t hem,
how sur pr i sed t hey will be on ent er i ng t he wor l d t o find
t hemsel ves cr ushed beneat h t he wei ght of t hat uni ver se t hey
have expect ed t o move at t hei r own pl easur e ! Thei r i nsol ent
ai rs and chi ldi sh vani t y will onl y br i ng upon t hem mortifica-
t i on, cont empt , and ri di cule ; t hey mus t swal l ow affront aft er
af f r ont ; cruel t r i al s will t each t hem t ha t t hey under s t and
nei t her t hei r own posi t i on nor t hei r own s t r engt h. Una bl e t o
do ever yt hi ng, t hey will t hi nk t hemsel ves unabl e t o do any-
t hi ng. So ma ny unus ual obst acl es di shear t en t hem, so much
cont empt degr ades t hem. The y become bas e, cowar dl y,
cr i ngi ng, and si nk as f ar below t hei r r eal self as t hey had
i magi ned t hemsel ves above i t .
Le t us r et ur n t o t he ori gi nal or der of t hi ngs . Na t ur e has
made chi l dr en t o be l oved and hel ped ; has she made t hem t o
be obeyed a nd f ear ed ? Ha s she gi ven t hem an i mposi ng ai r,
a st er n eye, a har s h a nd t hr eat eni ng voi ce, so t ha t t hey ma y
i nspi r e fear ? I can unde r s t a nd why t he r oar of a li on fills
ot her cr eat ur es wi t h dr ead, a nd why the}" t r embl e at si ght of
hi s t er r i bl e count enance. But if ever t her e wer e an unbecom-
i ng, hat ef ul , ri di culous spect acl e, i t is t ha t of a body of mag-
i st r at es i n t hei r r obes of cer emony, a nd headed by t hei r chief,
pr os t r at e before an i nfant in l ong cl ot hes, who t o t hei r pompous
har angue r epl i es only by scr eams or by chi ldi sh d r i ve l !
1
1
The feeling of a republican, of the " citizen of Geneva," justly shocked
by monarchial superstitions. Louis XIV. and Louis XV. had had, in fact,
from the days of their first playthings, the degrading spectacle of a univer-
sal servility prostrated before their cradle. The sentiment here uttered
was still uncommon and almost unknown when Rousseau wrote it. He did
much toward creating it and making it popular.
Consi der i ng i nfancy i n itself, is t her e a cr eat ur e on ear t h
mor e hel pl ess, mor e unha ppy, mor e at t he mer cy of every-
t hi ng ar ound hi m, mor e in need of compassi on, of car e, of
prot ect i on, t ha n a chi l d? Does i t not seem as if hi s sweet
face and t ouchi ng aspect wer e i nt ended t o i nt er est ever y one
who comes near hi m, and t o ur ge t hem t o assi st hi s weaknes s ?
Wh a t t hen is mor e out r ageous , mor e cont r ar y t o t he fitness of
t hi ngs , t han t o see an i mper i ous a nd heads t r ong child or der -
i ng about t hose ar ound hi m, i mpudent l y t aki ng t he t one of a
mas t er t owar d t hose who, t o des t r oy hi m, need only l eave
hi m t o hi mself!
On t he ot her hand, who does not see t hat si nce t he weak-
ness of infanc}^ fet t ers chi l dren in so ma ny ways , we ar e
bar bar ous if we add t o t hi s nat ur al subj ect i on a bondage t o
our own capri ces b}
T
t aki ng from t hem t he li mi t ed f r eedom
t hey have, a freedom t hey ar e so li t t le able t o mi suse, and
from t he loss of whi ch we and t hey have so li t t le t o gai n?
As not hi ng is mor e r i di cul ous t ha n a haught y chi ld, so not h -
i ng is mor e pi t i able t han a cowar dl y chi ld.
Si nce wi t h year s of r eason civil bondage
1
begi ns , why
ant i ci pat e it by sl aver y at home? Let us leave one moment
of l i f e exempt f r om a yoke nat ur e has not lai d upon us, and
allow chi ldhood t he exer ci se of t hat nat ur al l i ber t y whi ch
keeps i t safe, at l east for a t i me, from t he vi ces t aught by
sl aver y. Let t he over -st r i ct t eacher and t he over -i ndul gent
par ent bot h come wi t h t hei r empt y cavi l s, and before t hey
boast of t hei r own met hods let t hem l ear n t he met hod of
Na t ur e herself.
1
Civil bondage, as understood by Rousseau, consists in the laws and
obligations of civilized life itself. He extols the state of nature as the ideal
condition, the condition of perfect freedom, without seeing that, on the
contrary, true liberty cannot exist without the protection of laws, while the
state of nature is only the enslavement of the weak by the strong the
triumph of brute force.
Re a s o n i n g s h o u l d n o t b e g i n t o o s o o n .
L O C K E ' S gr eat ma xi m was t hat we ought t o r eason wi t h
chi ldren, and j us t now t hi s ma xi m is much in f ashi on. I
t hi nk, however , t ha t i t s success does not war r ant its r eput a-
t i on, and I find not hi ng mor e st upi d t han chi ldren who have
been so much r eas oned wi t h. Reas on, appar ent l y a com-
pound of all ot her facult i es, t he one l at est devel oped, and
wi t h mos t difficulty, is t he one pr oposed as agent i n unf ol di ng
t he facult i es earl i est used ! The nobl est wor k of educat i on
is t o make a r eas oni ng ma n, and we expect t o t r ai n a young
child by ma ki ng hi m r eason ! Thi s is begi nni ng at t he end ;
t hi s is maki ng an i ns t r ument of a r esul t . I f chi ldren under -
st ood how t o r eason t hey would not need t o be educat ed.
But by addr es s i ng t hem from t hei r t ender es t }
T
ears in a
l anguage t hey cannot under s t and, you accust om t hem t o be
satisfied wi t h wor ds , t o find fault wi t h what ever is sai d t o
t hem, t o t hi nk t hemsel ves as wi se as t hei r t eacher s, t o wr angl e
and r ebel . An d wha t we mean t hey shall do from r easonabl e
mot i ves we ar e forced t o obt ai n from t hem by addi ng t he
mot i ve of avar i ce, or of fear, or of vani t y.
Na t ur e i nt ends t ha t chi l dren shall be chi l dr en bef or e t hey
ar e men. If we i nsi st on r ever si ng t hi s or der we shall have
frui t ear l y i ndeed, but unr i pe and t as t el es s , and li able t o
ear l y de c a y; we shall have 3
r
oung s avant s and old chi l dr en.
Chi l dhood has i t s own met hods of seei ng, t hi nki ng, and
feeli ng. Not hi ng shows less sense t han t o t r y t o subst i t ut e
our own met hods for t hes e. I woul d r at her r equi r e a child
t en }
T
ears old t o be five feet t all t han t o be j udi ci ous. I ndeed,
what use woul d he have at t hat age for t he power t o r eason ?
I t is a check upon physi cal s t r engt h, and t he chi ld needs
none.
REASONI NG SHOULD NOT BEGI N TOO SOON. 53
I n at t empt i ng t o per s uade 3'our pupi ls t o obedi ence you
add t o t hi s alleged per suasi on force and t hr eat s , or wor se
st i ll, flattery and pr omi s es . Bought over i n t hi s way by
i nt er est , or const r ai ned by force, t hey pr et end t o be convi nced
by r eason. The y see pl ai nl y t ha t as soon as you di scover
obedi ence or di sobedi ence i n t hei r conduct , t he former is an
a dva nt a ge and t he l at t er a di s advant age t o t hem. But you
ask of t hem only wha t is di st ast ef ul t o t h e m; i t is al ways
i r ksome t o car r y out t he wi shes of anot her , so by st eal t h t hey
c a n y out t hei r own. The y ar e sur e t hat if t hei r di sobedi ence
is not known t hey ar e doi ng we l l ; but t hey ar e r eady, for
fear of gr eat er evi ls, t o acknowl edge, if found out , t ha t t hey
ar e doi ng wr ong. As t he r eas on for t he dut y r equi r ed is
beyond t hei r capaci t y, no one can ma ke t hem really under -
s t and i t . But t he fear of puni s hment , t he hope of forgi ve-
nes s , j
T
our i mpor t uni t y, t hei r difficulty in ans wer i ng you,
ext or t from t hem t he confessi on r equi r ed of t hem. You t hi nk
you have convi nced t hem, when you have onl y wear i ed t hem
out or i nt i mi dat ed t hem.
Wh a t r esul t s "from t hi s ? Fi r s t of all t ha t , by i mposi ng
upon t hem a duty t hey do not feel as such, you set t hem
agai nst your t yr a nny, and di ssuade t hem from l ovi ng you ;
you t each t hem t o be di ssembl er s, decei t ful, willfully unt r ue,
for t he sake of ext or t i ng r ewar ds or of escapi ng puni s hment s .
Fi nal l y, by habi t uat i ng t hem t o cover a secr et mot i ve by an
appar ent mot i ve, you gi ve t hem t he me a ns of cons t ant l y
mi sl eadi ng you, of conceal i ng t hei r t r ue char act er from you,
and of sat i sf yi ng your sel f and ot her s wi t h empt y wor ds when
t hei r occasi on de ma nds . You may say t ha t t he l aw, al t hough
bi ndi ng on t he consci ence, uses cons t r ai nt in deal i ng wi t h
gr own men. I gr a nt i t ; but what ar e t hese men but chi ldren
spoi led by t hei r educat i on ? Thi s is preci sel y what ought t o
be pr event ed. Wi t h chi l dr en use force, wi t h me n r eason. ;
such is t he nat ur al or der of t hi ngs . Th e wi se ma n r equi r es
no l aws .
We l l - Re g u l a t e d Li be r t y .
T R E A T your pupi l as hi s age de ma nds . Fr o m t he first, as-
si gn hi m t o hi s t r ue pl ace, and keep hi m t her e so effectually
t ha t he will not t r y t o l eave i t . The n, wi t hout knowi ng what
wi sdom i s, he will pr act i se i t s mos t i mpor t a nt l esson.
Never , absol ut el y never , command hi m t o do a t hi ng, what -
ever it ma y b e .
1
Do not l et hi m even i magi ne t ha t you
claim any aut hor i t y over hi m. Let him know onl y t hat he
is weak and you ar e s t r o n g : t hat from hi s condi t i on and
your s he is necessar i l y at your mer cy. Le t hi m know t hi s
l ear n it and feel it. Let him ear l y know t hat upon hi s
haught }' neck is t he st er n yoke nat ur e i mposes upon ma n,
t he heavy yoke of necessi t y, under whi ch ever y finite bei ng
mus t t oi l.
Le t him di scover t hi s necessi t y in t he nat ur e of t h i n g s ;
never in human capr i ce. Le t t he rei n t hat hol ds hi m back
be power , not aut hor i t y. Do not forbi d, but pr event , his
doi ng what he ought n o t ; and in t hus pr event i ng hi m use no
expl anat i ons , gi ve no r eas ons . Wh a t you gr a nt hi m, gr a nt
at t he first as ki ng wi t hout any ur gi ng, any ent r eat y from
hi m, and above all wi t hout condi t i ons. Cons ent wi t h pl eas-
ur e and refuse unwi lli ngly, but l et ever y r ef usal be i rrevo-
cabl e. Le t no i mpor t uni t y move you. Le t t he " No " once
1
In this unconditional form the principle is inadmissible. Any one who
has the rearing of children knows this. But the idea underlying the para-
dox ought to be recognized, for it is a just one. We ought not to command
merely for the pleasure of commanding, but solely to interpret to the child
the requirements of the case in hand. To command him for the sake of
commanding is an abuse of power: it is a baseness which will end in disas-
ter. On the other hand, we cannot leave it to circumstances to forbid what
ought not to be done. Only, the command should be intelligible, reason-
able, and unyielding. This is really what Rousseau means.
ut t er ed be a wall of br as s agai ust whi ch t he child will have
t o exhaus t his s t r engt h only five or si x t i mes before he ceases
t r yi ng t o over t ur n i t .
I n t hi s way you will make him pat i ent , even-t emper ed, r e-
si gned, gent l e, even when he has not what he wa nt s . Fo r it
is in our nat ur e t o endur e pat i ent l y t he decr ees of f at e, but
not t he ill-will of ot her s. Ther e is no mo r e , " is an answer
agai nst whi ch no child ever rebelled unl ess he bel i eved i t
unt r ue. Besi des, t her e is no ot her wa }
T
; ei t her not hi ng at
all is t o be r equi r ed of hi m, or he mus t from t he first be
accust omed t o per f ect obedi ence. The wor st t r ai ni ng of all
is t o l eave hi m waver i ng bet ween hi s own will and your s ,
and t o di s put e i ncessant l y wi t h hi m as t o whi ch shall be
mas t er . I should a hundr ed t i mes prefer hi s bei ng mas t er
in ever y case.
I t is mar vel l ous t ha t in under t aki ng t o educat e a chi ld no
ot her me a ns of gui di ng him shoul d have been devi sed t han
emul at i on, j eal ousy, envy, vani t y, gr eed, vi le fear, all of
t hem passi ons most danger ous , r eadi est t o f er ment , /fittest t o
cor r upt a soul, even bef or e t he body is full-grown. Fo r each
i nst r uct i on t oo ear l y put i nt o a chi ld' s head, a vice is deepl y
i mpl ant ed in hi s hear t . Fool i sh t eacher s t hi nk t hey ar e
doi ng wonder s when t hey ma ke a child wi cked, in or der t o
t each hi m what goodnes s i s ; and t hen the}^ gr avel y t ell us ,
" Su c h is ma n . " Ye s ; such is t he man you have made.
Al l means have been t ri ed save one, and t hat t he ver y one
which i nsur es success, namel y, wel l -regul at ed freedom. We
ought not t o under t ake a chi l d' s educat i on unl ess we know
how t o l ead hi m wher ever we pl ease solely by t he l aws of t he
possi ble and t he i mpossi bl e. The s pher e of bot h bei ng ali ke
unknown t o hi m, we may ext end or cont r act i t ar ound hi m as
we will. We ma y bi nd hi m clown, i nci t e hi m t o act i on, r e-
st r ai n him by t he leash of necessi t y al one, and he will not
mur ni ur . We ma y r ender hi m pl i ant and t eachabl e by t he
force of ci r cumst ances al one, wi t hout gi vi ng any vi ce an
oppor t uni t y t o t ake r oot wi t hi n hi m. For t he passi ons
never awake t o life, so l ong as t hey ar e of no avai l .
Do not gi ve your pupi l any sor t of lesson ve r ba l l y: he
ought t o recei ve none except from exper i ence. Inflict upon
hi m no ki nd of puni s hment , for he does not know what bei ng
in fault me a n s ; never obli ge hi m t o ask par don, for he does
not know wha t i t i s t o offend you.
Hi s act i ons bei ng wi t hout mor al qual i t y, he can do not hi ng
whi ch i s mor al l y ba d, or whi ch deser ves ei t her puni s hment or
reproof.
1
Al r eady I see t he st ar t l ed r eader j udgi ng of t hi s child by
t hose ar ound u s ; but he is mi s t aken. The per pet ual con-
s t r ai nt under whi ch you keep your pupi l s i ncr eases t hei r
li veli ness. The mor e cr amped t he}' ar e while under your eye
t he mor e unr ul y t hey ar e t he mome nt t hey escape i t . They
mus t , in f act , ma ke t hemsel ves amends for t he sever e r e-
s t r ai nt you put upon t hem. Two school-boys from a ci t y
will do mor e mi schi ef in a communi t y t han t he young peopl e
of a whole vi l l age.
Shut up in t he s ame r oom a li t t le gent l eman and a li t t le
pe a s a n t ; t he f or mer will have ever yt hi ng ups et and br oken
before t he l at t er has moved from hi s pl ace. Wh y is t hi s ?
Becaus e t he one has t ens t o mi suse a moment of l i ber t y, and
t he ot her , al ways sur e of his freedom, is never in a hur r y t o
use i t . An d yet t he chi l dren of vi l l ager s, often pet t ed or
1
This is not strictly true. The child early has the consciousness of right
and wrong; and if it be true that neither chastisement nor reproof is to be
abused, it is no less certain that conscience is early awake within him, and
that it ought not to be neglected in a work so delicate as that of education:
on condition, be it understood, that we act with simplicity, without pedan-
try, and that we employ example more than lectures. Rousseau says this
admirably a few pages farther on.
t hwar t ed, ar e still ver y f ar from t he condi t i on in whi ch I
shoul d wi sh t o keep t hem.
Pr o c e e d S l o wl y .
M A Y I vent ur e t o s t at e her e t he gr eat es t , t he mos t i mpor -
t ant , t he mos t useful r ul e in all educat i on? I t i s, not t o
gai n t i me, but t o lose i t . For gi ve t he pa r a dox, O my ordi -
nar y r eader ! I t mus t be ut t er ed by a n y o n e who reflect s,
and what ever you ma y s ay, I pr ef er pa r a doxe s t o pr ej udi ces.
The mos t per i l ous i nt er val of human life is t ha t bet ween bi r t h
and t he age of t wel ve year s . At t hat t i me er r or s and vi ces
t a ke r oot wi t hout our havi ng any means of des t r oyi ng t h e m;
and when t he i ns t r ument is f ound, t he t i me for upr oot i ng t hem
is pas t . I f chi ldren could s pr i ng at one bound from t he
mot her ' s br eas t t o t he age of r eason, t he educat i on gi ven
t hem now-a-days would be s ui t a bl e ; but in t he due or der of
nat ur e t hey need one ent i r el y different. They shoul d not
use t he mi nd at all, unt i l it has all its f acul t i es. For while
i t is bli nd it cannot see t he t or ch you pr es ent t o i t ; nor can
i t follow on t he i mmense plai n of i deas a pat h whi ch, even
for t he keenes t eyesi ght , r eason t r aces so f ai nt l y.
The ear l i est educat i on ought , t hen, t o be pur el y negat i ve.
I t consi st s not in t eachi ng t r ut h or vi r t ue, but in shi el di ng
t he hear t from vi ce and t he mi nd from er r or . If you could
do not hi ng at all, and allow not hi ng t o be d o n e ; if you
could br i ng up your pupi l sound and r obus t t o t he age of
t welve year s , wi t hout hi s knowi ng how t o di st i ngui sh his
r i ght hand from hi s left, t he eyes of hi s unde r s t a ndi ng would
from t he ver y first open t o r eas on. Wi t hout a prejudi ce or
a habi t , t her e woul d be in hi m not hi ng t o count er act t he
effect of your car e. Bef or e l ong he woul d become in your
hands t he wi sest of me n ; and begi nni ng by doi ng not hi ng,
you would have accompl i shed a mar vel in educat i on.
Rever s e t he common pr act i ce, and you will near l y al ways
do well. Pa r e nt s and t eacher s desi r i ng t o make of a chi ld
not a chi ld, but a l ear ned ma n, have never begun ear l y enough
t o chi de, t o cor r ect , t o r epr i mand, t o flatter, t o pr omi se, t o
i nst r uct , t o di scourse r eas on t o hi m. Do bet t er t ha n t h i s :
be r easonabl e yourself, and do not ar gue wi t h your pupi l , l east
of all, t o make hi m appr ove what he di sl i kes. For if you
per si st in r eas oni ng about di sagr eeabl e t hi ngs , you make
r easoni ng di sagr eeabl e t o hi m, and weaken i t s influence
bef or ehand in a mi nd as yet unfi t t ed t o under s t and i t . Ke e p
hi s or gans , his s ens es , hi s physi cal s t r engt h, busy; but , as
l ong as possi ble, keep hi s mi nd i nact i ve. Gua r d agai nst all
sensat i ons ar i si ng in advance of j udgme nt , whi ch est i mat es
t hei r t r ue val ue. Ke e p back and check unf ami l i ar i mpr es-
si ons, and be in no has t e t o do good for t he sake of pr event i ng
evi l. Fo r t he good is not real unless enl i ght ened by r eas on.
Re ga r d ever y del ay as an a dva nt a ge ; for much is gai ned if
t he cri t i cal per i od be appr oached wi t hout l osi ng anyt hi ng.
Le t chi l dhood have i t s full gr owt h. If i ndeed a l esson mus t
be gi ven, avoi d i t to-clay, if you can wi t hout danger del ay
i t unt i l t o-mor r ow.
Anot her consi der at i on whi ch pr oves t hi s met hod useful is
t he pecul i ar bent of t he chi l d' s mi nd. Thi s ought t o be well
under s t ood if we woul d know what mor al gover nment is best
adapt ed t o hi m. Each has hi s own cast of mi nd, in accord-
ance wi t h which he mus t be di r ect ed ; and if we would suc-
ceed, he mus t be r ul ed accor di ng t o t hi s nat ur al bent and no
ot her . Be j udi ci ous : wat ch nat ur e l ong, and obser ve your
pupi l carefully before you s ay a wor d t o hi m. At first l eave
t he ger m of hi s char act er free t o di sclose itself. Repr es s it
as li t t le as possi bl e, so t ha t you ma y t he bet t er see all t her e
is of it.
Do 3^011 t hi nk t hi s season of free act i on will be t i me l ost t o
him ? On t he cont r ar y, i t will be empl oyed i n t he bes t way
possi bl e. For by t hi s means you will l ear n not t o lose a si n-
gle moment when t i me is mor e pr e c i ous ; wher eas , if you
begi n t o act before you know wha t ought t o be done, you
act at r a ndom. Li abl e t o decei ve 3
T
ourself, you will have t o
r et r ace }-our s t eps , and will be f ar t her from }
r
our object t ha n
if you had been less in has t e t o r each i t . Do not t hen act
li ke a mi ser , who, in or der t o lose not hi ng, loses a gr eat deal.
At t he ear l i er age sacrifice t i me whi ch 3^011 wi l l r ecover wi t h
i nt er est l at er on. The wi se physi ci an does not gi ve di r ec-
t i ons at first si ght of hi s pat i ent , but st udi es t he si ck ma n' s
t emper ament , bef or e pr escr i bi ng. He begi ns l at e wi t h hi s
t r eat ment , but cur es t he man : t he ove*-hast3
T
physi ci an kills
hi m.
Remember t hat , before you vent ur e under t aki ng t o form a
ma n, you mus t have made yoursel f a ma n ; you mus t find in
yourself t he exampl e you ought t o offer hi m. Whi l e t he
child is yet wi t hout knowl edge t her e is t i me t o pr epar e ever y-
t hi ng about hi m so t ha t his first gl ance shall di scover onl y
what he ought t o see. Ma ke everybod3
r
r espect you ; begi n
by ma ki ng your sel f bel oved, so t hat eveiybod3
7
will t r y t o
please you. You will not be t he chi ld' s mas t er unl ess you
ar e mas t er of ever yt hi ng ar ound hi m, and t hi s aut hor i t y will
not suffice unl ess f ounded on est eem for vi r t ue.
Ther e is no use in exhaus t i ng your pur se by l avi shi ng
money : I have never obser ved t hat money made any one
beloved. You mus t not be mi serly or unfeeli ng, or l ament
t he di st r ess you can r el i eve; but you will open 3-our coffers
in vai n if you do not open your heart"; t he hear t s of ot her s
will be forever closed t o you. You mus t gi ve your t i me,
your car e, }
r
our affection, yourself. For what ever 3
T
ou ma y
do, 3'our money cer t ai nl y is not yourself. Toke ns of i nt er es t
a nd of ki ndnes s go f ar t her and ar e of mor e use t ha n any
gi ft s what ever . How ma ny unha ppy per s ons , how ma ny
sufferers, need consol at i on f ar mor e t han al ms ! Ho w ma ny
who are oppr es s ed ar e ai ded r at her by pr ot ect i on t ha n by
mone y!
Reconci l e t hose who ar e at var i ance ; pr event l awsui t s ;
per s uade chi l dr en t o filial dut y and par ent s t o gent l enes s .
Encour age happy mar r i ages ; hi nder di s t ur bances ; use freely
t he i nt er est of your pupi l ' s family on behalf of t he weak who
ar e deni ed j ust i ce and oppr essed by t he power f ul . Bol dl y
decl ar e yourself t he champi on of t he unf or t unat e. Be j ust ,
huma ne , benefi cent . Be not cont ent wi t h gi vi ng al ms ; be
char i t abl e. Ki ndnes s reli eves mor e di st r ess t ha n money can
r each. Love ot her s , and t hey will love y o u; ser ve t hem,
a nd t hey will ser ve y o u; be t hei r br ot her , and t hey will be
3
T
our chi l dr en.
Bl ame ot her s no l onger for t he mi schi ef you yourself are
doi ng. Chi l dr en ar e less cor r upt ed by t he har m t hey s e e
t ha n by t ha t you t each t hem.
Alwaj^s pr eachi ng, al ways mor al i zi ng, al ways act i ng t he
pedant , you gi ve t hem t went y wor t hl ess i deas when you
t hi nk you ar e gi vi ng t hem one good one. Ful l of what is
pas s i ng i n your own mi nd, you do not see t he effect you ar e
pr oduci ng upon t hei r s.
I n t he pr ol onged t or r ent of wor ds wi t h whi ch you i nces-
s ant l y wear y t hem, do }^ou t hi nk t her e ar e none t hey may
mi s under s t and ? Do you i magi ne t ha t t hey will not comment
in t hei r own way upon your wor dy expl anat i ons , and find i n
t hem a s ys t em adapt ed t o t hei r own capaci t y, whi ch, if need
be , t hey can use agai ns t you?
Li s t en t o a li t t le fellow who has j us t been under i nst r uc-
t i on. Le t hi m pr at t l e, quest i on, bl under , j us t as he pl eases,
and you will be sur pr i sed at t he t ur n your r eas oni ngs have
t aken in hi s mi nd. He conf ounds one t hi ng wi t h anot her ;
he r ever ses ever yt hi ng ; he t i r es you, somet i mes worri es you,
by unexpect ed obj ect i ons. He forces you t o hold your
peace, or t o ma ke him hol d hi s. An d wha t mus t he t hi nk of
t hi s si lence, in one so fond of t al ki ng? If ever he wi ns t hi s
advant age a nd knows t he fact , farewell t o his educat i on.
He will no l onger t r y t o l ear n, but t o refut e what you s ay.
Be pl ai n, di scr eet , r et i cent , 3
t
OU who ar e zeal ous t eacher s .
Be in no hast e t o act , except t o pr event ot her s from act i ng.
Agai n and agai n I say, pos t pone even a good lesson if
J
T
OU can, for fear of conveyi ng a bad one. On t hi s ear t h,
meant by nat ur e t o be ma n' s first par adi s e, bewar e lest you
act t he t e mpt e r by gi vi ng t o i nnocence t he knowl edge of
good and evil. Si nce you cannot pr event t he chi ld' s l ear ni ng
from out si de exampl es , r est r i ct your car e t o t he t as k of
i mpr essi ng t hese exampl es on hi s mi nd in sui t abl e f or ms.
Vi ol ent pas s i ons make a st r i ki ng i mpr essi on on t he child
who not i ces t hem, because t hei r mani f est at i ons are well-de-
fined, and forci bly at t r act hi s at t ent i on. Ange r especi ally
has such st ornry i ndi cat i ons t ha t i t s appr oach is unmi s t akabl e.
Do not as k, " I s not t hi s a fine oppor t uni t y for t he pedagogue' s
mor al di scour se ? " Spar e t he di scour se : say not a wor d : let
t he child al one. Ama ze d at what he sees, he will not fail t o
quest i on you. I t will not be har d t o ans wer hi m, on account
of t he vei y t hi ngs t ha t st r i ke his senses. He sees an i n-
flamed count enance, flashing eyes, t hr eat eni ng ges t ur es , he
hear s unusual l y exci t ed t ones of voi ce ; all sur e si gns t hat t he
body is not in i t s usual condi t i on. Say t o him cal ml y, un-
affectedly, wi t hout any nvystery, " T h i s poor man is s i c k; he
has a hi gh f ever . " You may t ake t hi s occasi on t o gi ve hi m,
in few wor ds, an i dea of mal adi es and of t hei r effects ; for
t hese, bei ng nat ur al , ar e t r ammel s of t hat necessi t y t o whi ch
he has t o feel hi mself subj ect .
Fr o m t hi s, t he t r ue i dea, will he not ear l y feel r epugnance
at gi vi ng way t o excessi ve passi on, whi ch he r egar ds as a
di sease ? An d do you not t hi nk t hat such an i dea, gi ven at
t he appr opr i at e t i me, will have as good an effect as t he mos t
t i r esome ser mon on mor al s ? Not e also t he f ut ur e conse-
quences of t hi s i de a ; i t will aut hor i ze you, if ever necessi t y
ar i ses, t o t r eat a rebelli ous child as a sick chi ld, t o confine
hi m t o hi s r oom, and even t o hi s bed, t o make hi m under go
a course of medi cal t r e a t me n t ; t o make hi s gr owi ng vi ces
al ar mi ng and hat eful t o himself. He cannot consi der as a
puni s hment t he sever i t y you ar e forced t o use in cur i ng hi m.
So t hat if you yourself, in some has t y moment , ar e per haps
st i r r ed out of t he coolness and moder at i on i t should be your
st udy t o pr eser ve, do not t r y t o di sgui se your f aul t , but s aj
r
t o him f r ankl y, in t ender r epr oach,
u
My boy, you have hur t
me . "
I do not i nt end t o ent er fully i nt o det ai l s, but t o l ay down
some gener al ma xi ms a nd t o i llust rat e difficult cases. I be-
lieve i t i mpossi bl e, i n t he ver y hear t of soci al s ur r oundi ngs ,
t o educat e a child up t o t he age of t wel ve year s , wi t hout gi v-
i ng hi m some i deas of t he r el at i ons of man t o man, and of
mor al i t y in human act i ons. I t will suffice if we put off as
l ong as possi bl e t he necessi t y for t hese i deas , a nd when t hey
mus t be gi ven, li mi t t hem t o such as ar e i mmedi at el y appl i -
cabl e. We mus t do t hi s onl y lest he consi der hi mself mas t er
of every t hi ng, and so i njure ot her s wi t hout scr upl e, because
unknowi ngl y. The r e ar e gent l e, qui et char act er s who, in
t hei r ear l y i nnocence, may be led a l ong way wi t hout danger
of t hi s ki nd. But ot her s , nat ur al l y vi ol ent , whose wi l dness
is pr ecoci ous, mus t be t r ai ned i nt o men as ear l y as may be,
t hat you ma y not be obli ged t o f et t er t hem out r i ght .
Th e I d e a of Pr o p e r t y .
OUR first dut i es ar e t o our sel ves ; our first feelings ar e
concent r at ed upon our sel ves ; our first nat ur al movement s
have r ef er ence t o our own pr eser vat i on a nd wel l -bei ng.
Th us our first i dea of j ust i ce is not as due from us , but t o
us . One er r or in t he educat i on of t o- day i s, t hat by speak-
i ng t o chi ldren first of t hei r dut i es and never of t hei r r i ght s ,
we commence at t he wr ong end, a nd tell t hem of what t hey
cannot under s t and, and what cannot i nt er est t hem.
I f t her ef or e I had t o t each one of t hese I have ment i oned,
I should reflect t ha t a child never at t acks per s ons , but
t h i n g s ; he soon l ear ns from exper i ence t o r espect hi s supe-
r i or s in age and s t r engt h. But t hi ngs do not defend t hem-
sel ves. The first i dea t o be gi ven hi m, t her ef or e, is r at her
t ha t of pr oper t y t han t ha t of li bert y ; and in or der t o under -
s t and t hi s i dea he mus t have somet hi ng of his own. To s peak
t o hi m of his cl ot hes, hi s f ur ni t ur e, hi s pl ayt hi ngs , is t o t ell
hi m not hi ng at a l l ; for t hough he makes use of t hese t hi ngs ,
he knows nei t her how nor why he has t hem. To tell hi m t hey
are his because t hey have been gi ven t o hi m is not much bet t er ,
for i n or der t o gi ve, we mus t have. Thi s is an owner shi p dat -
i ng f ar t her ba c k t han hi s own, and we wi sh hi m t o under s t and
t he pri nci ple of owner shi p itself. Bes i des , a gi ft is a conven-
t i onal t hi ng, and t he chi ld cannot as yet under s t and what a
convent i onal t hi ng i s. You who r ead t hi s, obser ve how in
t hi s i nst ance, as in a hundr ed t hous and ot her s , a chi l d' s head
is cr ammed wi t h wor ds whi ch from t he s t ar t have no meani ng
t o him, but whi ch we i magi ne we have t aught hi m.
We mus t go back, t hen, t o t he ori gi n of owner shi p, for
t hence our first i deas of it shoul d ar i se. Th e child li vi ng i n
t he count r y will have gai ned some not i on of what field l abor i s,
havi ng needed only t o use his ej
T
es a nd his a bunda nt l ei sur e.
Eve r y age in life, and especi ally his own, desi r es t o cr eat e,
t o i mi t at e, t o pr oduce, t o mani f est power and act i vi t y.
Onl y t wi ce will i t be necessar y for hi m t o see a gar den cult i -
vat ed, seed sown, pl ant s r ear ed, beans s pr out i ng, bef or e he
will desi re t o wor k in a gar den himself.
I n accor dance wi t h pr i nci pl es al r eady lai d down I do not
at all oppose t hi s desi r e, but encour age it. I s har e hi s
t as t e ; I wor k wi t h hi m, not for hi s pl easur e, but for my
own : at l east he t hi nks so. I become his assi st ant gar dener ;
unt i l hi s ar ms ar e s t r ong enough I wor k t he gr ound for hi m.
By pl ant i ng a bean in i t , he t akes possessi on of i t ; and
sur el y t hi s possessi on is mor e sacr ed and mor e t o be re-
spect ed t han t hat assumed by Nune z de Bal boa of Sout h
Ame r i c a in t he name of t he ki ng of Spai n, by pl ant i ng hi s
s t a nda r d on t he shor es of t he Pacific Ocean.
He comes every day t o wat er t he beans , and rejoi ces t o
see t hem t hr i vi ng. I add t o hi s del i ght by t elli ng hi m
u
Thi s
bel ongs t o y o u. " I n expl ai ni ng t o hi m what I mean by
" be l ongs , " I ma ke hi m feel t hat he has put i nt o t hi s plot^ of
gr ound hi s t i me, his l abor , his car e, hi s bodi l y sel f ; t ha t in
i t is a pa r t of hi msel f whi ch he ma y clai m back from any
one what ever , j us t as he may dr aw hi s own ar m back if
anot her t ri es t o hol d it agai nst his will.
One fine mor ni ng he comes as us ual , r unni ng, wat er i ng-
pot in hand. But oh, what a s i ght ! Wh a t a mi sf or t une !
The beans ar e upr oot ed, t he gar den bed is all in di sor der :
t he pl ace act ual l y no l onger knows itself. Wh a t has become
of my l abor , t he sweet r ewar d of all my car e and t oi l?
Wh o has r obbed me of my own ? W
T
ho has t aken my beans
away from me ? The li t t le hear t swells wi t h t he bi t t er nes s
of i t s first feeli ng of i njust i ce. Hi s eyes overflow wi t h t ear s ;
his di st r ess r ends t he ai r wi t h moa ns and cr i es. We com-
passi onat e hi s t r oubl es, shar e hi s i ndi gnat i on, ma ke i nqui -
ri es, sift t he mat t er t hor oughl y. At l ast we find t ha t t he
gar dener has done t he deed : we send for hi m.
But we find t ha t we have r eckoned wi t hout our hos t .
Wh e n t he gar dener hear s what we ar e compl ai ni ng of, he
compl ai ns mor e t ha n we.
" Wh a t ! So i t was you, gent l emen, who r ui ned all nry
l a bor ! I had pl ant ed some Mal t es e mel ons , from seed gi ven
me as a gr eat r a r i t y : I hoped t o gi ve you a gr a nd t r eat wi t h
t hem when t hey wer e r i pe. But for t he s ake of pl ant i ng your
mi ser abl e beans t her e, you ki lled my mel ons aft er t hey had
act ual l y s pr out ed; and t her e ar e no mor e t o be had. You
have done me mor e har m t han you can r emedy, a nd you
have l ost t he pl easur e of t as t i ng some deli ci ous me l ons . "
JEAN JACQUES.
4 4
Exc us e us , my good Rober t . You put
mt o t hem your l abor , 3'our car e. I see pl ai nl y t ha t we di d
wr ong t o spoi l }
T
our wo r k: but we will get you some mor e
Mal t es e seed, a nd we will not till any mor e gr ound wi t hout
finding out whet her some one else has put hi s ha nd t o i t be-
fore us . "
ROBERT. " Oh well, gent l emen, you ma y as well end t he
busi ness ; for t her e' s no wast e l and. Wh a t I wor k was i m-
pr oved by my f at her , and i t ' s t he same wi t h ever ybody her e-
about . Al l t he fields you see were t aken up l ong a g o . "
EIMILE. " Mr . Rober t , clo you of t en l ose your mel on-
s e e d ? "
ROBERT. " P a r d o n , my young ma s t e r : we don' t oft en
have .young gent l emen about t hat ar e car el ess li ke you.
Nobody t ouches his nei ghbor ' s g a r d e n ; ever ybody r es pect s
ot her peopl e' s wor k, t o ma ke sur e of hi s o wn . "
MI LE. " But I haven' t any g a r d e n . "
ROBERT. " Wh a t ' s t hat t o me ? I f you spoi l mi ne, I
won' t let you wal k i n i t any mor e ; for you are t o under -
s t and t hat I ' m not goi ng t o have all nvy pai ns for not hi ng. "
JEAN JACQUES. " Can' t we ar r ange t hi s ma t t e r wi t h honest
Robe r t ? J us t let my li t t le fri end and me have one cor ner
of your gar den t o cul t i vat e, on condi t i on t hat you have half
t he pr oduc e . "
ROBERT. " I will let you have it wi t hout t ha t condi t i on ;
but r emember , I will r oot up your beans if you meddl e wi t h
my me l ons . "
I n t hi s essay on t he manner of t eachi ng f undament al no-
t i ons t o chi ldren i t may be seen how t he i dea of pr oper t y
nat ur al l y goes back t o t he r i ght whi ch t he first occupant
acqui r ed by l abor . Thi s i s clear, conci se, si mpl e, and al ways
wi t hi n t he compr ehensi on of t he chi ld. Fr om t hi s t o t he
r i ght of hol di ng propert }-, and of t r ans f er r i ng i t , t her e is but
one s t ep, and beyond t hi s we ar e t o st op shor t .
I t will also be evi dent t ha t t he expl anat i on I have i ncl uded
i n t wo pages may, i n act ual pr act i ce, be t he wor k of an ent i r e
year . Fo r in t he devel opment of mor al i deas , we cannot
advance t oo slowly, or est abl i sh t hem t oo firmly at ever y st ep.
I ent r eat you, young t eacher s , t o t hi nk of t he exampl e I have
gi ven, a nd t o r emember t hat your l essons upon evei y subj ect
ought t o be r at her in act i ons t han in wor ds ; for chi l dr en
r eadi l y f or get what is sai d or done t o t hem.
As I have sai d, such l essons ought t o be gi ven earli er or
l at er , as t he di sposi t i on of t he chi ld, gent l e or t ur bul ent ,
has t ens or r et ar ds t he necessi t y for gi vi ng t hem. I n em-
pl oyi ng t he m, we call in an evi dence t hat cannot be mi sun-
der s t ood. But t hat in difficult cases not hi ng i mpor t ant may
be omi t t ed, let us gi ve anot her i l l ust r at i on.
Your li t t le meddl er spoi ls ever yt hi ng he t ouc he s ; do not
be vexed, but put out of hi s r each what ever he can spoi l.
He br e a ks t he furni t ure he us es . Be in no h u n y t o gi ve hi m
a ny mo r e ; l et hi m feel t he di s advant ages of doi ng wi t hout i t .
He br eaks t he wi ndows in hi s r o o m; l et t he wi nd bl ow on
hi m ni ght a nd da y. Ha ve no f ear of hi s t aki ng c ol d; he
had bet t er t ake cold t han be a fool.
Do not fret at t he i nconveni ence he causes you, but make
him feel i t first of all. Fi nal l y, wi t hout say i n g ; any t hi n g
about i t , have t he panes of gl ass mended. He br eaks t hem
agai n. Change your me t hod: say t o hi m coolly and wi t hout
anger , " Thos e wi ndows are mi ne ; I t ook pai ns t o have t hem
put t her e, and I am goi ng t o make sur e t hat t hey shall not
be br oken agai n. " The n shut hi m up in some da r k pl ace
where t her e ar e no wi ndows. At t hi s novel pr oceedi ng, he
begi ns t o cry and st or m : but nobody l i st ens t o hi m. He
soon gr ows t i red of t hi s, and changes his t one ; he compl ai ns
and gr oans . A s er vant is sent , whom t he r ebel ent r eat s t o
set hi m free. Wi t hout t r yi ng t o fiud any excuse for ut t er
r ef usal , t he s er vant ans wer s , " I have wi ndows t o t ake car e
of, t oo, " and goes awa
t
y. At l ast , af t er t he child has been
in dur ance for sever al hour s , l ong enough t o t i re him and
t o make hi m r emember i t , some one suggest s an ar r angement
by whi ch you shall agr ee t o r el ease hi m, and he t o br eak no
mor e wi ndows. He sends t o beseech you t o come and see
h i m; you come ; he ma ke s hi s pr opos al . You accept i t i m-
medi at el y, sayi ng, " Wel l t hought of; t hat will be a good
t hi ng for bot h of us . Wh y di dn' t you t hi nk of t hi s capi t al
pl an b e f o r e ? " The n, wi t hout r equi r i ng any pr ot es t at i ons ,
or confi rmat i on of hi s pr omi se, you gl adl y car ess hi m and
t ake hi m t o hi s r oom at once, r egar di ng t hi s compact as
sacred and i nvi olable as if ratified by an oat h. Wh a t an i dea
of t he obl i gat i on, and t he usef ul ness, of an engagement will
he not gai n from t hi s t r ansact i on ! I am gr eat l y mi s t aken if
t her e is an unspoi l ed chi ld on ear t h who woul d be pr oof
agai nst it, or who woul d ever aft er t hi nk of br eaki ng a wi n-
dow pur posel y.
F a l s e h o o d . Th e F o r c e of E x a mp l e .
W E ar e now wi t hi n t he domai n of mor al s , a nd t he door is
open t o vi ce. Si de by si de wi t h convent i onal i t i es and dut i es
spr i ng up decei t and falsehood. As soon as t her e ar e t hi ngs
we ought not t o do, we desi r e t o hi de what we ought not t o
have done. As soon as one i nt er est l eads us t o pr omi se, a
st r onger one ma y ur ge us t o br eak t he pr omi s e. Our chief
concer n is how t o br eak i t and still go uns cat hed. I t is nat u-
r al t o find e xpe di e nt s ; we di ssembl e and we ut t er f al sehood.
Unabl e t o pr event t hi s evi l, we mus t never t hel ess puni sh i t .
Thus t he mi ser i es of our life ari se from our mi s t akes .
I have sai d enough t o show t hat puni s hment , as such,
shoul d not be inflicted upon chi l dr en, but should al ways ha p-
pen t o t hem as t he nat ur al r esul t of t hei r own wr ong-doi ng.
Do not , t hen, pr each t o t hem agai ns t f al sehood, or puni sh t hem
conf essedl y on account of a falsehood. But if t hey ar e gui l t y
of one, let all i t s consequences fall heavi ly on t hei r heads .
Let t hem know what i t is t o be di sbel i eved even when t hey
speak t he t r ut h, and t o be accused of fault s in spi t e of t hei r
ear nes t deni al . But l et us i nqui r e what f al sehood i s, i n
chi l dr en.
Ther e ar e t wo ki nds of f al sehood ; t ha t of fact, whi ch
refers t o t hi ngs al r eady pas t , and t hat of r i ght , whi ch has t o
do wi t h t he f ut ur e. The first occur s when we deny doi ng
what we have done, and in gener al , when we knowi ngl y ut t er
wha t is not t r ue. The ot her occur s when we pr omi se what
we do not mean t o per f or m, and, in gener al , when we
expr es s an i nt ent i on cont r ar y t o t he one we r eal l y have.
Thes e t wo sor t s of unt r ut h ma y somet i mes meet in t he s ame
case ; but let us here di scuss t hei r poi nt s of difference.
One who reali zes his need of hel p from ot her s, and con-
st ant l y recei ves ki ndnes s from t hem, has not hi ng t o gai n by
decei vi ng t hem. On t he cont r ar y, i t is evi dent l y hi s i nt er est
t hat t hey shoul d see t hi ngs as t hey ar e, l est t hey ma ke mi s-
t akes t o hi s di s advant age. I t is clear, t hen, t hat t he false-
hood of fact is not nat ur al t o chi l dr en. But t he l aw of obe-
di ence ma ke s falsehood ne c e s s a r y; becaus e, obedi ence bei ng
i r ks ome, we secr et l y avoi d it whenever we can, and j us t in
pr opor t i on as t he i mmedi at e advant age of escapi ng r epr oof or
puni s hment out wei ghs t he r emot er a dva nt a ge t o be gai ned by
r eveal i ng t he t r ut h.
Wh y shoul d a child educat ed nat ur al l y and in perfect free-
dom, tell a f al sehood? Wh a t has he t o hi de from you? You
ar e not goi ng t o r epr ove or puni sh hi m, or exact anyt hi ng
from hi m. Wh y shoul d he not t ell you e ve ^ t h i n g as frankl y
as t o hi s li t t le pl a yma t e ? He sees no mor e danger in t he
one case t han in t he ot her .
The falsehood of r i ght is still l ess nat ur al t o chi l dr en,
because pr omi ses t o do or not t o do ar e convent i onal act s ,
forei gn to. our nat ur e and i nf r i ngement s of our l i ber t y.
Besi des, all t he engagement s of chi ldren ar e in t hemsel ves
voi d, because, as t hei r l i mi t ed vi si on does not st r et ch beyond
t he pr es ent , t hey know not what t hey do when t hey bi nd
t hemsel ves. I t is har dl y possi bl e for a chi ld t o t ell a lie in
maki ng a pr omi s e. For , consi der i ng onl y how t o over come
a pr esent difficulty, all devi ces t ha t have no i mmedi at e effect
become ali ke t o hi m. I n pr omi si ng for a t i me t o come he
act ual l y does not pr omi se at all, as hi s still dor ma nt i magi -
nat i on cannot ext end i t self over t wo different per i ods of
t i me. If he coul d escape a whi ppi ng or ear n some sugar -
pl ums by pr omi s i ng t o t hr ow hi mself out of t he wi ndow t o-
mor r ow, he woul d at once pr omi se i t . Ther ef or e t he l aws
pay no r egar d t o engagement s made by chi l dr en; and when
some f at her s a nd t eacher s , more st r i ct t ha n t hi s, r equi r e t he
fulfilling of such engagement s , it is onl y i n t hi ngs t he child
ought t o do wi t hout pr omi si ng.
As t he child in ma ki ng a pr omi se i s not awar e what he is
doi ng, he cannot be gui l t y of f al sehood in so doi ng : but t hi s
is not t he case when he br eaks a pr omi s e. Fo r he well
r emember s havi ng ma de t he pr omi s e ; what he cannot under -
s t and i s, t he i mpor t ance of keepi ng i t . Una bl e t o r ead t he
f ut ur e, he does not foresee t he consequences of hi s a c t i ons ;
and when he vi ol at es engagement s he does not hi ng con-
t r ar y t o what mi ght be expect ed of hi s year s .
I t follows from t hi s t hat all t he unt r ut hs spoken by chil-
dr en ar e t he f aul t of t hose who i nst r uct t hem ; and t hat
endeavor i ng t o t each t hem how t o be t rut hful is only t each-
i ng t hem how t o t ell f al sehoods. We ar e so eager t o r egu-
l at e, t o gover n, t o i nst r uct t hem, t ha t we never find means
enough t o r each our object . We want t o wi n new vi ct ori es
over t hei r mi nds by ma xi ms not based upon f act , by unr ea-
sonabl e pr ecept s ; we would r at her they shoul d know t hei r
l essons and t ell lies t ha n t o r emai n i gnor ant and speak t he
t r ut h.
As for us , who gi ve our pupi ls none but pr act i cal t eachi ng,
and woul d r at her have t hem good t ha n knowi ng, we shall
not e xa c t t he t r ut h from t hem at all, lest t hey di sgui se i t ;
we will r equi r e of t hem no pr omi ses the}^ may be t empt ed t o
br e a k. ; I f i n my absence some anonymous mi schi ef has been
done, I will bewar e of accusi ng Emi l e , or of as ki ng " Wa s
i t y o u ? "
1
For what would t hat be but t eachi ng hi m t o deny
i t ? I f his nat ur al l y t r oubl esome di sposi t i on obli ges me t o
1
Nothing is more injudicious than such a question, especially when the
child is in fault. In that case, if he thinks you know what he has done, he
will see that you are laying a snare for him, and this opinion cannot fail to
set him against you. If he thinks you do not know he will say to himself,
" Why should I disclose my fault? " And thus the first temptation to false-
hood is the result of your imprudent question. [Note by J . J . ROUSSEAU. ]
make some agr eement wi t h hi m, I will pl an so well t ha t any
such pr oposal shall come from hi m and never from me. Th us ,
whenever he i s bound by an engagement he shall have an
i mmedi at e and t angi bl e i nt er est i n fulfilling i t . An d if he
ever fails i n t hi s , t he falsehood shall br i ng upon hi m evil r e-
sul t s whi ch he sees mus t ari se from t he ver y nat ur e of t hi ngs ,
a nd never from t he vengeance of hi s t ut or . Fa r from need-
i ng r ecour se t o such sever e meas ur es , however , I am al most
sur e t hat iDmile will be l ong in l ear ni ng what a lie i s, and
upon finding i t out will be gr eat l y amazed, not under s t andi ng
what is t o be gai ned by i t . I t i s ver y pl ai n t hat t he mor e
I make his wel f ar e i ndependent of ei t her t he will or t he
j udgme nt of ot her s , t he mor e I upr oot wi t hi n hi m all i nt er est
i n t elli ng f al sehoods.
Wh e n we ar e l ess eager t o i nst r uct we ar e also less eager
t o exact r equi r ement s from our pupi l , and can t ake t i me t o
r equi r e onl y what is t o t he pur pos e. I n t ha t case, t he chi ld
will be devel oped, j us t becaus e he is not spoi led. But when
some bl ockhead t eacher , not under s t andi ng what he is about ,
cont i nual l y forces t he child t o pr omi se t hi ngs , ma ki ng no
di st i nct i ons, al l owi ng no choi ce, knowi ng no li mi t , t he l i t t l e
fellow, worri ed and wei ghed down wi t h all t hese obl i gat i ons,
negl ect s t hem, f or get s t hem, at l ast despi ses t hem ; and con-
si deri ng t hem mer e empt y f or mul as, t ur ns t he gi vi ng and t he
br eaki ng of t hem i nt o ri di cul e. I f t hen you wa nt t o ma ke
him fai t hful t o hi s wor d, be di scr eet in r equi r i ng hi m t o gi ve
it.
The det ai l s j us t ent er ed upon in r egar d t o fal sehood may
appl y in ma ny r es pect s t o all dut i es whi ch, when enj oi ned
upon chi ldren, become t o t hem not only hat eful but i mpr ac-
t i cabl e. I n or der t o seem t o pr each vi r t ue we ma ke vi ces
at t r act i ve, and act ual l y i mpar t t hem by f or bi ddi ng t hem. If
we would have t he chi l dr en r el i gi ous, we t i r e t he m out t aki ng
t he m t o chur ch. By ma ki ng t hem mumbl e pr ayer s i nces-
s ant l y we make t hem si gh for t he happi nes s of never pr ayi ng
at all. To i nspi r e char i t y in t hem, we ma ke t hem gi ve al ms ,
as if we di sdai ned doi ng i t our sel ves. I t is not t he chi ld,
but hi s t eacher , who ought t o do t he gi vi ng. However much
you love your pupi l , t hi s is an honor you ought t o di sput e
wi t h hi m, l eadi ng hi m t o feel t ha t he i s not }^et old enough
t o deser ve i t .
Gi vi ng al ms is t he act of one who knows t he wor t h of hi s
gi ft , and his f el l ow-cr eat ur e' s need of t he gi ft . A chi ld who
knows not hi ng -of ei t her can have no mer i t in best owi ng.
He gi ves wi t hout char i t y or benevol ence: he is al most
as hamed t o gi ve at all, as , j udgi ng from your exampl e and
his own, onl y chi ldren gi ve al ms , and leave i t off when gr own
up. Obser ve, t ha t we make t he child best ow only t hi ngs
whose val ue he does not kn o w: pi eces of met al , whi ch he
car r i es in hi s pocket , and whi ch ar e good for not hi ng else.
A chi ld woul d r at her gi ve away a hundr ed gol d pi eces t han
a si ngle cake. But s ugges t t o t hi s f r ee-handed gi ver t he
i dea of par t i ng wi t h what he r eal l y pr i zes hi s pl ayt hi ngs ,
hi s s ugar - pl ums , or hi s l uncheon ; you will soon find out
whet her 3^011 have made hi m really gener ous .
To accompl i sh t he s ame end, r es or t is had t o anot her expe-
di ent , t hat of i ns t ant l y r et ur ni ng t o t he chi ld what he has
gi ven away, so t ha t he habi t ual l y gi ves what ever he knows
will be r est or ed t o hi m. I have r ar el y met wi t h ot her t han
t hese t wo ki nds of gener osi t y in chi l dr en, namel y, t he gi vi ng
ei t her of what is no use t o t hemsel ves, or else of what t hey
ar e cer t ai n will come back t o t hem.
" Do t hi s , " says Locke,
u
t hat t hey may be convi nced by
exper i ence t ha t he who gi ves mos t generously has al ways t he
bet t er por t i on. " Thi s is maki ng hi m li beral in appear ance
and mi ser l y in r eal i t y. He a dds , t ha t chi ldren-wi ll t hus
5
ac-
qui r e t he habi t of gener osi t y.
Ye s ; a mi ser ' s gener os i t y, gi vi ng an egg t o gai n an ox.
But when called upon t o be gener ous in ear nes t , good-bye
t o t he ha bi t ; t hey soon cease gi vi ng when t he gi ft no l onger
comes back t o t hem. We ought t o keep in view t he habi t of
mi nd r at her t han t hat of t he ha nds . Li ke t hi s vi r t ue are all
ot her s t a ught t o chi ldren ; and t hei r early year s ar e s pent in
s adnes s , t ha t we may pr each t hese st er l i ng vi r t ues t o t hem !
Excel l ent t r ai ni ng t hi s !
La y asi de all affectation, you t e a c he r s ; be your sel ves
good and vi r t uous , so t ha t your exampl e ma y be deepl y
gr aven on your pupi l s' memor y unt i l such t i me as i t finds
l odgment i n t hei r hear t . I ns t e a d of earl}' r equi r i ng act s of
char i t y from my pupi l I woul d r at her do t hem in hi s pr es -
ence, t aki ng from hi m all means of i mi t at i ng me, as if I con-
si der ed i t an honor not due t o hi s age. For he shoul d by no
means be i n t he habi t of t hi nki ng a man' s dut i es t he s ame as
a chi l d' s. Seei ng me assi st t he poor , he quest i ons me about
i t and, if occasi on ser ve, I answer , " My boy, i t is becaus e,
si nce poor people ar e wi lli ng t her e shoul d be ri ch peopl e, t he
ri ch have pr omi sed t o t ake car e of t hose who have no money
or cannot ear n a li vi ng by t hei r l abor . "
u
An d have you pr omi sed i t t o o ? " i nqui r es he.
u
Of c our s e ; t he money t hat comes i nt o my ha nds is mi ne
t o use only upon t hi s condi t i on, whi ch i t s owner has t o
car r y out . "
Af t er t hi s conver sat i on, a nd we have seen how a child ma y
be pr epar ed t o under s t and it, ot her chi l dr en besi des Emi l e
would be t empt ed t o i mi t at e me by act i ng li ke a r i ch ma n. I n
t hi s case I woul d at l eas t see t hat it shoul d not be done ost en-
t at i ousl y. I woul d r at her have hi m r ob me of my r i ght , and
conceal t he fact of hi s gener osi t y. I t would be a s t r at agem
nat ur al at hiS" age, and t he only one I woul d pa r don in hi m.
The only mor al lesson sui t ed t o chi ldhood and t he mos t
i mpor t ant at any age i s, never t o i njure an}
7
one. Eve n t he
pr i nci pl e of doi ng good, if not s ubor di nat ed t o t hi s, is danger -
ous, fal se, and cont r adi ct or y. Fo r who does not do good?
Ever ybody does, even a wi cked man who makes one happy
at t he expens e of maki ng a hundr ed mi s e r a bl e : and t hence
ari se all our cal ami t i es. Th e mos t exal t ed vi r t ues ar e nega-
t i ve : t hey ar e har des t t o at t ai n, t oo, because t hey ar e unos-
t ent at i ous , a nd ri se above even t hat grat i fi cat i on dear t o t he
hear t of ma n , s e n d i n g anot her per son away pl eas ed wi t h
us . I f t her e be a ma n who never i nj ures one of hi s fellow-
cr eat ur es , what good mus t he achi eve for t h e m! Wh a t fear-
l essness, what vi gor of mi nd he r equi r es for i t ! Not by
r easoni ng about t hi s pr i nci pl e, but by at t empt i ng t o car r y i t
i nt o pr act i ce, do we find out how gr eat i t i s, how har d t o
fulfil.
Th e f or egoi ng conveys some f ai nt i dea of t he pr ecaut i ons
I woul d have }~ou empl oy in gi vi ng chi ldren t he i ns t r uct i ons
we somet i mes cannot wi t hhol d wi t hout ri sk of t hei r i nj ur i ng
t hemsel ves-or ot her s , and especi ally of cont r act i ng ba d habi t s
of whi ch it will by and by be difficult t o br eak t hem. But
we may r est assur ed t hat in chi l dren r i ght l y educat ed t he
necessi t y will sel dom ari se ; for i t is i mpossi bl e t ha t t hey
shoul d become i nt r act abl e, vi ci ous, decei t ful, gr eedy, unl ess
t he vi ces whi ch ma ke t hem so ar e sowed in t hei r hear t s . Fo r
t hi s r eas on what has been sai d on t hi s poi nt appl i es r at her t o
except i onal t han t o or di nar y cases. But such except i onal
cases become common in pr opor t i on as chi l dren have mor e
f r equent oppor t uni t y t o depar t from t hei r nat ur al st at e and
t o acqui r e t he vi ces of t hei r seni or s. Thos e br ought up among
men of t he wor l d absol ut el y r equi r e earli er t eachi ng in t hese
mat t er s t ha n t hose educat ed apar t from such s ur r oundi ngs .
He nc e t hi s pr i vat e educat i on is t o be pr ef er r ed, even if i t do
no mor e t han allow chi ldhood l ei sure t o gr ow t o perfect i on.
NEGATI VE OR TEMPORIZING EDUCATI ON. 75
Ne g a t i v e or Te mp o r i z i n g Ed u c a t i o n ,
EX ACTLY cont r ar y t o t he cases j us t descr i bed ar e t hose
whom a happy t e mpe r a me nt exal t s above t hei r year s . As
t her e ar e some me n who never out gr ow chi l dhood, so t her e
ar e ot her s who never pas s t hr ough i t , but ar e men al most
from t hei r bi r t h. The difficulty is t hat t hese except i onal
cases ar e r ar e and not easi ly di s t i ngui s hed; bes i des , all
mot her s capabl e of under s t andi ng t hat a chi ld cari be a pr od-
i gy, have no doubt t hat t hei r own ar e such. The y go even
"farther t ha n t hi s : t hey t ake for ext r aor di nar y i ndi cat i ons t he
spr i ght l i ness, t he br i ght chi ldi sh pr a nks and s ayi ngs , t he
shr ewd si mpli ci t y of o r d i n a l cases, char act er i st i c of t hat
t i me of life, and showi ng plai nly t ha t a child is onl y a chi ld.
I s i t sur pr i si ng t hat , allowed t o s peak so much and so freely,
unr es t r ai ned by any consi der at i on of pr opr i et y, a chi ld shoul d
occasi onally make happy r epl i es ? If he di d not , i t woul d be
even mor e sur pr i si ng ; j us t as if an ast r ol oger , among a hun-
dr ed false pr edi ct i ons, shoul d never hi t upon a si ngle t r ue
one. " They lie so of t en, " sai d He nr y I V. , " t ha t t hey end
by t elli ng t he t r ut h. " To be a wi t , one need only ut t er a
gr eat ma ny fooli sh speeches. He a ve n hel p men of fashi on,
whose r eput at i on r es t s upon j us t t hi s f oundat i on!
The mos t br i l l i ant t hought s ma}' ent er a chi ld' s head, or
r at her , t he mos t br i l l i ant sayi ngs may-f ai r from hi s l i ps, j us t
as t he most val uabl e di amonds may fall i nt o hi s ha nds , wi t h-
out hi s havi ng any r i ght ei t her t o t he t hought s or t o t he
di amonds . At hi s age, he has no r eal pr oper t y of any
ki nd. A chi ld' s ut t er ances ar e not t he same t o hi m as t o us ;
he does not at t ach t o t hem t he same i deas . If he has any
i deas at all on t he subj ect , t hey have nei t her or der nor cohe-
rence in his mi n d ; in all his t hought s not hi ng is cer t ai n or
st abl e. I f you wat ch your supposed pr odi gy at t ent i vel y, you
will somet i mes find hi m a wel l -spr i ng of energ}
T
, cl ear -si ght ed,
penet r at i ng t he ver y mar r ow, of t hi ngs . Much of t ener t he
same mi nd appear s commonpl ace, dull, and as if envel oped
i n a dense fog. Somet i mes he out r uns you, and somet i mes
he s t ands st i ll. At one mome nt you feel li ke s ayi ng, " He is
a geni us , " and at anot her , " He is a f ool . " You ar e mi s t aken
i n ei t her case : he is a child ; he is an eagl et t hat one moment
beat s t he air wi t h i t s wi ngs , and t he ne xt mome nt falls back
i nt o t he nes t .
I n spi t e of appear ances , t hen, t r eat hi m as hi s age de ma nds ,
a nd bewar e l est you e xha us t hi s power s by at t empt i ng t o use
t he m t oo freely. I f t hi s young br ai n gr ows war m, if you
see i t begi nni ng t o seet he, leave i t free t o f er ment , but do
not exci t e i t , l est i t mel t al t oget her i nt o ai r. Wh e n t he first
flow of spi r i t s has evapor at ed, r epr es s and keep wi t hi n
bounds t he r est , unt i l , as t i me goes on, t he whole is t r ans -
f or med i nt o li fe-gi vi ng wa r mt h and r eal power . Ot her wi se
3
t
OU will lose bot h t i me and pai ns ; you will dest r oy your own
handi wor k, and after havi ng t hought l essl y i nt oxi cat ed yoursel f
wi t h all t hese i nflammable vapor s , you will have not hi ng left
but t he dr egs .
Not hi ng has been mor e gener al l y or cer t ai nl y obser ved t ha n
t ha t dull chi l dr en ma ke commonpl ace men. I n chi l dhood i t
is ver y difficult t o di st i ngui sh r eal dul l ness from t ha t mi sl ead-
i ng a ppa r e nt dul l ness whi ch i ndi cat es a s t r ong char act er . At
first i t seems s t r ange t hat t he t wo ext r emes shoul d meet in
i ndi cat i ons so much ali ke ; and yet such is t he case. Fo r at
an age when ma n has no r eal i deas at all, t he difference
bet ween one who has geni us and one who has not i s, t ha t t he
l at t er ent er t ai ns onl y mi s t aken i deas, and t he f or mer , encoun-
t er i ng only such, admi t s none at all. Th e t wo ar e t her ef or e
ali ke in t hi s , t hat t he dul l ar d is capabl e of not hi ng, and t he
ot her finds not hi ng t o sui t hi m, The onl y means of di st i n-
gui shi ng t hem is chance, whi ch ma y br i ng t o t he geni us some
i deas he can compr ehend, whi le t he dull mi nd i s al ways t he
s ame.
Dur i ng hi s chi l dhood t he younger Cat o was at home con-
si dered an i di ot . No one sai d anyt hi ng of hi m beyond t ha t
he was si lent and heads t r ong. I t was only in t he ant echam-
ber of Sul l a t ha t his uncl e l ear ned t o know hi m. I f he had
never cr ossed i t s t hr eshol d, he mi ght have been t hought a
fool unt i l he was gr own. I f t her e had been no such per s on
as Caesar, t hi s ver y Cat o, who r ead t he secr et of Caesar ' s f at al
geni us, and from af ar f or esaw hi s ambi t i ous des i gns , woul d
al ways have been t r eat ed as a vi s i onar y.
1
Thos e who j udge
of chi l dren so hast i l y ar e ver y li able t o be mi s t aken. They
ar e oft en mor e chi ldi sh t han t he chi ldren t hems el ves .
Conc e r ni ng' t h e Me mo r y .
EESPECT chi l dr en, and be in no has t e t o j udge t hei r act i ons ,
good or evil. Le t t he except i onal cases show t hemsel ves
such for some t i me bef or e you adopt speci al met hods of deal -
i ng wi t h t hem. Le t nat ur e be l ong at wor k bef or e you
at t empt t o s uppl ant her , l est you t hwar t her wor k. You s ay
you know how pr eci ous t i me i s, and do not wi sh t o lose i t .
Do you not know t hat t o empl oy i t badl y is t o wast e i t still
mor e, and t hat a child badl y t aught is f ar t her f r om bei ng
wise t han one not t a ught at all ? You ar e t r oubl ed at seei ng
hi m spend hi s ear l y year s i n doi ng not hi ng. Wh a t ! is i t
not hi ng t o be ha ppy? I s it not hi ng t o s ki p, t o pl ay, t o r un
1
He refers to Cato, surnamed of Utiea, from the African city in which
he ended his own life. When a child, he was often invited by his brother
to the house of the all-powerful Sulla. The cruelties of the tyrant roused
the boy to indignation, and it was necessary to watch him lest he should
attempt to kill Sulla. It was in the latter's antechamber that the scene
described by Plutarch occurred;
about all day l ong ? Never in all bi s life will be be so busy
as now. Pl at o, in t hat wor k of his consi der ed so sever e, t he
" Republ i c, " would have chi ldren accust omed t o fest i vals,
games , s ongs , and past i mes ; one woul d t hi nk he was satisfied
wi t h havi ng carefully t aught t hem how t o enjoy t hemsel ves.
An d Seneca, s peaki ng of t he Roma n yout h of old, s ays ,
4 6
The y wer e al ways s t andi ng ; not hi ng was t a ught t hem t hat
t hey had t o l ear n when s eat ed. " We r e t hey of less account
when t hey r eached ma nhood? Ha ve no f ear , t hen, of t hi s
s uppos ed i dl eness. Wh a t would you t hi nk of a ma n who, i n
or der t o use hi s whole life t o t he best advant age, would not
sl eep? You would say, " T h e ma n has no s e ns e ; he does
not enjoy life, but r obs hi mself of i t . To avoi d sl eep, he
r ushes on hi s deat h. " The t wo cases ar e par al l el , for child-
hood is t he sl umber of r eas on.
Appa r e n t qui ckness i n l ear ni ng is t he r ui n of chi l dren. We
do not consi der t hat t hi s ver y qui ckness pr oves t hat t hey ar e
l ear ni ng not hi ng. Thei r smoot h and poli shed br ai n reflects
li ke a mi r r or t he obj ect s pr es ent ed t o i t , but not hi ng abi des
t her e, not hi ng penet r at es i t . The child r et ai ns t he wor ds ;
t he i deas ar e reflected ; t hey who hear under s t and t hem, but
he himself does not under s t and t hem at all.
Al t hough memor y and r eas on ar e t wo essent i al l y different
f acul t i es, t he one is* never really devel oped wi t hout t he ot her .
Bef or e t he age of r eas on, t he chi ld r ecei ves not i deas, but
i mages . The r e is t hi s difference bet ween t he t wo, t hat i mages
ar e only absol ut e r epr es ent at i ons of obj ect s of sense, and
i deas ar e not i ons of object s det er mi ned by t hei r r el at i ons.
An i mage may exi st al one i n t he mi nd t hat r epr es ent s i t , but
ever y i dea supposes ot her i deas. Wh e n we i magi ne, we only-
see ; when we concei ve of t hi ngs , we compar e t hem. Our
s ens at i ons ar e ent i r el y passi ve, wher eas all our per cept i ons
or i deas s pr i ng from an act i ve pr i nci pl e whi ch j udges .
I say t hen t hat chi l dr en, i ncapabl e of j udgi ng, r eal l y have
no memor y. The y r et ai n s ounds , s hapes , s ens at i ons ; but
r ar el y i deas, and st i ll mor e r ar el y t he r el at i ons of i deas t o
one anot her . I f t hi s s t at ement is appar ent l y r ef ut ed by t he
object i on t ha t t hey l ear n some el ement s of geomet r y, i t is not
really t r ue ; t ha t ver y f act confirms my s t at ement . I t shows
t hat , f ar from knowi ng how t o r eas on t hemsel ves, t hey cannot
even keep i n mi nd t he r eas oni ngs of ot her s . For if you
i nvest i gat e t he met hod of t hese li t t le geomet r i ci ans , you di s-
cover at once t ha t t hey have r et ai ned only t he exact i mpr es -
sion of t he di agr am and t he wor ds of t he demons t r at i on.
Upon t he l east new obj ect i on t hey ar e puzzl ed. Thei r
knowl edge is only of t he s e ns a t i on; not hi ng has become t he
pr oper t y of t hei r under s t andi ng. Eve n t hei r memor y is
r ar el y mor e per f ect t han t hei r ot her f acul t i es : for when
gr own t hey have near l y al ways t o l ear n agai n as r eal i t i es
t hi ngs whose names t hey l ear ned i n chi l dhood.
However , I am far f r om t hi nki ng t ha t chi l dr en have no
power of r eas oni ng wha t e ve r .
1
I obs er ve, on t he cont r ar y,
t ha t in t hi ngs t hey unde r s t a nd, t hi ngs r el at i ng t o t hei r pr es ent
and mani f est i nt er es t s , t hey r eas on ext r emel y well. We ar e,
1
While writing this I have reflected a hundred times that in an extended
work it is impossible always to use the same words in the same sense.
No language is rich enough to furnish terms and expressions to keep pace
with the possible modifications of our ideas. The method which defines
all the terms, and substitutes the definition for the term, is fine, but im-
practicable ; for how shall we then avoid travelling in a circle ? If defi-
nitions could be given without using words, they might be useful. Never-
theless, I am convinced that, poor as our language is, we can make our-
selves understood, not by always attaching the same meaning to the same
words, but by so using each word that its meaning shall be sufficiently
determined by the ideas nearly related to it, and so that each sentence in
which a word is used shall serve to define the word. Sometimes I say
that children are incapable of reasoning, and sometimes I make them
reason extremely wel l ; I think that my ideas do not contradict each other,
though I cannot escape the inconvenient contradictions of my mode of
expression.
however , li able t o be*mi sled as t o t hei r knowl edge, at t r i but -
i ng t o t hem what t hey do not have, and ma ki ng t hem r eas on
about what t hey do not under s t and. Aga i n, we make t he
mi st ake of calli ng t hei r at t ent i on t o consi der at i ons by whi ch
t hey ar e i n no wi se affected, such as t hei r f ut ur e i nt er es t s ,
t he happi nes s of t hei r comi ng manhood, t he opi ni on peopl e
will have of t hem when t hey ar e gr own up. Such speeches,
addr essed t o mi nds ent i rely wi t hout foresi ght , ar e absol ut el y
unmeani ng. Now all t he st udi es forced upon t hese poor
unf or t unat es deal wi t h t hi ngs li ke t hi s, ut t er l y forei gn t o
t hei r mi nds . You ma y j udge what at t ent i on such subj ect s
ar e li kely t o r ecei ve.
On t h e S t u d y of Wo r d s .
PEDAGOGUES, who make such an i mposi ng di spl ay of what
t hey t each, ar e pai d t o t al k in anot her st r ai n t han mi ne,
but t hei r conduct shows t hat t hey t hi nk as I do. Fo r aft er
all, what do t hey t each t hei r pupi l s? Wo r d s , wor ds , wor ds .
Amo n g all t hei r boas t ed subj ect s, none ar e select ed becaus e
t hey ar e us ef ul ; such woul d be t he sci ences of t hi ngs , i n
whi ch t hese pr of essor s ar e unski l ful . But t hey pr ef er
sci ences we seem t o know when we know t hei r nomencl a-
t ur e, such as her al dr y, geogr aphy, chr onol ogy, l anguages ;
st udi es so far r emoved from huma n i nt er es t s , and par t i cu-
larly from t he chi ld, t hat i t would be wonder f ul if any of
t hem could be of t he l east use at any t i me in life.
I t may cause sur pr i se t hat I account t he s t udy of l an-
gua ge s one of t he usel ess t hi ngs i n educat i on. But r emember
I am s peaki ng of t he st udi es of earli er year s , and what ever
ma y be sai d, I do not beli eve t hat any child except a pr odi gy,
will ever l ear n t wo l anguages by t he t i me he is t welve or
fi ft een.
3
1
Another exaggeration : the idea is not to teach children to speak
another language as perfectly as their own. There are three different
I admi t t hat if t he st udy of l anguages wer e only t hat
of wor ds , t hat i s, of f or ms, and of t he sounds whi ch expr es s
t hem, i t mi ght be sui t abl e for chi l dr en. But l anguages , by
changi ng t hei r si gns, modi fy also t he i deas t hey r epr es ent .
Mi nds ar e formed upon l anguages ; t hought s t ake colori ng
from i di oms. Reas on al one is common t o all. I n each
l anguage t he mi nd has i t s pecul i ar conf or mat i on, and t hi s
ma y be i n pa r t t he cause or t he effect of nat i onal char act er .
The fact t hat ever y nat i on' s l anguage follows t he vi ci ssi -
t udes of t hat nat i on' s mor al s , and is pr es er ved or al t er ed
wi t h t hem, seems t o confirm t hi s t heor y.
Of t hese different f or ms, cust om gi ves one t o t he chi ld,
and i t is t he only one he r et ai ns unt i l t he age of r eas on. I n
or der t o have t wo, he mus t be able t o compar e i deas ; and
how can he do t hi s when he is scarcely able t o gr as p
t he m? Ea c h obj ect ma y for hi m have a t hous and different
si gns, but each i dea can have but one f o r m; he can t her e-
fore l ear n t o s peak only one l anguage. I t i s never t hel ess
mai nt ai ned t hat he l ear ns s ever al ; t hi s I deny. I have
seen li t t le pr odi gi es who t hought t hey could s peak si x or
s e ve n: I have hear d t hem s peak Ge r ma n i n Lat i n, Fr e nc h,
and I t al i an i di oms successi vely. The y di d i ndeed use five
or si x vocabul ar i es, but t hey never spoke anyt hi ng but Ger -
man. I n shor t , you may gi ve chi l dren as ma ny s ynonyms
as you pl ease, and you will change only t hei r wor ds , a nd not
t hei r l anguage ; t hey will never know mor e t ha n one.
objects to be attained in studying languages. First, this study is meant to
render easy by comparison and practice the knowledge and free use of
the mother tongue. Second, it is useful as intellectual gymnastics, devel-
oping attention, reflection, reasoning, and taste. This result is to be
expected particularly from the study of the ancient languages. Third,
it lowers the barriers separating nations, and furnishes valuable means
of intercourse which science, industries, and commerce cannot afford
to do without. The French have not always shown wisdom in ignoring
the language of their neighbors or their rivals.
To hi de t hi s i nabi li t y we, by pr ef er ence, gi ve t he m pr ac-
t i ce in t he dead l anguages , of whi ch t her e ar e no l onger any
unexcept i onabl e j udges . The fami li ar use of t hese t ongues
havi ng l ong been l ost , we cont ent our sel ves wi t h i mi t at i ng
what we find of t hem i n books , and call t hi s s peaki ng t hem.
I f such be t he Gr eek and La t i n of t he ma s t e r s , you ma y
j udge what t ha t of t he chi l dr en i s. Scar cel y have t hey
l ear ned by he a r t t he r udi ment s , wi t hout in t he l east under -
s t andi ng t hem, bef or e t hey ar e t aught t o ut t er a Fr e nc h
di scour se i n Lat i n wor ds ; and, when f ur t her advanced, t o
st r i ng t oget her i n pr os e, phr as es f r om Ci cero and cant os
from Yi r gi l . The n t hey i magi ne t hey ar e s peaki ng Lat i n,
and who is t her e t o cont r adi ct t h e m?
1
I n any s t udy, wor ds t hat r epr es ent t hi ngs ar e not hi ng
wi t hout t he i deas of t he t hi ngs t hey r epr es ent . We , however ,
li mi t chi l dren t o t hese si gns, wi t hout ever bei ng able t o make
t hem under s t and t he t hi ngs r epr es ent ed. We t hi nk we ar e
t eachi ng a child t he descr i pt i on of t he ear t h, when he is mer el y
l ear ni ng ma ps . We t each hi m t he names of ci t i es, count r i es,
r i ver s' ; he has no i dea t hat t hey exi st anywher e but on t he
ma p we use in poi nt i ng t hem out t o hi m. I recollect seei ng
somewher e a t ext - book on geogr aphy whi ch began t h us :
" Wh a t is t he wor l d? A pas t eboar d gl obe . " Pr eci sel y
such is t he geogr aphy of chi l dr en. I will vent ur e t o say t hat
aft er two year s of gl obes and cos mogr aphy no child of t en,
by rules t hey gi ve hi m, could find t he way from Par i s t o
St . Deni s . I mai nt ai n t hat not one of t hem, from a pl an of
hi s f at her ' s gar den, could t r ace out i t s wi ndi ngs wi t hout
goi ng as t r ay. An d yet t hese ar e t he knowi ng cr eat ur es who
can t ell you exact l y wher e Peki n, I s pa ha n, Mexi co, and all
t he count r i es of t he world ar e.
1
From this passage, it is plain that the objections lately raised by intel-
ligent persons against the abuse of Latin conversations and verses are not
of recent date, after all.
I hear i t suggest ed t hat chi ldren ought t o be engaged in
st udi es i n whi ch only t he eye is needed. Thi s mi ght be t r ue
if t her e were st udi es i n whi ch t hei r eyes wer e not ne e de d;
but I know of none such.
A still mor e ri di culous met hod obli ges chi ldren t o st udy
hi st or y, supposed t o be wi t hi n t hei r compr ehensi on because
i t is only a collect i on of f act s .
1
But what do we mean by
f act s ? Do we suppose t hat t he r el at i ons out of whi ch hi st or i c
fact s gr ow ar e so easily under s t ood t hat t he mi nds of chi l dren
gr as p such i deas wi t hout difficulty ? Do we i magi ne t hat t he
t r ue under s t andi ng of event s can be s epar at ed from t hat of
t hei r causes and effects ? and t hat t he hi st or i c and t he mor al
ar e so far as under t hat t he one can be under s t ood wi t hout
t he ot her ? I f i n men' s act i ons you see only pur el y ext er nal
and physi cal changes , what do you learn from hi s t or y?
Absol ut el y not hi ng ; and t he subj ect , despoi l ed of all i nt er est ,
no l onger gi ves you ei t her pl easur e or i nst r uct i on. If you
i nt end t o est i mat e act i ons by t hei r mor al r el at i ons, t r y t o
make your pupi l s under s t and t hese r el at i ons, and you will
di scover whet her hi st or y is adapt ed t o t hei r year s .
I f t her e is no sci ence i n wor ds , t her e is no st udy especi ally
adapt ed t o chi l dren. I f t hey have no r eal i deas, t hey have
no real memor y ; for I do not call t hat memor y whi ch r et ai ns
only i mpr essi ons. Of what use is i t t o wr i t e on t hei r mi nds
sa cat alogue of si gns t hat r epr es ent not hi ng t o t he m? I n
l ear ni ng t he t hi ngs r epr es ent ed, woul d t hey not also l ear n
1
There is indeed a faulty method of teaching history, by giving children
a dry list of facts, names, and dates. On the other hand, to offer them
theories upon the philosophy of history is quite as unprofitable. Yet it is
not an absurd error, but a duty, to teach them the broad outlines of history,
to tell them of deeds of renown, of mighty works accomplished, of men
celebrated for the good or the evil they have done; to interest them in the
past of humanity, be it melancholy or glorious. By abuse of logic Rous-
seau, in protesting against one excess, falls into another.
t he si gns ? "Why do you gi ve t hem t he usel ess t r oubl e of
l ear ni ng t hem t wi ce? Besi des, you cr eat e danger ous pr ej u-
di ces by maki ng t hem suppose t ha t sci ence consi st s of wor ds
meani ngl ess t o t hem. The first mer e wor d wi t h whi ch t he
child satisfies himself, t he first t hi ng he l ear ns on t he
aut hor i t y of anot her per s on, r ui ns hi s j udgment . Long mus t
he shi ne in t he eyes of unt hi nki ng per s ons bef or e he can
r epai r such an i nj ur y t o hi mself.
N o ; nat ur e makes t he chi ld' s br ai n so yi el di ng t hat i t r e-
cei ves all ki nds of i mpr essi ons ; not t hat we may make hi s child-
hood a di st r essi ng bur den t o hi m by engr avi ng on t hat br ai n
dat es , names of ki ngs , t echni cal t er ms i n her al dr y, mat he-
mat i cs , geogr aphy, a nd all such wor ds , unmeani ng t o hi m
and unneces s ar y t o per s ons at any age i n li fe. But all i deas
t hat he can under s t and, and t ha t ar e of use t o hi m, all t ha t
conduce t o hi s happi nes s and t hat will one day ma ke hi s
dut i es pl ai n, shoul d early wr i t e t hemsel ves t her e i ndeli bly, t o
gui de hi m t hr ough life as hi s condi t i on a nd hi s i nt ellect
r equi r e.
The memor y of whi ch a child is capabl e is f ar f r om i nac-
t i ve, even wi t hout t he use of books . Al l he sees and hear s
i mpr esses hi m, and he r emember s i t . He keeps a ment al
r egi st er of peopl e' s sayi ngs a nd doi ngs. Ever yt hi ng ar ound
hi m is t he book from whi ch he is cont i nual l y but uncon-
sci ously enr i chi ng hi s memor y agai ns t t he t i me hi s j udgment
can benefit by i t . If we i nt end r i ght l y t o cul t i vat e t hi s chief
f acul t y of t he mi nd, we mus t choose t hese obj ect s carefully,
cons t ant l y acquai nt i ng hi m wi t h such as he ought t o under -
s t and, and keepi ng back t hose he ought not t o know. I n
t hi s way we shoul d endeavor t o ma ke hi s mi nd a st or ehouse
of knowl edge, t o ai d i n hi s educat i on i n yout h, and t o di r ect
hi m at all t i mes . Thi s met hod does not , i t is t r ue, pr oduce
phenomenal chi l dr en, nor does i t ma ke t he r eput at i on of t hei r
t eacher s ; but i t pr oduces j udi ci ous, r obus t men, sound i n
body and in mi nd, who, al t hough not admi r ed i n yout h, will
make t hemsel ves r es pect ed in manhood.
Emi l e shall never l ear n anyt hi ng by hear t , not even fables
such as t hose of La Font ai ne, si mple and char mi ng as t hey
ar e. For t he wor ds of fables ar e ai o mor e t he fables t hem-
selves t ha n t he wor ds of hi st or y ar e hi st or y itself. How can
we be so bl i nd as t o call fables mor al l essons for chi l dren ?
We do not reflect t hat while t hese st or i es amus e t hey also
mi sl ead chi l dr en, who, car r i ed away by t he fiction, mi ss t he
t r ut h conveyed ; so t hat what makes t he lesson agr eeabl e also
makes i t l ess profi t able. Men may l ear n from f abl es, but
chi ldren mus t be t old t he bar e t r ut h ; if i t be vei led, t hey do
not t rouble t hemsel ves t o lift t he vei l .
1
Si nce not hi ng ought t o be r equi r ed of chi ldren mer el y in
proof of t hei r obedi ence, i t follows t hat t hey can l ear n not h-
i ng of whi ch t hey cannot under s t and t he act ual and i mmedi at e
advant age, whet her i t be pl eas ant or useful. Ot her wi se, wha t
mot i ve will i nduce t hem t o l ear n i t ? Th e a r t of conver si ng
wi t h abs ent per s ons , and of hear i ng from t hem, of communi
eat i ng t o t hem at a di st ance, wi t hout t he ai d of anot her , our
feeli ngs, i nt ent i ons, and wi shes, is an ar t whose val ue ma y
be expl ai ned t o ^children of al most any age what ever . By
1
Rousseau here analyzes several of La Fontaine's fables, to show the
immorality and the danger of their " ethics." He dwells particularly upon
the fable of the Fox and the Crow. In this he is right; the morality of the
greater part of these fables leaves much to be desired. But there is noth-
ing to prevent the teacher from making the application. The memory of a
child is pliable and vigorous; not to cultivate it would be doing him great
injustice. We need not say that a true teacher not only chooses, but by his
instructions explains and rectifies everything he requires his pupil to read
or to learn by heart. Witli this reservation one cannot but admire this
aversion of Rousseau's for parrot-learning, word-worship, and exclusive
cultivation of the memory. In a few pages may here be found a complete
philosophy of teaching, adapted to the regeneration of a people.
what ast oni shi ng pr ocess has t hi s useful and agr eeabl e ar t
become so i r ksome t o t hem ? The y have been forced t o l ear n
i t in spi t e of t hemsel ves, and t o use i t in ways t hey cannot
under s t and. A child is not anxi ous t o per f ect t he i ns t r ument
used in t or ment i ng h i m; but ma ke t he s ame t hi ng mi ni st er
t o hi s pl easur es, and you cannot pr event hi m from usi ng i t .
Much at t ent i on is pai d t o finding out t he bes t met hods of
t eachi ng chi l dr en t o r ead. We i nvent printing-offices and
c h a r t s ; we t ur n a chi l d' s r oom i nt o a pr i nt er ' s est abl i sh-
me nt .
1
Locke pr oposes t eachi ng chi l dren t o r ead b}" means
of di ce ; a bri l l i ant cont r i vance i ndeed, but a mi s t ake as well.
A bet t er t hi ng t ha n all t hese, a t hi ng no one t hi nks of, is t he
desi r e t o l ear n. Gi ve a child t hi s desi r e, and you will not
need dice or r eadi ng lot t eri es ; any devi ce will ser ve as well.
If, on t he pl an 1 have begun t o l ay down, you follow rules
exact l y cont r ar y t o t hose mos t i n f ashi on, you will not at t r act
a nd bewi l der your pupi l ' s at t ent i on by di s t ant pl aces, cl i mat es,
a nd ages of t he wor l d, goi ng t o t he ends of t he ear t h and
i nt o t he ver y heavens t hemsel ves, but will make a poi nt of
keepi ng i t fixed upon hi mself and what i mmedi at el y concer ns
h i m; and by t hi s pl an you will find hi m capabl e of per cep-
t i on, memor y, and even r e a s oni ng; t hi s is t he or der of
na t ur e .
2
I n pr opor t i on as a cr eat ur e endowed wi t h sensa-
1
Rousseau here alludes to the typographical lottery invented by Louis
Dumas, a French author of the eighteenth century. It was an imitation of
a printing-office, and was intended to teach, in an agreeable way, not only
reading, but even grammar and spelling. There may be good features in
all these systems, but we certainly cannot save the child all trouble; we
ought to let him understand that work must be in earnest. Besides, as
moralists and teachers, we ought not to neglect giving' children some kinds
of work demanding application. They will be in better spirits for recrea-
tion hours after study.
2
It is well to combine the two methods; to keep the child occupied with
what immediately concerns him, and to interest him also in what is more
remote, whether in space or in time. He ought not to become too positive,
t i on becomes act i ve, i t acqui r es di s cer nment sui t ed t o i t s
power s, and t he sur pl us of . s t r engt h needed t o pr es er ve it
is absolut ely necessar y i n devel opi ng t hat specul at i ve f acul t y
whi ch uses t he same sur pl us for ot her ends . If, t hen, yon
mean t o cult i vat e your pupi l ' s under s t andi ng, cul t i vat e t he
s t r engt h i t is i nt ended t o gover n. Gi ve hi m cons t ant physi -
cal exer ci se ; ma ke hi s body sound and r obust , t ha t you ma y
make hi m wi se and r eas onabl e. Let hi m be at wor k doi ng
somet hi ng ; let hi m r un, shout , be al ways in mot i on ; let hi m
be a ma n i n vi gor , and he will t he sooner become one i n
r eas on.
You would i ndeed make a mer e ani mal of hi m by t hi s
met hod if you ar e cont i nual l y di r ect i ng hi m, and sayi ng,
" Go ; c ome ; s t a y ; do t hi s ; st op doi ng t ha t . " If your
head is al ways t o gui de hi s ar m, hi s own head will be of no
use t o hi m. But recollect our a gr e e me nt ; if you ar e a mer e
pedant , t her e is no use in your r eadi ng what I wr i t e.
To i magi ne t hat physi cal exer ci se i nj ur es ment al oper a-
t i ons is a wr et ched mi s t ake ; t he t wo shoul d move in uni son,
and one ought t o r egul at e t he ot her .
My pupi l , or r at her na t ur e ' s pupi l , t r ai ned from t he first
t o depend as much as possi bl e on himself, i s not cont i nual l y
r unni ng t o ot her s for advi ce. St i ll less does he make a di s-
play of hi s knowl edge. On t he ot her ha nd, he j udges , he
foresees, he r eas ons , upon ever yt hi ng t hat i mmedi at el y con-
cerns hi m ; he does not pr at e, but act s . He is li t t le i nf or med
as t o what is goi ng on in t he wor l d, but knows ver y well what
he ought t o do, and how t o do i t . I nces s ant l y i n mot i on,
he cannot avoi d obser vi ng ma ny t hi ngs , and knowi ng ma ny
effects. He ear l y gai ns a wi de exper i ence, and t akes hi s l es-
nor yet should he he chimerical. The " order of nat ure" itself has pro-
vided for this, by making the child inquisitive about things around him,
and at the same time about things far away.
sons from nat ur e, not from men. He i nst r uct s hi mself all
t he bet t er for di scover i ng nowher e any i nt ent i on of i nst r uct -
i ng hi m. Thus , at t he same t i me, body and mi nd ar e exer -
ci sed. Al ways car r yi ng out hi s own i deas , and not anot her
per s on' s , t wo pr ocesses ar e si mul t aneousl y goi ng on wi t hi n
hi m. As he gr ows r obus t and s t r ong, he becomes i nt el l i gent
and j udi ci ous.
I n t hi s way he will one day have t hose t wo excel l ences,
t hought i ncompat i bl e i ndeed, but char act er i st i c of near l y all
gr eat men, s t r engt h of body and s t r engt h of mi nd, t he
r eas on of a sage and t he vi gor of an at hl et e.
I am r ecommendi ng a difficult ar t t o you, young t e a c he r ,
t he ar t of gover ni ng wi t hout r ul es, and of doi ng ever yt hi ng
by doi ng not hi ng at all. I gr ant , t hat at your age, t hi s ar t
is not t o be expect ed of you. I t will not enabl e you, at t he
out s et , t o exhi bi t your shi ni ng t al ent s , or t o make yourself
pr i zed by par ent s ; but i t is t he only one t hat will succeed.
To be a sensi ble ma n, your pupi l mus t first have been a
li t t le s capegr ace. The Spa r t a ns were educat ed in t hi s way ;
not t i ed down t o books , but obli ged t o st eal t hei r di nner s ;
1
and di d t hi s pr oduce men i nferi or i n under s t andi ng ? Wh o
does not r emember t hei r forci ble, pi t hy s ayi ngs ? Tr ai ned
t o conquer , t hey wor st ed t hei r enemi es in ever y ki nd of en-
count er ; and t he babbl i ng At he ni a ns dr eaded t hei r s har p
speeches qui t e as much as t hei r val or .
I n st r i ct er s ys t ems of educat i on, t he t eacher commands
and t hi nks he is gover ni ng t he chi ld, who i s, aft er all, t he
r eal mas t er . Wh a t you exact from hi m he empl oys as means
t o get from you wha t he want s . By one hour of di li gence he
1
This expresses rather too vehemently a true idea. Do not try to impart
a rigid education whose apparent correctness hides grave defects. Allow
free course to the child's instinctive activity and turbulence; let nature
speak; do not crave reserve and fastidiousness at the expense of frankness
and vigor of mind. This is what the writer really means.
can buy a week' s i ndul gence. At ever y mome nt you have
t o make t er ms wi t h hi m. The s e bar gai ns , whi ch you pr o-
pose in your way, and whi ch he fulfils in hi s own way,
al ways t ur n out t o t he advant age of hi s whi ms , especi ally
when you ar e so car el ess as t o make st i pul at i ons whi ch will
be t o hi s advant age whet her he carri es out hi s s har e of t he
bar gai n or not . Usual l y, t he child r eads t he t eacher ' s mi nd
bet t er t ha n t he t eacher r eads hi s. Thi s is n a t ur a l ; for all
t he sagaci t y t he child at l i ber t y would use i n sel f -pr eser va-
t i on he now uses t o pr ot ect hi mself from a t yr ant ' s chai ns ;
while t he l at t er , havi ng no i mmedi at e i nt er est in knowi ng t he
chi ld' s mi nd, follows hi s own advant age by l eavi ng vani t y
and i ndol ence unr es t r ai ned.
Do ot her wi se wi t h your pupi l . Le t hi m al ways suppose
himself mas t er , while you really ar e mas t er . No subj ect i on
is so per f ect as t hat whi ch r et ai ns t he appear ance of l i ber t y ;
for t hus t he will itself is made capt i ve. I s not t he hel pl ess,
unknowi ng child at your mer cy ? Do you not , so far as he
i s concer ned, cont r ol ever yt hi ng ar ound hi m? Ha ve you not
power t o influence hi m as you pl eas e? Ar e not hi s wor k, hi s
pl ay, hi s pl eas ur e, hi s pai n, i n your ha nds , whet her he knows
it or not ?
Doubt l ess he ought t o do only what he pl eases ; but your
choice ought t o cont r ol hi s wi shes. He ought t o t ake no
st ep t hat you have not di r ect ed; he ought not t o open hi s
li ps wi t hout your knowi ng what he is about t o say.
I n t hi s case he ma y, wi t hout fear of debas i ng hi s mi nd,
devot e himself t o exer ci ses of t he body. I ns t e a d of s har p-
eni ng hi s wi t s t o escape an i r ksome subj ect i on, you will ob-
serve hi m wholly occupi ed i n finding out in ever yt hi ng ar ound
hi m t hat par t bes t adapt ed to* hi s pr es ent wel l -bei ng. You
will be amazed at t he subt i l t y of hi s cont r i vances for appr o-
pr i at i ng t o hi mself all t h # obj ect s wi t hi n t he r each of hi s
under s t andi ng, and for enj oyi ng ever yt hi ng wi t hout regard
to other people's opi ni ons.
By t hus l eavi ng hi m free, you will not f ost er hi s capr i ces.
If he never does anyt hi ng t hat does not sui t hi m, he will
soon do only what he ought t o do. An d , al t hough hi s body
be never at r est , still, if he is car i ng for hi s pr es ent and per -
cept i ble i nt er es t s , all t he r eas on of whi ch he is capabl e will
devel op far bet t er and mor e appr opr i at el y t ha n in st udi es
pur el y specul at i ve.
As he does not "find you be nt on t hwar t i ng hi m, does not
di s t r us t you, has not hi ng t o hi de from you, he will not
decei ve you or tell you l i es. He will fearlessly show hi m-
self t o you j us t as he i s. You may st udy hi m ent i rel y at
your ease, and pl an l essons for hi m whi ch he will all uncon-
sci ously r ecei ve.
He will not pr y wi t h suspi ci ous curi osi t y i nt o your affairs,
and feel pl easur e when he finds you in fault . Thi s is one
of our mos t seri ous di s advant ages . As I have sai d, one of
a chi l d' s first obj ect s is t o di scover t he weaknesses of t hose
who have cont r ol of hi m. Thi s di sposi t i on ma y pr oduce ill-
nat ur e, but does not ar i se from i t , but from t hei r desi r e t o
escape an i r ksome bondage. Oppr es s ed by t he yoke lai d
upon t hem, chi l dr en endeavor t o s hake i t off; and t he f aul t s
t hey find in t hei r t eacher s yi eld t hem excel l ent means for
doi ng t hi s . But t hey acqui r e t he habi t of obser vi ng f aul t s
i n ot her s , and of enj oyi ng such di scover i es. Thi s source of
evi l evi dent l y does not exi st i n iSmile. Ha vi ng no i nt er est
t o ser ve by di scover i ng my f aul t s, he will not lpok for t hem
in me , and will have li t t le t empt at i on t o seek t hem i n ot her
peopl e.
Thi s course of conduct seems difficult because we do not
reflect upon i t; but t aki ng i t al t oget her , i t ought not to be so.
I am justified in s uppos i ng that you know enough to under-
PHYSI CAL TRAI NI NG. 91
s t and t he busi ness you have unde r t a ke n; t ha t you know the
nat ur al pr ogr es s of t he huma n mi n d ; t hat you under s t and
st udyi ng manki nd i n gener al and i n i ndi vi dual cases ; t hat
among all t he obj ect s i nt er est i ng t o hi s age t hat you mean t o
show your pupi l , you know bef or ehand whi ch of t hem will
influence hi s will.
, Now if you have t he appl i ances, and know j us t how t o use
t hem, ar e you not mas t er of t he oper at i on ?
You object t hat chi ldren have capr i ces, but i n t hi s you ar e
mi s t aken. Thes e capri ces r esul t from f aul t y di sci pli ne, and
ar e not nat ur al . The chi l dr en have been accust omed ei t her
t o obey or t o command, and I have sai d a hundr ed t i mes t hat
nei t her of t hese t wo t hi ngs is necessar y. Your pupi l will
t her ef or e have only such capri ces as you gi ve hi m, and i t is
j us t you shoul d be puni shed for your own f aul t s. But do
you ask how t hese ar e t o be r emedi ed? I t can still be done
by means of bet t er ma na ge me nt and much pat i ence.
P h y s i c a l Tr a i ni ng .
MAN' S first nat ur al movement s ar e for t he pur pos e of
compar i ng hi mself wi t h what ever s ur r ounds hi m and finding
i n each t hi ng t hose sensi ble quali t i es likely t o affect himself.
Hi s first st udy i s, t her ef or e, a ki nd of exper i ment al physi cs
r el at i ng t o hi s own pr es er vat i on. Fr om t hi s, bef or e he has
fully under st ood hi s place her e on ear t h, he is t ur ned asi de
t o speculat i ve st udi es. Whi l e yet hi s deli cat e and pli able
or gans can a da pt t hemsel ves t o t he obj ect s upon whi ch t hey
ar e t o act , whi le hi s senses, still pur e, ar e free from i llusi on,
i t is t i me t o exer ci se bot h in t hei r pecul i ar f unct i ons, and t o
l ear n t he per cept i bl e r el at i ons bet ween our sel ves and out -
wa r d t hi ngs. Si nce what ever ent er s t he huma n under s t and-
i ng ent er s by t he senses, , ma n' s pr i mi t i ve r eas on i s^a r eason
of t he senses, ser vi ng as f oundat i on for t he r eas on of t he
i nt ellect . Our first t eacher s in phi l osophy ar e our own
feet , hands , and eyes. To subst i t ut e books for t hese is
t eachi ng us not t o r eas on, but t o use t he r eason of anot her ;
t o beli eve a gr eat deal , and t o know not hi ng at all.
I n pr act i si ng an ar t we mus t begi n by pr ocur i ng appar -
at us for i t ; and t o use t hi s appar at us t o a dva nt a ge , we
mus t have i t solid enough t o bear us e. I n l ear ni ng t o
t hi nk, we mus t t her ef or e employ our member s , our s ens es ,
our or gans , all whi ch ar e t he appar at us of our under s t andi ng.
And t o use t hem t o t he bes t advant age, t he body whi ch
f ur ni shes t hem mus t be sound and r obus t . Our r eason is
t her ef or e so far from bei ng i ndependent of t he body, t hat
a good const i t ut i on r ender s ment al oper at i ons easy and
accur at e. I n i ndi cat i ng how t he l ong l ei sure of chi ldhood
ought t o be empl oyed, I a m ent er i ng i nt o par t i cul ar s whi ch
ma y b e t hought r i di cul ous. " Pr e t t y l es s ons , " you will tell
me, " whi ch you yourself cri t i ci ze for t eachi ng only what
t her e is no need of l e a r ni ng! Wh y wast e t i me i n i ns t r uc-
t i ons whi ch al ways come of t hei r own accor d, and cost nei t her
car e nor t r oubl e ? Wh a t child of t wel ve does not know all
you ar e goi ng t o t each your s , and all t hat hi s mas t er s
have t a ught hi m besi des ? "
Gent l emen, you ar e mi s t aken. I am t eachi ng my pupi l
a ver y t edi ous and difficult ar t , whi ch your s cer t ai nl y have
not acqui r ed, t hat of bei ng i gnor ant . Fo r t he knowl edge
of one who gi ves hi mself cr edi t for knowi ng only what he
r eal l y does know r educes itself t o a ver y small compas s .
You ar e t eachi ng sci ence : ver y g o o d ; I am deal i ng wi t h t he
i ns t r ument by whi ch sci ence is acqui r ed. Al l who have
reflected upon t he mode of life among t he anci ent s at t r i but e
t o gymnas t i c exer ci ses t hat vi gor of body and mi nd whi ch
so not abl y di st i ngui shes t hem from us moderns*. Mont ai gne' s
CLOTHI NG. 93
s uppor t of t hi s opi ni on shows t ha t he ha d fully adopt ed i t ;
he r et ur ns t o i t agai n and agai n, i n a t hous and ways .
Speaki ng of t he educat i on of a chi ld, he s ays , " W e mus t
make hi s mi nd r obus t by har deni ng hi s muscl es ; i nur e hi m
t o pai n by accust omi ng hi m t o l a b o r ; br eak hi m by sever e
exer ci se t o t he keen pa ngs of di sl ocat i on, of coli c, of ot her
ai l ment s . " The wi se Loc ke ,
1
t he excel l ent Eol l i n,
2
t he
l ear ned Fl e ur y,
5
t he pedant i c de Cr ouza s ,
4
so different i n
ever yt hi ng else, agr ee exact l y on t hi s poi nt of a bunda nt
physi cal exer ci se for chi l dr en. I t is t he wi sest l esson t hey
ever t aught , but t he one t hat is a nd al ways will be mos t
negl ect ed.
Cl o t hi ng .
As t o cl ot hi ng, t he l i mbs of a gr owi ng body shoul d be
ent i rel y free. Not hi ng shoul d cr amp t hei r movement s or
t hei r gr owt h ; not hi ng shoul d fit t oo closely or bi nd t he body ;
t her e should be no l i gat ur es what ever . The pr es ent Fr e nc h
dr ess cr amps and di sabl es even a man, and i s especi ally
i nj ur i ous t o chi l dren. I t ar r es t s t he ci rcul at i on of t he humor s ;
t hey s t agnat e from an i nact i on made wor se by a s edent ar y
life. Thi s cor r upt i on of t he humor s br i ngs on t he s cur vy,
a di sease becomi ng ever y day mor e common among us , but
unknown t o t he anci ent s, pr ot ect ed from i t by t hei r dr ess and
t hei r mode of li fe. The hus s ar dr es s does not r emedy t hi s
1
An English philosopher, who died in 1704. He wrote a very celebrated
" Treatise on the Education of Children.*'
2
A celebrated professor, Rector of the University of Paris, who died in
1741, He left a number of works on education.
3
An abbe of the seventeenth century who wrote a much valued " His-
tory of the Church," and a " Treatise on the Method and Choice of
Studies." He was tutor to Count Vermandois, natural son to Louis XIV.
4
A professor of mathematics, born at Lausanne, tutor to Prince Fred-
erick of Hesse Cassel.
i nconveni ence, but i ncr eases i t , si nce, t o save t he child a few
l i gat ur es, i t compr esses t he ent i r e body. I t woul d be bet t er
t o keep chi l dren i n frocks as l ong as possi bl e, a nd t hen put
t hem i nt o loosely fitting cl ot hes, wi t hout t r yi ng t o shape t hei r
figures and t her eby spoi l t hem. Thei r def ect s of body and
of mi nd near l y all spr i ng from t he s ame cause : we ar e t r yi ng
t o ma ke me n of t hem bef or e t hei r t i me.
Of br i ght a nd dull col or s, t he f or mer bes t pl ease a chi ld' s
t a s t e ; such colors ar e also mos t becomi ng t o t h e m; a nd I
see no r eas on why we shoul d not i n such mat t er s consul t
t hese nat ur al coi nci dences. But t he mome nt a mat er i al is
pr ef er r ed becaus e i t is r i cher , t he chi ld' s mi nd is cor r upt ed
by l uxur y, and by all sor t s of whi ms. Pr ef er ences like t hi s
do not spr i ng up of t hei r own accor d. I t is i mpossi bl e
t o say how much choi ce of dr es s and t he mot i ves of t hi s
choi ce i nnuence educat i on. No t only do t hought l ess mot her s
pr omi se ciiiidreh fine clot hes by way of r ewar d, but foolish
t ut or s t hr eat en t hem wi t h coar ser a nd si mpler dr es s as pun-
i s hment . " I f you do not st udy your l essons, if you do
not t ake bet t er car e of your cl ot hes, you shall be dr essed
li ke t ha t li t t le r us t i c . " Thi s is sayi ng t o hi m, " Re s t assur ed
that, a ma n i s not hi ng but what hi s clot hes ma ke hi m ; your,
own wor t h depends on what you we a r . " I s i t sur pr i si ng
t ha t sage l essons li ke t hi s so influence young men t ha t t hey
car e for not hi ng but or nament , and j udge of mer i t by out war d
appear ance onl y?
Gener al l y, chi l dren ar e t oo war ml y cl ot hed, especi ally in
t hei r earli er ye a r s . Th e y shoul d be i nur ed t o cold r at her
t han h e a t ; sever e cold never i ncommodes t hem when t hey
encount er i t ear l y. But t he t i ssue of t hei r ski n, as yet
yi el di ng a nd t ender , allows t oo free pas s age t o per spi r at i on,
and expos ur e t o gr eat heat i nvar i abl y weakens t hem. I t ha s
been obs er ved t hat mor e chi l dr en di e in Augus t t han i n any
SLEEP. 95
ot her mont h. Besi des, if we compar e nor t her n and sout her n
r aces, we find t ha t excessi ve cold, r at her t han excessi ve
heat , makes ma n r obus t . I n pr opor t i on as t he child gr ows
and hi s fibres ar e s t r engt hened, accust om hi m gr adual l y t o
wi t hs t and h e a t ; a nd by degr ees you will wi t hout r i sk t r ai n
hi m t o endur e t he gl owi ng t emper at ur e of t he t or r i d zone.
S l e e p .
CHI LDREN need a gr eat deal of sleep because t hey t ake a
gr eat deal of exer ci se. The one act s as cor r ect i ve t o t he
ot her , so t hat bot h ar e necessar y. As nat ur e t eaches us ,
ni ght is t he t i me for r est . Cons t ant obser vat i on shows t hat
sleep is soft er and mor e pr of ound while t he sun is bel ow t he
hor i zon. The heat ed ai r does not so perfect l y t r anqui l l i ze
our t i r ed senses. Fo r t hi s r eas on t he mos t sal ut ar y habi t is
t o ri se and t o go t o r es t wi t h t he s un. I n our cl i mat e ma n,
and ani mal s gener al l y, r equi r e mor e sleep in wi nt er t han in
s ummer . But our mode of life is not so si mpl e, nat ur al , and
uni f or m t hat we can make t hi s r egul ar habi t a necessi t y.
We mus t wi t hout doubt submi t t o r egul at i ons ; but i t is mos t
i mpor t ant t hat we shoul d be able t o br e a k t hem wi t hout r i sk
when occasi on r equi r es. Do not t hen i mpr udent l y soft en
your pupi l by l et t i ng hi m lie peacefully asl eep wi t hout ever
bei ng di st ur bed. At first let hi m yi eld wi t hout r es t r ai nt t o
t he law of nat ur e, but do not f or get t hat in our day we mus t
be superi or t o t hi s l a w; we mus t be able t o go l at e t o r es t
and ri se ear l y, t o be awakened suddenl y, t o be up all ni ght ,
wi t hout di scomf or t . By begi nni ng ear l y, and by al ways
pr oceedi ng slowly, we f or m t he const i t ut i on by t he ver y
pr act i ces whi ch woul d r ui n i t if i t were al r eady est abl i shed.
I t is i mpor t ant t hat your pupi l shoul d from t he first be
accust omed t o a har d bed, so t hat he ma y find none uncom-
f or t abl e.
Gener al l y, a life of har ds hi p, when we ar e used t o i t , gi ves
us a far gr eat er number of agr eeabl e sensat i ons t han does a
life of ease, whi ch cr eat es an infinite number of unpleasai ft
ones. One t oo deli cat ely r ear ed can find sleep only upon a
bed of down ; one accust omed t o bar e boar ds can find it any-
wher e. No bed is har d t o hi m who falls asleep as soon as
his head t ouches t he pi llow. The bes t bed is t he one whi ch
br i ngs t he bes t sl eep. Thr oughout t he day no slaves from
Per s i a, but Emi l e and I , will pr epar e our be ds . Wh e n we
ar e t i lli ng t he gr ound we shall be maki ng t hem soft for our
sl umber .
Ex e r c i s e of t h e S e n s e s .
A CHILD has not a ma n' s s t at ur e, s t r engt h, or r eason ; but
he sees and hear s al most or qui t e as well. Hi s sense of t as t e
is as keen, t hough he does not enjoy i t as a pl easur e.
Our senses ar e t he first power s per f ect ed in us . They arc
t he first t hat shoul d be cul t i vat ed a nd t he only ones f or got t en,
or at l east , t he mos t negl ect ed.
To exer ci se t he senses is not mer el y t o use t hem, but t o
l ear n how t o j udge correct ly by means of t hem ; We may say,
t o l ear n how t o feel. For we cannot feel, or hear , or see,
ot her wi se t han as we have been t aught .
Ther e is a ki nd of exer ci se, pur el y nat ur al and mechani cal ,
t hat r ender s t he body r obus t wi t hout i nj ur i ng t he mi nd. Of
t hi s descr i pt i on ar e swi mmi ng, r unni ng, l eapi ng, spi nni ng
t ops , . and t hr owi ng st ones. Al l t hese ar e well e nough; but
have we not hi ng but ar ms and legs ? Ha ve we not eyes and
ear s as well ? and ar e t hey of no use while t he ot her s ar e em-
pl oyed? Us e , t hen, not only your bodi ly s t r engt h, but all
t he senses whi ch di r ect it. Ma ke as much of each as possi -
ble, and veri fy t he i mpr essi ons of one by t hose of anot her .
Meas ur e, count , wei gh, and compar e. Us e no s t r engt h till
aft er you have cal cul at ed t he r esi st ance i t will meet . Be
careful t o est i mat e t he effect bef or e you use t he me a ns . I n-
t er est t he child i n never ma ki ng any usel ess or i nadequat e
t ri al s of s t r engt h. If you accust om hi m t o f or ecast t he
effect of ever y movement , and t o cor r ect hi s er r or s by expe-
r i ence, is i t not cer t ai n t hat t he mor e he does t he bet t er hi s
j udgment will be ?
I f t he lever he uses i n movi ng a heavy wei ght be t oo l ong,
he will expend t oo much mot i on ; if t oo shor t , he will not
have power enough. Exper i ence will t each hi m t o choose
one exact l y sui t abl e. Such pr act i cal knowl edge, t hen, is not
beyond hi s year s . I f he wi shes t o car r y a bur den exact l y as
heavy as hi s s t r engt h will bear , wi t hout t he t est of first lift-
i ng i t , mus t he not est i mat e i t s wei ght by t he eye ? If he
under s t ands compar i ng mas s es of t he same mat er i al but of
different si ze, l et hi m choose bet ween mas s es of t he same
size but of different mat er i al . Thi s wi l l obli ge hi m t o com-
par e t hem as t o specific gr avi t y. I have seen a wel l -educat ed
young ma n who, unt i l he ha d t r i ed t he exper i ment , woul d
not beli eve t hat a pai l full of l ar ge chi ps wei ghs less t ha n i t
does when full of wat er .
Th e S e n s e of To uc h.
W E have not equal cont r ol of al b our senses. One of
t hem, t he sense of t ouch, is i n cont i nual act i on so l ong as
we ar e awake. Diffused over t he' ent i r e sur f ace of t he body,
i t ser ves as a per pet ual sent i nel t o war n us of what is li kely
t o har m us . By t he cons t ant use of t hi s sense, vol unt ar y
or ot her wi se, we gai n our earli est exper i ence. I t t her ef or e
st ands less in need of speci al cul t i vat i on. We obser ve how-
ever, t hat t he bl i nd have a mor e deli cat e and accur at e t ouch
t han we, becaus e, not havi ng si ght t o gui de t hem, t hey
depend upon t ouch for t he j udgment s we f or m wi t h t he ai d
of si ght . Wh y t hen do we not t r ai n our sel ves t o wal k, like
t hem, i n t he dar k, t o r ecogni ze by t he t ouch all bodi es we
can r each, t o j udge of obj ect s ar ound us , i n shor t , t o do by
ni ght and i n t he dar k all t hey do i n dayt i me wi t hout eye-
si ght ? So l ong as t he sun shi nes, we have t he advant age of
t h e m; but t hey can gui de us in dar knes s . We ar e bl i nd
dur i ng half our li fe-t i me, wi t h t hi s difference, t hat t he realt y
bl i nd can al ways gui de t hemsel ves, wher eas we dar e not
t ake a st ep in t he dead of ni ght . You may r emi nd me
t hat we have artificial li ght . Wh a t ! mus t we al ways use
machi nes ? Who can i nsur e t hei r bei ng al ways at ha nd when
we need t hem ? For my par t , I prefer t hat Emi l e, i nst ead
of keepi ng hi s eyes i n a chandl er ' s s hop, shoul d have t hem
at t he ends of hi s fingers.
As much as possi bl e, let hi m be accust omed t o pl ay about
at ni ght . Thi s advi ce is mor e i mpor t ant t han i t woul d seem.
Fo r me n, and somet i mes for ani mal s, ni ght has nat ur al l y i t s
t er r or s . Rar el y clo wi sdom, or wi t , or cour age, free us from
payi ng t r i but e t o t hese t er r or s . I have seen r eas oner s , free-
t hi nker s , phi l osopher s, sol di er s, who wer e ut t er l y f ear l ess i n
br oad dayl i ght , t r embl e li ke women at t he r ust l e of l eaves
by ni ght . Such t er r or s ar e s uppos ed t o be t he r esul t of
nur s er y t al es. The r eal cause is t he s ame t hi ng whi ch makes
t he deaf di st r ust f ul , a nd t he lower cl asses super st i t i ous ; and
t hat i s, i gnor ance of obj ect s and event s ar ound us .
The cause of t he evil, once found, s ugges t s t he r emedy.
I n ever yt hi ng, habi t be numbs t he i ma gi na t i on; new obj ect s
al one qui cken i t agai n. Ever y- day obj ect s keep act i ve not
t he i magi nat i on, but t he me mo r y ; whence t he sayi ng
u
Ab
assuet i s non fit pa s s i o. "
1
For only t he i magi nat i on can set
on fire our pas s i ons . If, t her ef or e, you wi sh t o cur e any one
of t he f ear of dar knes s , do not r eason wi t h hi m. Tal t e hi m
1
'' Passion is not born of familiar things. "
i nt o t he da r k oft en, and you ma y be sur e t hat will do hi m
mor e good t han phi losophi cal ar gument s . Wh e n at wor k on
t he roofs of hous es , sl at er s do not feel t hei r heads s wi m;
and t hose accus t omed t o dar knes s do not fear i t at all.
Ther e will be one advant age of our pl ays i n t he dar k.
But if you me a n t hem to be successful, you mus t make t hem
as gay as possi bl e. Da r kne s s is of all t hi ngs t he mos t
gl oomy ; so do not shut your child up i n a dungeon. Wh e n
he goes i nt o t he dar k make hi m l a ugh; when he l eaves i t
make hi m l augh a g a i n ; and all t he t i me he is t her e, l et t he
t hought of what he is enj oyi ng, and what he will find t her e
when he r et ur ns , pr ot ect hi m from t he shadowy t er r or s whi ch
mi ght ot her wi se i nhabi t i t .
I have hear d some pr opose t o t each chi l dr en not t o be
afrai d at ni ght , by sur pr i si ng t hem. Thi s is a ba d pl an, and
i t s effect is cont r ar y t o t he one s ought : i t only makes t hem
mor e t i mi d t han bef or e. Nei t her r eas on nor habi t can
accust om us t o a pr es ent danger , t he nat ur e and ext ent of
whi ch we do not know, nor can t hey l essen our dr ead of
unexpect ed t hi ngs however oft en we meet wi t h t hem. But
how can we guar d our pupi l agai ns t such acci dent s ? I t hi nk
t he followi ng is t he best pl an. 1 will tell my iSmile, " I f
any one at t acks you at ni ght , you ar e justified i n def endi ng
yourself ; for your assai l ant gi ves you no not i ce whet her he
means t o hur t you or only t o f r i ght en you. As he has
t aken you at a di s advant age, sei ze hi m bol dl y, no mat t er
what he ma y seem t o be. Hol d hi m fast , and if he offers
any r esi st ance, hi t hi m har d and of t en. Wha t e ve r he ma y
say or do, never let go unt i l you know exact l y who he i s.
The expl anat i on will pr obabl y show you t hat t her e is not hi ng
t o be afrai d of; and if you t r eat a pr act i cal j oker in t hi s
way, he will not be li kely-t o t r y t he s ame t hi ng a ga i n. "
Al t hough, of all our senses, t ouch is t he one mos t con-
s t ant l y used, still, as I have sai d, i t s concl usi ons ar e t he
mos t r ude and i mper f ect . Thi s is becaus e i t is al ways used
at t he same t i me wi t h s i ght ; and because t he eye at t ai ns i t s
obj ect sooner t han t he hand ; t he mi nd near l y al ways deci des
wi t hout appeal i ng t o t ouch. On t he ot her hand, t he deci s-
i ons of t ouch, j us t becaus e t hey ar e so li mi t ed i n t hei r r ange,
ar e t he mos t accur at e. For as t hey ext end no f ar t her t han
our ar m' s l engt h, t hey cor r ect t he er r or s of ot her senses,
whi ch deal wi t h di s t ant obj ect s, and scarcely gr as p t hese
obj ect s at all, wher eas all t hat t he t ouch per cei ves i t per -
cei ves t hor oughl y. Besi des, if t o ner ve-f or ce we add muscu-
l ar act i on, we form a si mul t aneous i mpr essi on, and j udge of
wei ght and soli di t y as well as of t emper at ur e, si ze, and s hape.
Thus t ouch, which of all our senses bes t i nf or ms us concer n-
i ng i mpr essi ons made upon us by ext er nal t hi ngs , is t he one
of t enest used, and gi ves us mos t di rect ly t he knowl edge
necessar y t o our pr es er vat i on.
Th e S e n s e of Si g ht .
T HE sense of t ouch confines i t s oper at i ons t o a ver y nar -
r ow spher e ar ound us , but t hose of si ght ext end far beyond ;
t hi s sense is t her ef or e liable t o be mi s t aken. Wi t h a si ngle
gl ance a ma n t akes i n half hi s own hor i zon, and in t hese
myr i ad i mpr essi ons, and j udgment s r esul t i ng from t hem,
how is i t credi ble t hat t her e shoul d be no mi s t akes ? Si ght ,
t her ef or e, i s t he mos t defect i ve of all our senses, preci sely
because i t is mos t f ar -r eachi ng, and because i t s oper at i ons,
by f ar pr ecedi ng all ot her s, ar e t oo i mmedi at e and t oo vas t
t o r ecei ve cor r ect i on from t hem. Besi des, t he ver y i llusi ons
of per spect i ve ar e needed t o make us unde r s t a nd ext ensi on,
and t o hel p us i n compar i ng i t s pa r t s . If t her e wer e no false
appear ances , we could see not hi ng at a di s t a nc e ; if t her e
were n c g r a d a t i o n s i n si ze, we could f or m no est i mat e of di s-
t ance, or r at her t her e woul d be no di st ance at all. I f of t wo
t r ees t he one a hundr ed paces away seemed as l ar ge and di s-
t i nct as t he ot her , t en paces di s t ant , we shoul d place t hem
si de by si de. If we saw all obj ect s i n t hei r t r ue di mens i ons ,
we should see no space wha t e ve r ; ever yt hi ng would appear
t o be di rect ly be ne a t h our eye.
For j udgi ng of t he size and di st ance of obj ect s, si ght lies
only one meas ur e, and t hat is t he angl e t hey f or m wi t h our
eye. As t hi s is t he si mple effect of a compound cause, t he
j udgment we f or m f r om i t l eaves each par t i cul ar case unde-
ci ded or is necessar i l y i mper f ect . Fo r how can I by t he
si ght al one tell whet her t he angl e whi ch ma ke s one obj ect
appear smaller t ha n anot her is caused by t he really l esser
magni t ude of t he obj ect or by i t s gr eat er di st ance from me ?
An opposi t e met hod mus t t her ef or e be pur s ued. I ns t ead
of r el yi ng on one sensat i on onl y, we mus t r epeat i t , veri fy i t
by ot her s, subor di nat e si ght t o t ouch, r epr es s i ng t he i mpet u-
osi t y of t he first by t he s t eady, even pace of t he second.
For lack of t hi s caut i on we meas ur e ver y i naccur at el y by t he
eye, in det er mi ni ng hei ght , l engt h, dept h, and di st ance.
Tha t t hi s is not due t o or gani c defect , but t o carel ess us e,
is pr oved by t he f act t hat engi neer s, s ur veyor s , ar chi t ect s,
masons, and pai nt er s gener al l y have a far mor e accur at e eye
t han we, and est i mat e meas ur es of ext ens i on mor e cor r ect l y.
Thei r busi ness gi ves t hem exper i ence t ha t we negl ect t o
acqui re, and t hus t hey cor r ect t he ambi gui t y of t he angl e by
means of appear ances associ at ed wi t h it, whi ch enabl e t hem
t o det er mi ne mor e exact l y t he r el at i on of t he t wo t hi ngs pr o-
duci ng t he angl e.
Chi ldren ar e easi ly led i nt o anyt hi ng t hat allows uncon-
st rai ned movement of t he body. Ther e ar e a t hous and ways
of i nt er est i ng t hem in meas ur i ng, di scover i ng, a nd est i mat i ng
di st ances. " Yo n d e r is a ver y t all cher r y-t r ee ; how can we
manage t o get some cherri es ? Wi l l t he l adder in t he ba r n
do ? Ther e is a ver y wi de b r o o k; how can we cross i t ?
Woul d one of t he pl anks in t he yar d be l ong enough? We
want t o t hr ow a line from our wi ndows and cat ch some fish
i n t he moat ar ound t he house ; how ma ny f at homs l ong
ought t he li ne t o be? I want t o put up a swi ng bet ween
t hose t wo t r ees ; would four yar ds of r ope be enough for i t ?
The y say t hat i n t he ot her house our r oom will be t went y-
five feet s quar e ; do you t hi nk t hat will sui t us ? Wi l l i t be
l ar ger t han t hi s ? We ar e ver y hungr y ; whi ch of t hose t wo
vi llages yonder can we r each soonest , and have our di nner ? "
As t he sense of si ght is t he one l east easi ly s epar at ed from
t he j udgment s of t he mi nd, we need a gr eat deal of t i me for
l ear ni ng how t o see. We mus t for a l ong t i me compar e si ght
wi t h t ouch, if we woul d accust om our eye t o r epor t f or ms
and di st ances accur at el y.
Wi t hout t ouch and wi t hout pr ogr essi ve movement , t he
keenes t eye-si ght in t he world could gi ve us no i dea of
ext ent . To an oyst er t he ent i re uni ver se mus t be only a
si ngle poi nt . Onl y by wal ki ng, feeli ng, count i ng, and meas -
ur i ng, do we l ear n t o est i mat e di st ances.
If we al ways meas ur e t hem, however , our eye, dependi ng
on t hi s, will never gai n accur acy. Ye t t he child ought not
t o pas s t oo soon from meas ur i ng t o est i mat i ng. I t will be
bet t er for hi m, aft er compar i ng by par t s what he cannot
compar e as whol es, finally t o subst i t ut e for meas ur ed ali quot
par t s ot her s , obt ai ned by t he eye al one. He shoul d t r ai n
hi mself i n t hi s manner of meas ur i ng i ns t ead of al ways
meas ur i ng wi t h t he hand. I prefer t hat t he ver y first
oper at i ons of t hi s ki nd shoul d be verified by act ual meas -
ur ement s , so t hat he may cor r ect t he mi s t akes ar i si ng from
false appear ances by a bet t er j udgment . Ther e ar e nat ur al
measur es, near l y t he s ame ever ywher e, such as a ma n' s
pace, t he l engt h of hi s ar m, or hi s hei ght . Wh e n t he child
U cal cul at i ng t he hei ght of t he st or y of a hous e, hi s t ut or
may ser ve as a uni t of meas ur e. I n est i mat i ng t he al t i t ude
of a st eeple, he ma y compar e i t wi t h t hat of t he nei ghbor i ng
houses. If he want s t o know how ma ny l eagues t her e ar e
in a gi ven j our ney, let hi m r eckon t he number of hour s
s pent i n maki ng i t on foot . An d by all means do none of
t hi s woi'k for hi m ; l et hi m do i t himself.
We cannot l ear n t o j udge cor r ect l y of t he ext ent a nd si ze
of bodi es wi t hout also l ear ni ng t o r ecogni ze t hei r f or ms, and
even t o i mi t at e t hem. For such i mi t at i on is absol ut el y de-
pendent on t he l aws of per spect i ve, and we cannot est i mat e
ext ent from appear ances wi t hout some appr eci at i on of t hese
l aws .
Dr a wi n g .
A L L chi l dren, bei ng nat ur al i mi t at or s, t r y t o dr aw. I
would have my pupi l cul t i vat e t hi s ar t , not exact l y for t he
sake of t he ar t itself, but t o r ender t he eye t r ue and t he
hand flexible. I n gener al , i t mat t er s li t t le whet her he under -
s t ands t hi s or t hat exer ci se, pr ovi ded he acqui r es t he ment al
i nsi ght , and t he ma nua l skill f ur ni shed by t he exer ci se. I
should t ake car e, t her ef or e, not t o gi ve hi m a dr awi ng-
mas t er , who woul d gi ve hi m only copi es t o i mi t at e, and
would make hi m dr aw from dr awi ngs onl y. He shall have
no t eacher but nat ur e, no model s but r eal t hi ngs . He shall
have before hi s eyes t he or i gi nal s, and not t he paper whi ch
r epr esent s t hem. He shall dr aw a house from a r eal hous e,
a t r ee from a t r ee, a huma n figure from t he ma n hi mself. I n
t hi s way he will accust om hi mself t o obser ve bodi es and t hei r
appear ances , and not mi s t ake for accur at e i mi t at i ons t hose
t ha t ar e false and convent i onal . I should even obj ect t o hi s
dr awi ng anyt hi ng from memor y, unt i l by f r equent obser va-
t i ons t he exact f or ms of t he obj ect s had clearly i mpr i nt ed
t hemsel ves on hi s i magi nat i on, lest , subst i t ut i ng odd and
f ant ast i c shapes for t he r eal t hi ngs, he mi ght loose t he
knowl edge of pr opor t i on and a t as t e for t he beaut i es oi
nat ur e. I know ver y well t hat he will go on daubi ng for a
l ong t i me wi t hout maki ng anyt hi ng wor t h not i ci ng, and will
be l ong i n mas t er i ng el egance of out l i ne, and in acqui r i ng
t he deft st r oke of a ski lled dr aught s man. He ma y never
l ear n t o di scer n pi ct ur esque effects, or dr aw wi t h super i or
ski ll. On t he ot her hand, he will have a mor e cor r ect eye, a
t r uer hand, a knowl edge of t he r eal r el at i ons of size and
shape i n ani mal s, pl ant s , and nat ur al bodi es, and pr act i cal
exper i ence of t he i llusi ons of per spect i ve. Thi s is preci sely
what I i nt end ; not so much t hat he shall i mi t at e obj ect s as
t hat he shall know t hem. I would r at her have hi m show me
an acant hus t han a finished dr awi ng of t he foli at i on of a
capi t al .
Ye t I woul d not allow my pupi l t o have t he enj oyment of
t hi s or any ot her exer ci se all t o himself. By shar i ng i t wi t h
hi m I will ma ke hi m enjoy it still mor e. He shall have no
compet i t or but mysel f ; but I will be t ha t compet i t or con-
t i nual l y, and wi t hout r i sk of j eal ousy bet ween us . I t will
only i nt er est hi m mor e deeply in hi s st udi es. Li ke hi m I
will t ake up t he penci l, and at first I will be as awkwar d as
he. I f I wer e an Apel l es, even, I will ma ke myself a mer e
dauber .
I will begi n by sket chi ng a ma n j us t as a boy would sket ch
one on a wall, wi t h a das h for each ar m, and wi t h fingers
l ar ger t han t he ar ms . By and by one or t he ot her of us
will di scover t hi s di spr opor t i on. We shall obser ve t hat a
leg has t hi cknes s , and t hat t hi s t hi ckness is not t he same
DRAWI NG. 105
ever ywher e ; t hat t he l engt h of t he ar m is det er mi ned by i t s
pr opor t i on t o t he body ; and so on. As we go on I will do
no mor e t ha n keep even st ep wi t h hi m, or will excel hi m by
so li t t le t hat he can al ways easi ly over t ake and even s ur pas s
me. We will get colors and br us hes ; we will t r y t o i mi t at e
not only t he out li ne but t he col or i ng and all t he ot her det ai l s
of obj ect s. We will col or ; we will pa i n t ; we will daub ;
but in all our daubi ng we shall be cont i nual l y peer i ng i nt o
nat ur e, and all we do shall be done under t he eye of t hat
gr e a t t eacher .
I f we had difficulty i n finding decor at i ons for our r oom,
we have now all we could desi r e. I will have our dr awi ngs
f r amed, so t hat we can gi ve t hem no finishing t ouches ; and
t hi s will ma ke us bot h careful t o do no negl i gent wor k. I
will ar r ange t hem i n or der ar ound our r oom, each dr awi ng
r epeat ed t went y or t hi r t y t i mes, and each r epet i t i on showi ng
t he aut hor ' s pr ogr es s , from t he r epr es ent at i on of a house by
an al most shapel ess at t empt at a s quar e, t o t he accur at e
copy of i t s f r ont el evat i on, profile, pr opor t i ons , and s hadi ng.
The dr awi ngs t hus gr aded mus t be i nt er est i ng t o our sel ves,
curi ous t o ot her s, and likely t o st i mul at e f ur t her effort. I
will i nclose t he first and r udes t of t hese in showy gi lded
f r ames, t o set t hem off wel l ; but as t he i mi t at i on i mpr oves ,
and when t he dr awi ng is really good, I will add only a ver y
si mple bl ack f r ame. The pi ct ur e needs no or nament but
itself, and i t woul d be a pi t y t hat t he bor der i ng shoul d
recei ve half t he at t ent i on.
Bot h of us will aspi r e t o t he honor of a pl ai n f r ame, and
if ei t her wi shes t o condemn t he ot her ' s dr awi ng, he will say
i t ought t o have a gi lt f r ame. Pe r ha ps some day t hese
gi lded f r ames will pass i nt o a pr over b wi t h us , and we shall
be i nt er est ed t o obser ve how ma ny men do j ust i ce t o them*
selves by frami ng t hemsel ves i n t he ver y s ame Way. .
Ge o me t r y .
I HAVE sai d t hat geomet r y is not i nt elli gi ble t o chi l dr en;
but i t is our own f aul t . We do not obser ve t hat t hei r
met hod is different from our s , and t hat what is t o us t he ar t
of r eas oni ng should be t o t hem only t he ar t of seei ng.
I ns t ead of gi vi ng t hem our met hod, we shoul d do bet t er t o
t ake t hei r s. For i n our way of l ear ni ng geomet r y, i magi na-
t i on really does as much as r eas on. Wh e n a pr oposi t i on is
s t at ed, we have t o i magi ne t he demons t r at i on ; t hat i s, we
have t o find upon what pr oposi t i on al r eady known t he new
one depends , and from all t he consequences of t hi s known
pri nci pl e select j us t t he one r equi r ed. Accor di ng t o t hi s
met hod t he mos t exact r eas oner , if not nat ur al l y i nvent i ve,
mus t be at fault . An d t he r esul t is t hat t he t eacher , i nst ead
of maki ng us di scover demons t r at i ons , di ct at es t hem t o u s ;
i nst ead of t eachi ng us t o r eas on, he r eas ons for us , and
exer ci ses only our memor y.
Ma ke t he di agr ams accur at e ; combi ne t hem, pl ace t hem
one upon anot her , exami ne t hei r r el at i ons, and you will
di scover t he whole of el ement ar y geomet r y by pr oceedi ng
from one obser vat i on t o anot her , wi t hout usi ng ei t her defi-
ni t i ons or pr obl ems , or any f or m of demons t r at i on t han
si mple super posi t i on. For my par t , I do not even pr et end t o
t each Emi l e geomet r y ; he shall t each i t t o me. I will look
for r el at i ons, and he shall di scover t hem. I will look for
t hem i n a way t hat will lead hi m t o di scover t hem. I n
dr awi ng a ci rcle, for i nst ance, I will not use a compas s , but
a poi nt at t he end of a cor d whi ch t ur ns on a pi vot . Af t er -
war d, when I wa nt t o compar e t he r adi i of a semi -ci rcle,
iDmile will l augh at me and tell me t hat t he s ame cor d, held
wi t h t he s ame t ensi on, cannot descr i be unequal di s t ances .
Wh e n I want t o meas ur e an angl e of si xt y degr ees , I will
descri be from t he apex of t he angl e not an ar c onl y, but an
ent i re circle ; for wi t h chi l dr en not hi ng mus t be t aken for
gr ant ed. I find t hat t he por t i on i nt er cept ed by t he t wo si des
of t he angl e is one-si xt h of t he whole ci r cumf er ence. Af t er -
war d, from t he s ame cent r e, I descr i be anot her and a l ar ger
ci rcle, and find t hat t hi s second ar c is one-si xt h of t he new
ci r cumf er ence. Descr i bi ng a t hi r d concent r i c ci rcle, I t es t i t
i n t he same way, and cont i nue t he pr ocess wi t h ot her concen-
t ri c ci rcles, unt i l, ] mile, vexed at my st upi di t y, i nf or ms me
t hat every ar c, gr eat or smal l , i nt er cept ed by t he si des of t hi s
angl e, will be one-s i xt h of t he ci r cumf er ence t o whi ch i t
bel ongs. You see we ar e al most r eady t o use t he i ns t r ument s
i nt j l l i gent l y.
I n or der t o pr ove t he angl es of a t r i angl e equal t o t wo r i ght
angl es, a circle is usually dr awn. I , on t he cont r ar y, will
call Emi l e' s at t ent i on t o t hi s i n t he ci rcle, and t hen as k hi m,
" Now, if t he circle wer e t aken away, and t he s t r ai ght li nes
were left, would t he size of t he angl es be changed ? "
I t is not cust omar y t o pay much at t ent i on t o t he accur acy
of figures i n ge ome t r y; t he accur acy is t aken for gr ant ed,
and t he demons t r at i on al one is r egar ded. Emi l e and I will
pay no heed t o t he demons t r at i on, but ai m t o dr aw exact l y
st r ai ght and even li nes ; t o ma ke a squar e per f ect a nd a circle
r ound. To t est t he exact nes s of t he figure we will exami ne
i t i n all i t s vi si ble pr oper t i es , and t hi s will gi ve us dai ly
oppor t uni t y of finding out ot her s . We will fold t he t wo
hal ves of a circle on t he li ne of t he di amet er , and t he hal ves
of a squar e on i t s di agonal , and t hen exami ne our t wo fig-
ures t o see which has i t s boundi ng lines mos t near l y coi nci -
dent , and is t her ef or e bes t const r uct ed. We will debat e as
t o whet her t hi s equal i t y of par t s exi st s i n all par al l el ogr ams ,
t r apezi ums, and li ke figures. Somet i mes we will endeavor
t o gues s at t he r esul t of t he exper i ment bef or e we ma ke i t ,
and somet i mes t o find out t he r eas ons why i t shoul d r esul t as
i t does.
Geomet r y for my pupi l is onl y t he ar t of usi ng t he rule and
compass well. I t should not be conf ounded wi t h dr awi ng,
whi ch uses nei t her of t hese i ns t r ument s . The rule and com-
pas s ar e t o be kept under lock and key, and he shall be
allowed t o use t hem only occasi onal l y, and for a shor t t i me,
lest he fall i nt o t he habi t of daubi ng. But somet i mes, when
we go for a wal k, we will t ake our di agr ams wi t h us, and t al k
about what we have done or would li ke t o do.
He a r i ng .
WH A T has been sai d as t o t he t wo senses mos t cont i nual l y
empl oyed and mos t i mpor t ant ma y i l l ust r at e t he way in whi ch
I shoul d exer ci se t he ot her senses. Si ght and t ouch deal
ali ke wi t h bodi es at r es t and bodi es in mot i on. But as only
t he vi br at i on of t he air can ar ouse t he sense of hear i ng, noi se
or sound can be made only by a body in mot i on. If every-
t hi ng wer e at r est , we could not hear at all. At ni ght , when
we move only as we choose, we have not hi ng t o fear except
from ot her bodi es in mot i on. We t her ef or e need qui ck ear s
t o j udge from our sensat i ons whet her t he bod}' causi ng t hem
is l ar ge or smal l , di s t ant or near , and whet her i t s mot i on is
vi ol ent or sli ght . The ai r, when in agi t at i on, is subj ect t o
r ever ber at i ons whi ch reflect it back, pr oduce echoes, and
r epeat t he sensat i on, maki ng t he sonor ous body hear d else-
wher e t han wher e i t realt y i s. I n a plai n or valley, if you
put 3
T
our ear t o t he gr ound, you can hear t he voi ces of men
and t he sound of hor s es ' hoofs much f ar t her t han when st and-
i ng upr i ght . As we have compar ed si ght wi t h t ouch, let us
also compar e it wi t h hear i ng, and consi der whi ch of t he t wo
i mpr essi ons, l eavi ng t he same body at t he same t i me, soonest
THE VOICE. 109
r eaches i t s or gan. Whe n we see t he flash of a cannon t her e
is still t i me t o avoi d t he s hot ; but as soon as we hear t he
sound t her e is not t i me ; t he ball has st r uck. We can est i -
mat e t he di st ance of t hunder by t he i nt er val bet ween t he
flash and t he t hunder bol t . Ma ke t he child under s t and such
e xpe r i me nt s ; t r y t hose t hat are wi t hi n his own power , and
di scover ot her s by i nf er ence. But i t would be bet t er he
shoul d know not hi ng about t hese t hi ngs t han t hat you shoul d
tell hi m all he is t o know about t hem.
We have an or gan t hat cor r es ponds t o t hat of hear i ng, t hat
i s, t he voi ce. Si ght has not hi ng li ke t hi s, for t hough we can
pr oduce s ounds , we . cannot gi ve off col ors. We have t her e-
fore fuller means of cul t i vat i ng hear i ng, by exer ci si ng i t s
act i ve and passi ve or gans upon one anot her .
The Vo i c e .
MA N has t hr ee ki nds of voi c e : t he s peaki ng or ar t i cul at e
voi ce, t he si ngi ng or mel odi ous voi ce, and t he pat het i c or
accent ed voi ce, whi ch gi ves l anguage t o passi on and ani mat es
song and speech. A child has t hese t hr ee ki nds of voi ce as
well as a man, but he does not know how t o bl end t hem in
t he same way. Li ke hi s elders he can l augh, cr y, compl ai n,
excl ai m, and gr oan. But he does not know how t o bl end
t hese inflections wi t h t he t wo ot her voi ces. Per f ect musi c
best accompl i shes t hi s bl endi ng ; but chi l dr en ar e i ncapabl e of
such musi c, and t her e is never much feeli ng i n t hei r si ngi ng.
I n speaki ng, t hei r voi ce has li t t le ener gy, and li t t le or no accent .
Our pupi l will have even a si mpler and mor e uni f or m mode
of speaki ng, because his passi ons, not yet ar oused, will not
mi ngle t hei r l anguage wi t h hi s. Do not , t her ef or e, gi ve hi m
dr amat i c par t s t o r eci t e, nor t each hi m t o decl ai m. He will
have t oo much sense t o emphasi ze wor ds he cannot under -
st and, and t o expr es s feeli ngs he has never known.
Te a c h hi m t o speak evenl y, clearly, ar t i cul at el y, t o pr o-
nounce correct ly and wi t hout affect at i on, t o under s t and and
use t he accent demanded by gr a mma r and pr os ody. Tr ai n
hi m t o avoi d a common fault acqui r ed in colleges, of speak-
i ng louder t han is ne c e s s a r y; have hi m speak loud enough
t o be unde r s t ood; let t her e be no exagger at i on i n anyt hi ng.
Ai m, also, t o r ender hi s voi ce i n si ngi ng, even, flexible, and
sonor ous. Le t hi s ear be sensi t i ve t o t i me and har mony, but
t o not hi ng mor e. Do not expect of hi m, at hi s age, i mi t at i ve
and t heat r i cal musi c. I t woul d be bet t er if he di d not even
si ng wor ds. If he wi shed t o si ng t hem, I shoul d t r y t o
i nvent songs especi ally for hi m, such as would i nt er est hi m,
as si mple as hi s own i deas.
Th e S e n s e of Ta s t e .
O F our different sensat i ons, t hose of t ast e gener al l y affect
us most . We ar e mor e i nt er est ed in j udgi ng correct ly of
s ubs t ances t hat ar e t o f or m par t of our own bodi es t han of
t hose whi ch mer el y s ur r ound us . We ar e i ndi fferent t o a
t hous and t hi ngs, as obj ect s of t ouch, of hear i ng, or of s i ght ;
but t her e is al most not hi ng t o whi ch our sense of t ast e is
i ndi fferent . Besi des, t he act i on of t hi s sense is ent i rely
physi cal and mat er i al . I magi nat i on and i mi t at i on oft en gi ve
a t i nge of mor al char act er t o t he i mpr essi ons of all t he ot her
senses ; but t o t hi s i t appeal s l east of all, if at all. Gener -
ally, al so, per sons of passi onat e and really sensi t i ve t emper -
ament , easi ly moved by t he ot her senses, ar e r at her indiffer-
ent i n r egar d t o t hi s. Thi s ver y fact , whi ch seems i n some
meas ur e t o degr ade t he sense of t as t e, and t o make excess
in i t s i ndul gence mor e cont empt i bl e, l eads me, however , t o
concl ude t hat t he sur est way t o influence chi ldren is by
means of t hei r appet i t e. Gl ut t ony, as a mot i ve, is f ar bet t er
t han va ni t y; for gl ut t ony is a nat ur al appet i t e dependi ng
di rect ly on t he senses, and vani t y is t he r esul t of opi ni on,
is subj ect t o huma n capr i ce and t o abuse of all ki nds .
Gl ut t ony is t he passi on of chi l dhood, and cannot hold
i t s own agai ns t any ot he r ; i t di s appear s on t he sl i ght est
occasi on.
Beli eve me, t he child will only t oo soon l eave off t hi nki ng
of hi s a ppe t i t e ; for when hi s hear t is occupi ed, hi s pal at e
will gi ve hi m li t t le concer n. Whe n he is a ma n, a t hous and
i mpulsi ve feeli ngs will di ver t hi s mi nd from gl ut t ony t o
va ni t y; for t hi s l ast passi on al one t akes advant age of all
ot her s, and ends by absor bi ng t hem all. I have somet i mes
wat ched closely t hose who ar e especi ally f ond of da i nt i e s ;
who, as soon as t hey awoke, wer e t hi nki ng of what t hey
shoul d eat dur i ng t he day, and could descr i be a di nner wi t h
mor e mi nut eness t han Pol ybi us uses i n descr i bi ng a b a t t l e ;
and I have al ways f ound t hat t hese supposed men wer e
not hi ng but chi l dr en fort y year s old, wi t hout any force or
st eadi ness of char act er . Gl ut t ony is t he vi ce of men who
have no s t ami na. The soul of a gour ma nd has i t s s eat i n
hi s pal at e a l one ; f or med only for eat i ng, st upi d, i ncapabl e,
he is in hi s t r ue place only at t he t a b l e ; hi s j udgme nt i s
wor t hl ess except in t he mat t er of di shes. As he val ues
t hese far mor e hi ghl y t han ot her s i n whi ch we ar e i nt er est ed,
as well as he, let us wi t hout r egr et l eave t hi s busi ness of t he
pal at e t o hi m.
I t is weak pr ecaut i on t o fear t hat gl ut t ony may t ake r oot
in a child capabl e of anyt hi ng .else. As chi l dr en, we t hi nk
only of eat i ng ; but i n yout h, we t hi nk of i t no mor e. Eve r y-
t hi ng t as t es good t o us , and we have ma ny ot her t hi ngs t o
occupy us.
Ye t I woul d not use so low a mot i ve i njudi ci ously, or
r ewar d a good act i on wi t h a s ugar - pl um. Si nce chi l dhood i s
or shoul d be al t oget her made up of pl ay and froli c, I see
no r eas on why exer ci se pur el y physi cal shoul d not have a
mat er i al and t angi bl e r ewar d. If a young Maj or can, seei ng
a bas ket in t he t op of a t r ee, br i ngs i t down wi t h a st one
from hi s sli ng, why shoul d he not have t he r ecompens e of a
good br eakf ast , t o r epai r t he s t r engt h used i n ear ni ng it ?
A young Spar t an, br avi ng t he r i sk of a hundr ed l ashes,
st ole i nt o
A
a ki t chen, and car r i ed off a live f ox-cub, whi ch
conceal ed under hi s coat , scr at ched and bi t hi m till t he bl ood
came. To avoi d t he di sgr ace of det ect i on, t he child allowed
t he cr eat ur e t o gnaw hi s ent r ai l s, and di d not lift an eyel ash
or ut t er a cr y.
1
Wa s i t not j us t t hat , as a r ewar d, he was
allowed t o devour t he beas t t hat had done i t s bes t t o devour
hi m ?
A good meal ought never t o be gi ven as a r e wa r d ; but
why shoul d i t not somet i mes be t he r esul t of t he pai ns t aken
t o secur e i t ? Emi l e will not consi der t he cake I put upon a
st one as a r ewar d for r unni ng wel l ; he only knows t hat he
cannot have t he cake unless he r eaches i t before some ot her
per son does.
Thi s does not cont r adi ct t he pri nci pl e before lai d down as
t o si mpli ci t y in di et . For t o pl ease a chi ld' s appet i t e we
need not ar ouse i t , but mer el y sat i sfy i t ; and t hi s may be
done wi t h t he mos t or di nar y t hi ngs i n the wor l d, if we do
not t ake pai ns t o refine hi s t as t e. Hi s cont i nual appet i t e,
ar i si ng from hi s r api d gr owt h, is an unf ai l i ng sauce, whi ch
suppl i es t he place of many ot her s . Wi t h a li t t le frui t , or
some of t he dai nt i es made from mi lk, or a bi t of pas t r y r at her
mor e of a r ar i t y t han t he ever y-day br ead, and, mor e t han all,
wi t h some t act i n best owi ng, you may l ead an ar my of chi l dren
t o t he wor l d' s end wi t hout gi vi ng t hem any t as t e for hi ghly
spi ced food, or r unni ng any r i sk of cloyi ng t hei r pal at e.
1
Recorded as illustrating Spartan education.
Besi des, what ever ki nd of di et you gi ve chi l dr en, pr ovi ded
t hey' ar e used only t o si mple and common art i cles of food,
let t hem eat , r un, and pl ay as much as t hey pl ease, and you
may r est assur ed t hey will never eat t oo much, or be t r ou-
bl ed wi t h i ndi gest i on. But if you s t ar ve t hem half t he t i me,
and t hey can find a way t o escape your vi gi lance, t hey will
i njure t hemsel ves wi t h all t hei r mi ght , and eat unt i l t hey ar e
ent i rely surfei t ed.
Unl es s we di ct at e t o our appet i t e- ot her r ul es t han t hose of
nat ur e, i t will never be i nor di nat e. Al ways r egul at i ng, pr e-
scr i bi ng, addi ng, r et r enchi ng, we do ever yt hi ng wi t h scal es
i n hand. But t he scales meas ur e our own whi ms, and not
our di gest i ve or gans .
To r et ur n t o my i l l ust r at i ons ; among count r y folk t he
l ar der and t he or char d ar e al ways open, a nd nobody, young
or old, knows what i ndi gest i on means .
Re s ul t . Th e Pu p i l a t t he Ag e of Te n or Twe l v e .
SUPPOSING t ha t my met hod is i ndeed t hat of nat ur e itself,
and t hat I have made no mi s t akes in appl yi ng i t , I have now
conduct ed my pupi l t hr ough t he r egi on of sensat i ons t o t he
boundar i es of chi ldi sh r eas on. The first st ep beyond shoul d
be t hat of a ma n. But before begi nni ng t hi s new car eer , let
us for a moment cast our eyes over what we have j us t t r av-
ersed. Eve r y age and st at i on i n life has a per f ect i on, a
mat ur i t y, all i t s own. We oft en hear of a full-grown ma n ;
in cont empl at i ng a full-grown child we shall find mor e nov-
elt y, and per haps no less pl easur e.
The exi st ence of finite bei ngs i s so ba r r e n a nd so li mi t ed
t hat when we se only- what i s, i t never st i rs us t o emot i on.
Real obj ect s ar e ador ned by t he cr eat i ons of f ancy, and
wi t hout t hi s char m yi el d us but a ba r r e n sat i sf act i on, e x-
t endi ng no f ar t her t han t o t he or gan t hat per cei ves t hem,
and t he hear t is left cold. The ear t h, clad in t he glori es of
aut umn, di spl ays a weal t h whi ch t he wonder i ng eye enj oys,
but whi ch ar ouses no feeli ng wi t hi n us ; i t spr i ngs less from
sent i ment t han from reflection. I n spr i ng t he l ands cape is
still al most bar e ; t he f or est s yi eld no shade ; t he ver dur e is
only begi nni ng t o b u d ; and yet t he hear t is deepl y moved
at t he si ght . We feel wi t hi n us a new life, when we see
nat ur e t hus r e vi ve ; deli ght ful i mages s ur r ound u s ; t he
compani ons of pl easur e, gent l e t ear s , ever r eady t o ' spr i ng at
t he t ouch of t ender feeli ngs, br i m our eyes. But upon t he
pa nor a ma of t he vi nt age season, ani mat ed and pl eas ant
t hough i t be, we have no t ear s t o best ow. Wh y is t her e t hi s
difference ? I t is because i magi nat i on j oi ns t o t he s i ght of
spr i ng-t i me t hat of followi ng seasons. To t he t ender buds
t he eye adds t he flowers, t he frui t , t he s hade, somet i mes
also t he myst er i es t ha t may lie hi d in t hem. I nt o a si ngle
poi nt of t i me our f ancy gat her s all t he year ' s seasons yet t o
be, and sees t hi ngs less as t hey really will be t han as it
woul d choose t o have t hem. I n aut umn, on t he cont r ar y,
t her e is not hi ng but bar e r eal i t y. If we t hi nk of spr i ng
t hen, t he t hought of wi nt er checks us , and beneat h snow
a nd hoar -f r ost t he chilled i magi nat i on di es.
The char m we feel i n l ooki ng upon a lovely chi ldhood
r at her t ha n upon t he per f ect i on of mat ur e age, ar i ses from
t he s ame sour ce. If t he si ght of a ma n i n hi s pr i me gi ves
us li ke pl eas ur e, i t is when t he memor y of what he has done
l eads us t o r evi ew hi s pas t life and br i ng up hi s younger
da}
7
s. I f we t hi nk of hi m as he i s, or as he will be i n old
age, t he i dea of decl i ni ng nat ur e des t r oys all our pl easur e.
The r e can be none i n seei ng a ma n r api dl y dr awi ng near
t he gr ave ; t he i ni age of deat h is a bl i ght upon ever yt hi ng.
But when I i magi ne a child of t en or t wel ve, sound,
BESULT. 115
vi gor ous, well devel oped for hi s age, i t gi ves rne pl eas ur e,
whet her on account of t he pr es ent or oft t he f ut ur e. I see
hi m i mpet uous , spr i ght l y, ani mat ed, free- from anxi et y or
cor r odi ng car e, l i vi ng wholly i n hi s own pr es ent , and enj oyi ng
a life full t o overflowi ng. I foresee what he will be i n l at er
year s , usi ng t he senses, t he i nt ellect , t he bodi l y vi gor , ever y
day unf ol di ng wi t hi n hi m. Wh e n I t hi nk of hi m as a chi ld,
he del i ght s me ; when I t hi nk of hi m as a ma n, he del i ght s
me still mor e. Hi s gl owi ng pul ses seem t o war m my own ;
I feel hi s life wi t hi n myself, and hi s spr i ght l i ness r enews my
yout h. Hi s f or m, hi s bear i ng, hi s count enance, mani f est
self-confidence and happi nes s . Heal t h glows in hi s face ;
hi s firm st ep is a si gn of bodi l y vi gor . Hi s compl exi on,
still del i cat e, but not i nsi pi d, has i n i t no effeminate sof t ness,
for ai r and sun have al r eady gi ven hi m t he honor abl e s t amp
of hi s s ex. Hi s still r ounded muscl es ar e begi nni ng t o show
si gns of gr owi ng expr es s i venes s . Hi s eyes, not yet l i ght ed
wi t h t he fire of feeli ng, have all t hei r nat ur al ser eni t y.
Ye a r s of sor r ow have never ma de t hem di m, nor have hi s
cheeks been f ur r owed by unceasi ng t ear s . Hi s qui ck but
deci ded movement s show t he spr i ght l i ness of hi s age, and
hi s s t ur dy i ndependence ; t hey be a r t est i mony t o t he abund-
ant physi cal exer ci se he has enj oyed. Hi s bear i ng is f r ank
and open, but not i nsol ent or vai n. Hi s f ace, never gl ued t o
hi s books , is never downc a s t ; you need not t ell hi m t o r ai se
his head, for nei t her f ear nor shame has ever
1
made i t dr oop.
Ma ke r oom for hi m among you, and exami ne hi m, gent l e-
men. Quest i on hi m wi t h all confi dence, wi t hout fear of hi s
t r oubl i ng you wi t h idle chat t er or i mper t i nent quer i es. Do
not be afrai d of hi s t aki ng up all your t i me, or maki ng i t
i mpossi ble for you t o ge t r i d of hi m. You need not expect
bri lli ant speeches t ha t I have t a ught hi m, but only t he f r ank
and si mple t r ut h wi t hout pr epar at i on, or na me nt , or vani t y.
When he tells you what he has been t hi nki ng or doi ng, he
will speak of t he evil as freely as of t he good, not i n t he
l east embar r as s ed by i t s effect upon t hose who hear hi m.
He will use wor ds i n all t he si mpli ci t y of t hei r ori gi nal
meani ng.
We like t o pr ophes y good of chi l dr en, and ar e al ways
sor r y when a s t r eam of nons ens e comes t o di s appoi nt hopes
ar oused by some chance r epar t ee. My pupi l sel dom awakens
such hopes , and will never cause such r egr et s : for he never
ut t er s an unneces s ar y wor d, or wast es br eat h in babbl e t o
whi ch he knows nobody will l i st en. I f hi s i deas have a
li mi t ed r ange, t hey ar e never t hel ess clear. If he knows
not hi ng by hear t , he knows a gr eat deal from exper i ence.
If he does not r ead or di nar y books so well as ot her chi l dr en,
he r eads t he book of nat ur e far bet t er . Hi s mi nd is in hi s
br ahi , and not at hi s t ongue' s end. He has less memor y
t han j udgment . He can speak only one l anguage, but he
under s t ands what he says : and if he does not say i t as well
as anot her , he can do t hi ngs far bet t er t han t hey can.
He does not know t he meani ng of cust om or r out i ne.
Wh a t he di d yes t er day does not i n any wi se affect hi s
act i ons of t o-day. He never follows a ri gi d f or mul a, or
gi ves way i n t he l east t o aut hor i t y or t o exampl e. Eve r y-
t hi ng he does and says is aft er t he nat ur al f ashi on of hi s
age. Expe c t of hi m, t her ef or e, no f or mal speeches or
st udi ed ma nne r s , but al ways t he fai t hful expr essi on of hi s
own i deas, and a conduct ar i si ng from hi s own i ncl i nat i ons.
You will find he has a few mor al i deas i n r el at i on t o hi s
own concer ns , but i n r egar d t o men i n gener al , none at all.
Of what use woul d t hese l ast be t o hi m, si nce a child is not
yet an act i ve me mbe r of soci et y ? Speak t o hi m of l i ber t y,
of pr oper t y, even of t hi ngs done by common consent , and he
may under s t and you. He knows why hi s own t hi ngs bel ong
t o hi m and t hose of anot her per son do not , and beyond t hi s
he knows not hi ng. Speak t o hi m of dut y and obedi ence,
and he will not know what you me a n. Comma nd hi m t o do
a t hi ng, and he will not under s t and you. But tell hi m t hat
if he will do you such and such a f avor , you will do t he s ame
for hi m whenever you can, and he will r eadi l y obli ge you ;
for he li kes not hi ng bet t er t ha n t o i ncr ease hi s power , and t o
l a \ you under obl i gat i ons he knows t o be i nvi ol abl e. Pe r -
haps , t oo, he enj oys bei ng r ecogni zed as somebody and
account ed wor t h s omet hi ng. But if t hi s l ast be hi s mot i ve,
he has al r eady left t he pat h of nat ur e, and you have not
effectually closed t he appr oaches t o vani t y.
If he needs hel p, he will ask it of t he ver y first per s on he
meet s , be he monar ch or ma n - s e r va n t ; t o hi m one ma n is as
good as anot her .
B3
7
his manner of as ki ng, you can see t hat he feels you do
not owe hi m anyt hi ng ; he knows t hat what he as ks is r eal l y
a f avor t o hi m, whi ch humani t y will i nduce you t o gr ant .
Hi s expr essi ons ar e si mple and l aconi c. Hi s voi ce, hi s l ook,
hi s ges t ur e, ar e t hose of one equally accust omed t o consent
or t o r ef usal . The y show nei t her t he cr i ngi ng submi ssi on of
a sl ave, nor t he i mper i ous t one of a mas t er ; but modes t con-
fidence in his f el l ow-cr eat ur es, and t he nobl e a nd t ouchi ng
gent l eness of one who is free, but sensi t i ve and feeble, ask-
i ng ai d of anot her , also free, but power f ul and ki nd. I f you
do what he as ks , he does not t hank you, but feels t hat he
has lai d himself under obl i gat i on. If you r ef use, he will not
complai n or i ns i s t ; he knows i t woul d be of no use. He will
not say, " I was r ef us ed, " but " I t was i mpos s i bl e. " An d ,
as has be e n, a l r e a dy sai d, we do not oft en r ebel agai ns t an
acknowl edged necessi t y.
Leave hi m at l i ber t y and by himself, and wi t hout sayi ng a
wor d, wat ch what he does , and how he does i t . Knowi ng
perfect l y well t hat he i s' f r ee, he will clo not hi ng from mer e
t hought l es s nes s , or j us t t o show t hat he can clo i t ; for is he
not awar e t hat he is al ways hi s own ma s t e r ? He is al ert ,
ni mbl e, and act i ve ; hi s movement s have all t he agi li t y of hi s
year s ; but you will not see one t hat has not some definite
ai m. No ma t t e r what he ma y wi sh t o do, he will never un-
der t ake what he cannot do, for he has t est ed hi s own s t r engt h,
and knows exact l y what i t i s. The means he uses ar e al ways
adapt ed t o t he end sought , and he r ar el y does anyt hi ng wi t h-
out bei ng assur ed he will succeed in i t . Hi s eye will be
at t ent i ve and cri t i cal, and he will not ask fooli sh quest i ons
a bout ever yt hi ng he sees. Before maki ng any i nqui ri es he
will t i re hi mself t r yi ng t o find a t hi ng out for himself. I f he
meet s wi t h unexpect ed difficulties, he will be less di st ur bed
by t hem t ha n anot her chi ld, and less f r i ght ened if t her e is
danger . As not hi ng has been done t o ar ouse hi s still dor -
ma n t i magi nat i on, he sees t hi ngs only as t hey ar e, est i mat es
danger accur at el y, and is al ways sel f-possessed. He has so
often had t o gi ve way t o necessi t y t hat he no l onger r ebel s
agai ns t i t . Ha vi ng bor ne i t s yoke ever si nce he was bor n,
he is accust omed t o i t , and is r eady for what ever ma y come.
Wo r k and pl ay ar e ali ke t o h i m; hi s pl ays ar e hi s occupa-
t i ons, and he sees no difference bet ween t he t wo. He t hr ows
hi mself i nt o ever yt hi ng wi t h char mi ng ear nes t nes s and free-
dom, whi ch shows t he bent of hi s mi nd and t he r ange of hi s
knowl edge. Wh o does not enjoy seei ng a pr et t y child of
t hi s age, wi t h his br i ght expr essi on of ser ene cont ent , and
l aughi ng, open count enance, pl ayi ng at t he mos t seri ous
t hi ngs , or deepl y occupi ed wi t h t he mos t fri volous amus e-
ment s ? He has r eached t he mat ur i t y of chi ldhood, has li ved
a chi ld' s life; not gai ni ng per f ect i on at t he cost of hi s happi -
nes s , but devel opi ng t he one by means of t he ot her .
Whi l e acqui r i ng all t he r eas oni ng power possi ble t o hi s
age, he has been as happy and as free as hi s nat ur e al l owed.
I f t he f at al scyt he is t o cut down in hi m t he flower of our
hopes, we shall not be obli ged t o l ament at t he same t i me hi s
life and hi s deat h. Our gri ef will not be embi t t er ed by t he
recollect i on of t he sor r ows we have made hi m feel. We
shall be abl e t o say,
u
At l east , he enj oyed hi s chi l dhood ; we
r obbed hi m of not hi ng t ha t nat ur e gave hi m. "
I n r egar d t o t hi s early educat i on, t he chief difficulty i s,
t hat only far-seei ng men can under s t and i t , and t hat a child
so carefully educat ed seems t o an or di nar y obser ver only a
young scapegr ace.
A t ut or usual l y consi der s hi s own i nt er est s r at her t han
t hose of hi s pupi l . He devot es hi mself t o pr ovi ng t ha t he
loses no t i me and ear ns hi s sal ar y. He t eaches t he child
such accompl i shment s as can be r eadi l y exhi bi t ed when r e-
qui r ed, wi t hout r egar d t o t hei r usefulness or wor t hl essness,
so l ong as t hey ar e showy. Wi t hout sel ect i ng or di scer ni ng,
he char ges t he chi ld' s memor y wi t h a vas t amount of r ubbi s h.
Wh e n t he child is t o be exami ned, t he t ut or makes hi m di s-
pl ay hi s war es ; and, aft er t hus gi vi ng sat i sf act i on, folds up
hi s pack agai n, and goes hi s way.
My pupi l is not so r i ch ; he has no pack at all t o di spl ay ;
he has not hi ng but himself. Now a chi ld, like a ma n, can-
not be' seen all at once. Wh a t obser ver can at t he first
gl ance sei ze upon t he chi ld' s peculi ar t r ai t s ? Such obser ver s
t her e ar e, but t hey ar e unc ommon; and among a hundr ed
t hous and f at her s you will not find one such.
BOOK THIRD.
THE t hi rd book has t o do wi t h the yout h as he i s bet ween the
ages of t wel ve and fifteen. At t hi s t i me hi s s t rengt h i s proporti on-
atel y great est , and t hi s i s the mos t i mport ant peri od i n hi s l i f e. It
i s t he t i me f or l abor and s t udy; not i ndeed f or studi es, of all ki nds,
but for t hose whos e neces s i t y t he st udent hi msel f f eel s. The pri n-
ci pl e that ought t o gui de hi m now i s t hat of uti l i ty. Al l t he mast er' s
t al ent cons i s t s i n l eadi ng hi m t o di scover what i s real l y usef ul t o
hi m. Language and hi st ory offer hi m l i ttl e t hat i s i nt erest i ng. He
appl i es hi msel f t o st udyi ng natural phenomena, because t hey arouse
hi s curi osi t y and afford hi m means of overcomi ng hi s difficulties.
He makes hi s o wn i nst rument s, and i nvent s what apparatus he
needs.
He does not depend upon anot her t o di rect hi m, but f ol l ows
where hi s own good s ens e poi nt s t he way. Robi ns on Crusoe on
hi s i sl and i s hi s i deal , aud t hi s book f urni shes the readi ng best
sui ted t o hi s age. He shoul d have some manual occupat i on, as
much on account of the uncert ai n future as f or the sake of sati sfy-
i ng hi s own cons t ant act i vi t y.
Si de by si de wi t h the body the mi nd i s devel oped by a t ast e f or
reflection, and i s finally prepared f or st udi es of a hi gher order.
Wi t h t hi s peri od chi l dhood ends and yout h begi ns.
Th e A g e of S t u d y .
A
L T HOUGH up t o t he begi nni ng of yout h life i s, on t he
whol e, a per i od of weaknes s , t her e is a t i me dur i ng t hi s
earli er age when our s t r engt h i ncr eases beyond what our wa nt s
requi re, and t he gr owi ng ani mal , still absol ut el y weak, becomes
relat i vely s t r ong. Hi s want s bei ng as yet par t l y undevel oped,
hi s pr es ent s t r engt h i s mor e t han sufficient t o pr ovi de for t hose
of t he pr es ent . As a man, he woul d be ver y we a k; as a
chi ld, he is yery s t r ong.
Whe nc e ar i ses t hi s weaknes s of our s but from t he i nequal -
i t y bet ween our desi r es and t he s t r engt h we have for fulfill-
i ng t he m? Our passi ons weaken us , because t he grat i fi cat i on
of t hem r equi r es mor e t han our nat ur al s t r engt h.
If we have fewer desi r es, we ar e so much t he st r onger .
Whoe ve r can do mor e t han hi s wi shes demand has s t r engt h
t o s pa r e ; he is s t r ong i ndeed. Of t hi s, t he t hi r d st age of
chi ldhood, I have now t o s peak. I still call it chi ldhood for
wa nt of a bet t er t er m t o expr es s t he i de a ; for t hi s age, not
3~et t hat of puber t }
T
, appr oaches yout h.
At t he age of t wel ve or t hi r t een t he chi ld' s physi cal s t r engt h
devel ops much f ast er t han hi s want s . He br aves wi t hout
i nconveni ence t he i ncl emency of cli mat e and s eas ons , scarcely
feeli ng i t at , al l . Na t ur a l heat ser ves hi m i nst ead of clot hi ng,
appet i t e i nst ead of sauce. Wh e n he is dr owsy, he lies down
on t he gr ound and falls asl eep. Thus he finds ar ound hi m
ever yt hi ng he needs ; not gover ned by capr i ces, hi s desi r es
ext end no f ar t her t han hi s own ar ms can r each. Not only is
he sufficient for himself, but , at t hi s one t i me in all hi s life,
he has mor e s t r engt h t han he realt y r equi r es.
Wh a t t hen shall he do wi t h t hi s s uper abundance of ment al
and physi cal s t r engt h, whi ch he will her eaf t er need, but
endeavor t o empl oy i t i n ways whi ch will at some t i me be of
use t o hi m, and t hus t hr ow t hi s sur pl us vi t al i t y f or war d i nt o
t he f ut ur e ? The r obus t child shall ma ke pr ovi si on for hi s
weaker manhood. But he will not gar ner i t in ba r ns , or lay
i t up i n coffers t hat can be pl under ed. To be r eal owner of
t hi s t r eas ur e, he mus t st or e i t up i n hi s ar ms , in hi s br ai n, in
hi mself. The pr es ent , t hen, is t he t i me to l abor , t o recei ve
i nst r uct i on, and t o st udy ; nat ur e so or dai ns , not I .
Huma n i nt elli gence has i t s l i mi t s. We can nei t her know
ever yt hi ng, nor be t hor oughl y acquai nt ed wi t h t he li t t le t hat
ot her men know. Si nce t he r ever se of ever y false pr oposi -
t i on is a t r ut h, t he number of t r ut hs , li ke t he number of
er r or s, is i nexhaust i bl e. We have t o select what is t o be
t aught as well as t he t i me for l ear ni ng i t . Of t he ki nds of
knowl edge wi t hi n our power some ar e f al se, some usel ess,
some ser ve only t o f ost er pr i de. Onl y t he few t hat r eal l y
conduce t o our well-bei ng ar e wor t hy of st udy by a wi se ma n,
or by a yout h i nt ended t o be a wi se ma n. The quest i on i s,
not what may be known, but wha t will be of t he mos t use
when i t is known. Fr o m t hese few we mus t agai n deduct
such as r equi r e a r i peness of under s t andi ng and a knowl edge
of huma n r el at i ons whi ch a child cannot possi bl y a c qui r e ;
such as , t hough t r ue in t hemsel ves, i ncli ne an i nexper i enced
mi nd t o j udge wr ongl y of ot her t hi ngs .
Thi s r educes us t o a circle small i ndeed in r el at i on t o
exi st i ng t hi ngs , but i mmense when we consi der t he capaci t y
of t he chi ld' s mi nd. Ho w dar i ng was t he ha nd t hat first ven-
t ur ed t o lift t he vei l of dar knes s from our huma n under s t and-
i ng ! Wh a t abysses, due t o our unwi se l ear ni ng, ya wn ar ound
t he unf or t unat e y o ut h ! Tr embl e, you who ar e t o conduct
hi m by t hese per i l ous ways , and t o lift for hi m t he sacr ed
veil of nat ur e. Be sur e of your own br ai n and of hi s, l est
ei t her, or per haps bot h, gr ow di zzy at t he si ght . Bewar e of
t he gl amour of f al sehood and of t he i nt oxi cat i ng fumes of
pr i de. Al ways bear i n mi nd t hat i gnor ance has never been
har mf ul , t ha t er r or al one is f at al , and t hat our er r or s ar i se,
not from what we do not know, but from what we t hi nk we
do know.
1
1
This might be carried too far, and is to be admitted with some reser-
vations, ignorance is never alone ; its companions are always error and
presumption. No one is so certain that he knows, as he who knows
nothing ;' and prejudice of all kinds is the form in which our ignorance
is clothed. '.
The I n c e n t i v e of Cur i o s i t y .
s ame i nst i nct ani mat es all t he different facult i es of
ma n. To t he act i vi t y of t he body, st r i vi ng t o devel op itself,
succeeds t he act i vi t y of t he mi nd, endeavor i ng t o i nst r uct
itself. Chi l dr en ar e at first only r est l ess ; af t er war ds t hey
ar e i nqui si t i ve. Thei r cur i osi t y, r i ght l y t r ai ned, is t he i n-
cent i ve of t he age we ar e now consi der i ng. We mus t al ways
di st i ngui sh nat ur al i ncl i nat i ons from t hose t hat have their
source i n opi ni on.
Ther e is a t hi r st for knowl edge whi ch is f ounded only
upon a desi re to be t hought l ear ned, and anot her , spr i ngi ng
from our nat ur al curi osi t y concer ni ng anyt hi ng whi ch near l y
or r emot el y i nt er est s us . Our desi re for happi nes s is i nbor n ;
and as i t can never be fully satisfied, we ar e al ways seeki ng
ways t o i ncr ease what we have. Thi s first pri nci ple of
curi osi t y is nat ur al t o t he hear t of ma n, but is devel oped
only i n pr opor t i on t o our passi ons and t o our advance in
knowl edge. Call your pupi l ' s at t ent i on t o t he phenomena of
:v$ature, and you will soon r ender hi m i nqui si t i ve. But if
you woul d keep t hi s curi osi t y ali ve, do n o f b e i n has t e t o
sat i sf y i t . As k hi m quest i ons t hat he can compr ehend, and
l et hi m solve t hem. Le t hi m know a t hi ng because he has
f ound i t out for himself, and not because you have t old hi m
of i t . Le t hi m not l ear n sci ence, but di scover i t for himself.
I f once you subst i t ut e aut hor i t y for r eas on, he will not
r eas on any mor e ; he will only be t he s por t of ot her peopl e' s
opi ni ons.
Wh e n you ar e r eady t o t each t hi s child geogr aphy, you
ge t t oget her your gl obes a nd your ma ps ; a nd what machi nes
t hey ar e ! Wh y , i ns t ead of usi ng all t hese r epr es ent at i ons ,
do you not begi n b y showi ng hi m t he obj ect itself, so as t o
l et hi m know what you you ar e t al ki ng of ?
On some beaut i f ul eveni ng t ake t he chi ld t o wal k wi t h you,
i n a place sui t abl e for your pur pos e, wher e i n t he unob-
st r uct ed hor i zon t he set t i ng s un can be pl ai nl y seen. Ta ke
a careful obs er vat i on of all t he obj ect s mar ki ng t he spot a t
whi ch i t goes down. Wh e n you go for an ai r i ng ne xt day,
r et ur n t o t hi s same place bef or e t he s un r i ses. You can see
i t announce itself by ar r ows of fire. The br i ght ness i n-
cr eases ; t he eas t seems all af l ame; from i t s glow you
ant i ci pat e l ong bef or ehand t he comi ng of day. Eve r y
moment you i magi ne you see i t . At l ast i t really does
appear , a br i l l i ant poi nt whi ch r i ses li ke a flash of l i ght ni ng,
and i nst ant l y fills all space. The vei l of shadows is cast
down and di s appear s . We know our dwelli ng-place once
mor e, and find i t mor e beaut i f ul t ha n ever. The ver dur e
has t aken on fresh vi gor dur i ng t he n i g h t ; i t is r eveal ed
wi t h i t s bri l l i ant net -wor k of dew-dr ops , reflect i ng l i ght and
color t o t he eye, in t he first gol den r ays of t he new-bor n
day. The full choi r of bi r ds , none si lent , sal ut e i n concer t
t he Fa t he r of li fe. Thei r war bl i ng, still f ai nt wi t h t he
l anguor of a peaceful awakeni ng, is now mor e l i nger i ng and
sweet t han at ot her hour s of t he day. Al l t hi s fills t he
senses wi t h a char m and f r eshness whi ch seems t o t ouch our
i nmost soul. No one can r esi st t hi s enchant i ng hour , or
behol d wi t h indifference a spect acl e so gr and, so beaut i f ul ,
so full of all del i ght .
Car r i ed away by such a si ght , t he t eacher is eager t o
i mpar t t o t he chi ld hi s own ent hus i as m, and t hi nks t o ar ouse
i t by calli ng at t ent i on t o what he hi mself feels. Wh a t folly !
The dr ama of nat ur e li ves only i n t he h e a r t ; t o see i t , one
mus t feel i t . Th e child sees t he obj ect s, but not t he r el a-
t i ons t hat bi nd t hem t oget her ; he can ma ke not hi ng of t hei r
har mony. The compl ex and moment ar y i mpr essi on of all
t hese sensat i ons r equi r es an exper i ence he ha s never gai ned,
and feeli ngs he has never known. I f he has never cr ossed
t he deser t and felt i t s bur ni ng s ands scor ch hi s feet , t he
stifling reflection of t he s un from i t s r ocks oppr es s hi m, how
can he fully enjoy- t he coolness of a beaut i f ul mor ni ng ?
How can t he per f ume of flowers, t he cooli ng vapor of t he
dew, t he si nki ng of hi s f oot st ep i n t he soft and pl eas ant turf,
enchant hi s senses ? How can t he si ngi ng of bi r ds del i ght
hi m, while t he accent s of love a nd pl easur e ar e yet unknown ?
How can he see wi t h t r ans por t t he ri se of so beaut i f ul a day,
unl ess i magi nat i on can pai nt all t he t r ans por t s wi t h whi ch i t
ma y be filled? An d l ast l y, how can he be moved by t he
beaut i f ul pa nor a ma of nat ur e, if he does not know by whose
t ender car e i t has been ador ned ?
Do not t al k t o t he chi ld about t hi ngs he cannot under -
s t and. Le t hi m hear from you no descr i pt i ons, no elo-
quence, no figurative l anguage, no poet r y. Sent i ment and
t as t e ar e j us t now out of t he quest i on. Cont i nue t o be
clear, unaffect ed, and di s pas s i onat e; t he t i me for usi ng
anot her l anguage will come only t oo soon.
Educat ed in t he spi ri t of our pr i nci pl es, accust omed t o
look for r esour ces wi t hi n himself, a nd t o have r ecour se t o
ot her s only when he finds hi mself r eal l y hel pl ess, he will
exami ne ever y new obj ect for a l ong t i me wi t hout sayi ng a
wor d. He is t hought f ul , and not di sposed t o ask quest i ons.
Be satisfied, t her ef or e, wi t h pr es ent i ng obj ect s at appr opr i at e
t i mes a nd i n appr opr i at e ways . Wh e n you see hi s curi osi t y
fai rly at wor k, ask hi m some l aconi c quest i on whi ch will
s ugges t i t s own answer .
On t hi s occasi on, havi ng wat ched t he sunr i se from begi n-
ni ng t o end wi t h hi m, havi ng made hi m not i ce t he mount ai ns
and ot her nei ghbor i ng obj ect s on t he s ame si de, and allowed
hi m t o t al k about t hem j us t as he pl eases, be si lent for a few
mi nut es , as if i n deep t hought , and t hen say t o hi m, " I
t hi nk t he sun set over t her e, and now i t has r i sen over her e.
How can t hat be s o ? " Say no mor e ; if he asks quest i ons,
do not answer t h e m: speak of somet hi ng else. Leave hi m
t o himself, a nd he will be cer t ai n t o t hi nk t he mat t er over .
To gi ve t he child t he habi t of at t ent i on and t o i mpr ess hi m
deeply wi t h any t r ut h affecting t he senses, l et hi m pas s sev-
eral r est l ess days before he di scover s t hat t r ut h. I f t he one
i n quest i on does not t hus i mpr ess hi m, you ma y make hi m
see i t mor e clearly by r ever si ng t he pr obl em. I f he does not
know how t he sun pas s es from i t s set t i ng t o i t s r i si ng, he at
l east does know how i t t r avel s from i t s r i si ng t o i t s set t i ng ;
hi s eyes al one t each hi m t hi s. Expl a i n your first quest i on
by t he second. I f your pupi l be not absol ut el y st upi d, t he
anal ogy is so pl ai n t hat he cannot escape i t . Thi s is hi s
first l esson i n cos mogr aphy.
As we pas s slowly from one sensi ble i dea t o anot her ,
fami li ari ze our sel ves for a l ong t i me wi t h each bef or e con-
si der i ng t he next , and do not force our pupi l ' s a t t e nt i on;
i t will be a l ong way from t hi s poi nt t o a knowl edge of t he
sun' s cour se and of t he shape of t he ear t h. But as all t he
appar ent mot i ons of t he heavenl y bodi es ar e upon t he s ame
pri nci pl e, and t he first obser vat i on pr epar es t he way for all
t he r est , less effort, if mor e t i me, is r equi r ed t o pas s from
t he dai ly r ot at i on of t he ear t h t o t he cal cul at i on of ecli pses
t han t o unde r s t a nd clearly t he phenomena of day and ni ght .
Si nce t he sun ( appar ent l y) r evol ves about t he ear t h, i t
descri bes a ci rcle, and we al r eady know t hat ever y circle
mus t have a cent r e. Thi s cent r e, bei ng i n t he hear t of t he
ear t h, cannot be s e e n; but we ma y ma r k upon t he sur f ace
t wo opposi t e poi nt s t hat cor r espond t o i t . A r od pas s i ng
t hr ough t hese t hr ee poi nt s , and ext endi ng f r om one si de of
t he heavens t o t he ot her , shall be t he axi s of t he ear t h, and
of t he sun' s a ppa r e nt dai ly mot i on. A spher i cal t op, t ur ni ng
on i t s poi nt , shall r epr es ent t he heavens r evol vi ng on t hei r
axi s ; t he t wo ext r emi t i es of t he t op ar e t he t wo pol es. The
child will be i nt er est ed in knowi ng one of t hem, whi ch I will
show hi m near t he t ai l of Ur s a Mi nor .
Thi s will ser ve t o amuse us for one ni ght . By degr ees we
shall gr ow fami li ar wi t h t he s t ar s , and t hi s will awaken a
desi re t o know t he pl anet s and t o wat ch t he const el l at i ons.
We have seen t he s un r i se at mi ds umme r ; we will also
wat ch i t s r i si ng at Chr i s t mas or some ot her fine day i n
wi nt er . Fo r be i t known t hat we ar e not at all i dle, and
t ha t we ma ke a j oke of br avi ng t he cold. I t ake car e t o
ma ke t hi s second obser vat i on in t he s ame pl ace as t he first;
and aft er some conver sat i on t o pave t he way for i t . One or
t he ot her of us will be sur e t o excl ai m,
u
How queer t hat is !
t he sun does not ri se wher e i t used t o ri se ! He r e ar e our
old l a ndma r ks , and now i t is r i si ng over yonder . The n t her e
mus t be one east for s ummer , and anot her for wi nt er . "
Now, young t eacher , your way is pl ai n. Thes e exampl es
ought t o suffice you for t eachi ng t he spher e ver y under s t and-
i ngl y, by t aki ng t he wor l d for your gl obe, a nd t he r eal sun
i ns t ead of your artificial s un.
Th i n g s Ra t h e r t h a n t he i r S i g n s .
I N gener al , never show t he r epr es ent at i on of a t hi ng unl ess
i t be i mpossi bl e t o show t he t hi ng i t sel f ; for t he si gn ab-
sor bs t he chi ld' s at t ent i on, a nd makes hi m lose si ght of t he
t hi ng signified.
Th e ar mi l l ar y s ph e r e
1
seems t o me poor l y desi gned and i n
ba d pr opor t i on. I t s conf used circles a nd odd figures, gi vi ng
!The armillary sphere is a group of pasteboard or copper circles, to
illustrate the orbits of the planets, and their position in relation to the
earth, which is represented by a small wooden ball.
i t t he look of a conj ur er ' s a ppa r a t us , ar e enough t o f r i ght en
a chi ld. The ear t h is t oo s ma l l ; t he ci rcles ar e t oo ma ny
and t oo l ar ge. Some of t hem, t he col ur es ,
1
for i ns t ance, ar e
ent i rely usel ess. Eve r y circle is l ar ger t han t he ear t h. The
pas t eboar d gi ves t hem an appear ance of soli di t y whi ch
cr eat es t he mi s t aken i mpr essi on t hat t hey ar e ci r cul ar mas s es
whi ch really exi st . Wh e n you t ell t he child t hat t hese ar e
i magi nar y ci rcles, he under s t ands nei t her what he sees nor
what you mean.
Shall we never l ear n t o put our sel ves i n t he chi ld' s pl ace ?
We do not ent er i nt o hi s t hought s , but suppose t hem exact l y
li ke our own. Cons t ant l y followi ng our own met hod of
r easoni ng, we cr am hi s mi nd not only wi t h a concat enat i on
of t r ut hs , but also wi t h e xt r a va ga nt not i ons and er r or s .
I n t he st udy of t he sci ences i t is an open quest i on whet her
we ought t o use synt hesi s or anal ysi s. I t is not al ways nec-
essar y t o choose ei t her. I n t he same pr ocess of i nvest i gat i on
we can somet i mes bot h r esol ve and compound, and while t he
child t hi nks he is only anal yzi ng, we can di r ect hi m by t he
met hods t eacher s usual l y empl oy. By t hus usi ng bot h we
make each pr ove t he ot her . St ar t i ng at t he same moment
from t wo opposi t e poi nt s and never i magi ni ng t hat oiie r oad
connect s t hem, he will be agr eeabl y sur pr i sed t o find t hat
what he supposed t o be t wo pat hs finally meet as one.
1 woul d, for exampl e, t ake geogr aphy at t hese t wo ex-
t r emes , and add t o t he st udy of t he ear t h' s mot i ons t he
meas ur ement of i t s pa r t s , begi nni ng wi t h our own dwel l i ng-
pl ace. Whi l e t he chi ld, s t udyi ng t he s pher e, is t r ans por t ed
i nt o t he heavens , br i ng hi m back t o t he meas ur ement of t he
ear t h, and first show hi m hi s own home.
The t wo s t ar t i ng-poi nt s in hi s geogr aphy shall be t he t own
2
The imaginary circles traced on the celestial sphere, and figured in the
armillary sphere by metallic circles, are called colures.
in whi ch he l i ves, and hi s f at her ' s house i n t he count r y.
Af t er war d shall come t he pl aces l yi ng bet ween t hese t wo ;
t hen t he nei ghbor i ng r i ver s ; l ast l y, t he aspect of t he sun, and
t he manner of finding out wher e t he east is. Thi s l ast is t he
poi nt of uni on. Let hi m make hi mself a ma p of all t hese
det ai l s ; a ver y si mple ma p, i ncl udi ng at first only t wo
obj ect s, t hen by degr ees t he ot her s , as he l ear ns t hei r di s-
t ance and posi t i on. You see now what an advant age we
have gai ned bef or ehand, by maki ng hi s eyes ser ve hi m
i nst ead of a compas s .
Eve n wi t h t hi s i t ma y be necessar y t o di rect hi m a li t t le,
but ver y l i t t l e, and wi t hout appear i ng t o do so at all. Wh e n
he makes mi s t akes , let hi m make t h e m; do not cor r ect t hem.
Wa i t i n si lence unt i l he can see and cor r ect t hem hi mself.
Or , at mos t , t ake a good oppor t uni t y t o set i n mot i on some-
t hi ng which will di r ect hi s at t ent i on t o t hem. If he wer e
never t o make mi s t akes , he could not l ear n half so well.
Besi des, t he i mpor t ant t hi ng i s, not t hat he shoul d know t he
exact t opogr aphy of t he count r y, but t hat he shoul d l ear n
how t o find it out by himself. I t ma t t e r s li t t le whet her he
has ma ps in hi s mi nd or not , so t ha t he under s t ands what
t hey r epr es ent , and has a clear i dea of how t hey ar e made.
Ma r k t he difference bet ween t he l ear ni ng of your pupi l s
a nd t he i gnor ance of mi ne. The y know all about ma ps , and
he can ma ke t hem. Our maps wi ll ser ve as new decor a-
t i ons for our r oom.
I mpa r t i ng
1
a Ta s t e f or S c i e n c e .
BEAR i n mi nd al ways t hat t he life and soul of my syst em
i s, not t o t each t he chi ld ma ny t hi ngs , but t o allow only cor-
r ect and clear i deas t o ent er hi s mi nd. I clo not car e if he
knows nothi ng, so l ong as he is not mi s t aken. To guard
hi m from er r or s he mi ght l ear n, I f ur ni sh hi s mi nd wi t h
t r ut hs only. Reas on and j udgme nt ent er slowly ; pr ej udi ces
cr owd i n ; and he mus t be pr eser ved from t hese l ast . Ye t it
you consi der sci ence i n itself, you l aunch upon an unf at hom-
able and boundl ess sea, full of unavoi dabl e danger s . Wh e n
I see a ma n car r i ed away by hi s love for knowl edge, has t en-
i ng from one al l uri ng sci ence t o anot her , wi t hout knowi ng
wher e t o s t op, I t hi nk I see a chi ld gat her i ng shells upon
t he seashor e. At first he l oads hi mself wi t h t hem; t hen,
t empt ed by ot her s, he t hr ows t hese away, and gat her s mor e.
At l ast , wei ghed down by so ma ny, and no l onger knowi ng
whi ch t o choose, he ends by t hr owi ng all away, and r et ur n-
i ng empt y- handed.
I n our early year s t i me pas s ed s l owl y; we endeavor ed t o
lose i t , for fear of mi susi ng i t . The case is r ever sed ; now
we have not t i me enough for doi ng all t ha t we find useful .
Bear i n mi nd t hat t he passi ons ar e dr awi ng near er , and t ha t
as soon as t hey knock at t he door , your pupi l will have eyes
and ear s for t hem al one. The t r anqui l per i od of i nt elli -
gence is so brief, and has so ma ny ot her necessar y us es , t hat
only folly i magi nes i t l ong enough t o ma ke t he child a
l ear ned man. The t hi ng i s, not t o t each hi m knowl edge,
but t o gi ve hi m a love for it, and a good met hod of acqui r i ng
i t when t hi s love has gr own s t r onger . Cer t ai nl y t hi s is a
f undament al pr i nci pl e i n all good educat i on.
Now, also, is t he t i me t o accust om hi m gr adual l y t o con-
cent r at e at t ent i on on a si ngle obj ect . Thi s at t ent i on, how-
ever, should never r esul t from const r ai nt , but from desi re
and pl easur e. Be careful t hat it shall' not gr ow i r ks ome, or
appr oach t he poi nt of wear i ness. Leave any subj ect j us t
before he gr ows t i r ed of i t ; for t he l ear ni ng i t mat t er s less
t o hi m t han t he never bei ng obli ged t o l ear n anyt hi ng
agai nst hi s will. If he hi mself quest i ons you, answer so as
t o keep ali ve hi s cur i osi t y, not t o sat i sfy i t al t oget her .
Above all, when you find t hat he ma ke s i nqui r i es, not for t he
sake of l ear ni ng somet hi ng, but t o t al k at r a ndon a nd annoy
you wi t h silly quest i ons, pause at once, as s ur ed t hat he car es
not hi ng about t he mat t er , but only t o occupy your t i me wi t h
himself. Less r egar d shoul d be pai d t o what he says t han
t o t he mot i ve whi ch l eads hi m t o s peak. Thi s caut i on, her e-
t ofore unneces s ar y, is of t he ut mos t i mpor t ance as soon as
a child begi ns t o r eas on.
Ther e is a chai n of gener al t r ut hs by whi ch all sci ences
ar e l i nked t o common pr i nci pl es and successi vely unf ol ded.
Thi s chai n is t he met hod of phi l osopher s, wi t h whi ch, for
t he pr es ent , we have not hi ng t o do. The r e is anot her ,
al t oget her different, whi ch shows each object as t he cause of
anot her , and al ways poi nt s out t he one followi ng. Thi s
or der , whi ch, by a per pet ual cur i osi t y, keeps ali ve t he at t en-
t i on demanded by all, is t he one followed by mos t men, and
of all ot her s necessar y wi t h chi l dr en. Wh e n , in maki ng our
ma ps , we f ound out t he pl ace of t he east , we wer e obl i ged
t o dr aw mer i di ans . Th e t wo poi nt s of i nt er sect i on be-
t ween t he equal shadows of ni ght and mor ni ng f ur ni sh an
excel l ent mer i di an for an as t r onomer t hi r t een year s ol d.
But t hes e mer i di ans di s appear ; it t akes t i me t o dr aw t hem ;
t hey obli ge us t o wor k al ways in t he s ame pl a c e : so much
car e, so much annoyance, will t i r e hi m out at l as t . We
have seen and pr ovi ded for t hi s bef or ehand.
I have agai n begun upon t edi ous a nd mi nut e det ai l s.
Re a de r s , I hear your mur mur s , and di sr egar d t hem. I will
not sacrifice t o your i mpat i ence t he mos t useful pa r t of t hi s
book. Do what you pl ease wi t h my t edi ous nes s , as I have
done as I pl eased in r egar d t o your compl ai nt s .
T h e J u g g l e r .
FOR some t i me my pupi l and I had obser ved t ha t different
bodi es, such as amber , gl as s , and wa x, when r ubbed, at t r act
s t r aws , and t ha t ot her s do not at t r act t hem. By acci dent we
di scover ed one t hat has a vi r t ue mor e ext r aor di nar y st i ll,
t hat of at t r act i ng at a di st ance, and wi t hout bei ng r ubbed,
i ron filings and ot her bi t s of i ron. Thi s pecul i ar i t y amus ed
us for some t i me before we saw any use in i t . At l ast we
f ound out t hat i t ma}
T
be communi cat ed t o i r on itself, when
magnet i zed t o a cer t ai n degr ee. One da}' we went t o a fai r,
wher e a j uggl er , wi t h a pi ece of br ead, at t r act ed a duck
ma de of wa x, and floating on a bowl of wat er . Much sur-
pr i sed, we di d not however say, " He is a conj ur er , " for we
knew not hi ng about conj ur er s. Cont i nual l y st r uck by effects
whose causes we do not know, we wer e not in has t e t o
deci de t he mat t er , and r emai ned i n i gnor ance unt i l we found
a way out of it.
Wh e n we r eached home we ha d t al ked so much of t he
duck at t he fair t hat we t hought we woul d endeavor t o copy
i t . Ta ki ng a per f ect needl e, well magnet i zed, we i nclosed
i t in whi t e wa x, model l ed as well as we could do i t i nt o t he
s hape of a duck, so t hat t he needle pas s ed ent i r el y t hr ough
t he body, and wi t h i t s l ar ger end f or med t he duck' s bi ll.
We pl aced t he duck upon t he wat er , appl i ed t o t he beak
t he handl e of a key, and saw, wi t h a del i ght easy t o i magi ne,
t hat our duck woul d follow t he key pr eci sel y as t he one at
t he fai r had followed t he pi ece of br ead. We saw t ha t
some t i me or ot her we mi ght obser ve t he di r ect i on in whi ch t he
duck t ur ned when left t o i t self upon t he wat er . But absor bed
at t hat t i me by anot her obj ect , we want ed not hi ng mor e.
Tha t eveni ng, ha vi ng in our pocket s br e a d pr epar ed for
t he occasi on, we r et ur ned t o t he fair. As soon as t he mount e-
ba nk ba d per f or med hi s f eat
3
my li t t le phi l osopher , scar cel y
abl e t o cont ai n himself, t ol d hi m t hat t he t hi ng was not har d
t o do, and t hat he could do it hi mself. He was t aken at hi s
wor d. I ns t a nt l y he t ook f r om hi s pocket t he br ead in whi ch
he had hi dden t he bi t of i r on. Appr oa c hi ng t he t abl e his
hear t beat f a s t ; al most t r embl i ngl y, he pr es ent ed t he br ead.
The duck came t owar d i t and followed i t ; t he child shout ed
and danced for j oy. At t he cl appi ng of ha nds , and t he
accl amat i ons of all pr es ent , hi s head swam, and he was al most
besi de himself. The j uggl er was ast oni shed, but embr aced
and congr at ul at ed hi m, beggi ng t hat we would honor hi m
agai n by our pr es ence on t he followi ng day, addi ng t hat he
woiuld t ake car e t o have a l ar ger company pr es ent t o appl aud
our ski ll. My li t t le nat ur al i s t , filled wi t h pr i de, began t o
pr at t l e ; but I si l enced hi m, and led hi m away l oaded wi t h
pr ai s es . Th e chi ld count ed t he mi nut es unt i l t he mor r ow
wi t h i mpat i ence t hat made me smi le. He i nvi t ed ever ybody
he me t ; gl adl y woul d he have had all manki nd as wi t nesses
of hi s t r i umph. He could scar cel y wai t for t he hour agr eed
upon, and, l ong before i t came, flew t o t he pl ace appoi nt ed.
The hall was al r eady full, and on ent er i ng, his li t t le hear t
beat f ast . Ot her f eat s wer e t o come first; t he j uggl er out di d
himself, and t her e wer e some r eal l y wonder f ul per f or m-
ances . The child pai d no at t ent i on t o t hes e. Hi s exci t e-
me nt had t hr own hi m i nt o a per s pi r at i on; he was al most
br eat hl es s , and fingered t he br ead i n hi s pocket wi t h a hand
t r embl i ng wi t h i mpat i ence.
At l ast his t ur n came, and t he mas t er pompous l y announced
t he fact . Ra t he r bashf ul l y t he boy dr ew near and held f or t h
hi s br ead. Al a s for t he changes in huma n affairs ! The
duck, yes t er day so t ame, ha d gr own wi ld. I ns t e a d of pr e-
sent i ng i t s bi ll, i t t ur ned about and s wam away, avoi di ng t he
br ead and t he ha nd whi ch pr es ent ed i t , as carefully as i t had
before followed t hem. Af t er ma ny frui t less at t empt s , each
r ecei ved wi t h der i si on, t he child compl ai ned t hat a t r i ck was
pl ayed on hi m, a nd defied t he j uggl er t o at t r act t he duck.
The ma n, wi t hout a wor d, t ook a pi ece of br ead and pr e-
sent ed it t o t he duck, whi ch i nst ant l y followed i t , a nd came
t owar ds hi s hand. The chi ld t ook t he s ame bi t of b r e a d ;
but f ar from havi ng bet t er success, he saw t he duck make
s por t of hi m by whi r l i ng r ound a nd r ound as i t s wam about
t he edge of t he basi n. At l ast he r et i r ed in gr eat conf usi on,
no l onger dar i ng t o encount er t he hi sses whi ch followed.
The n t he j uggl er t ook t he bi t of br ead t he chi ld ha d
br ought , and succeeded as well wi t h i t as wi t h his own. I n
t he pr esence of t he ent i r e company he dr ew out t he needl e,
maki ng anot her j oke at our expens e ; t hen, wi t h t he br ead
t hus disarmed. , he at t r act ed t he duck as bef or e. He di d t he
s ame t hi ng wi t h a pi ece of br e a d whi ch a t hi r d per son cut off
in t he pr esence of a l l ; agai n, wi t h hi s gl ove, and wi t h t he
t i p of hi s finger. At l ast , goi ng t o t he mi ddl e of t he r oom,
he decl ar ed in t he emphat i c t one pecul i ar t o hi s sor t , t hat t he
duck woul d obey hi s voi ce qui t e as well as hi s ges t ur e. He
spoke, and t he duck obeyed h i m; commanded it t o go t o t he
r i ght , and i t went t o t he r i g h t ; t o r et ur n, and i t di d s o ; t o
t ur n, and i t t ur ned itself about . Ea c h movement was as
pr ompt as t he command. The r edoubl ed appl ause was a r e-
peat ed affront t o us . We st ole away unmol es t ed, and shut
ourselves up in our r oom, wi t hout pr ocl ai mi ng our success
far and wi de as we had me a nt t o do.
Ther e was a knock at our door ne xt mor ni ng ; I opened i t ,
and t her e st ood t he mount ebank, who modest l y compl ai ned Of
our conduct . Wh a t had he done t o us t hat we shoul d t r y t o
t hr ow di scredi t on hi s per f or mances and t ake away hi s liveli-
hood ? Wh a t is so wonder f ul i n t he ar t of at t r act i ng a wa x
duck, t hat t he honor shoul d be wor t h t he pr i ce of an hones t
ma n' s l i vi ng? " F a i t h , gent l emen, if I had any ot her way
of ear ni ng my br ead, I shoul d boas t ver y li t t le of t hi s way.
You may well bel i eve t hat a ma n who has s pent hi s life in
pr act i si ng t hi s pi t i ful t r ade under s t ands i t much bet t er t han
you, who devot e only a few mi nut es t o i t . If I di d not show
you my bes t per f or mances t he first t i me, i t was because a ma n
ought not t o be such a fool as t o par ade ever yt hi ng he knows .
I al ways t ake car e t o keep my bes t t hi ngs for a fit occas i on;
and I have ot her s , t oo, t o r ebuke young and t hought l ess peo-
pl e. Besi des, gent l emen, I am goi ng t o t each you, i n t he
goodnes s of my hear t , t he secr et whi ch puzzl ed you so
much, beggi ng t hat you will not abuse your knowl edge of
i t t o i nj ur e me, and t hat anot her t i me you will use mor e
di s cr et i on. "
The n he showed us hi s a ppa r a t us , and we saw, t o our sur-
pr i se, t hat i t consi st ed only of a powerful ma gne t moved by
a child conceal ed beneat h t he t abl e. The ma n put up hi s
machi ne agai n ; and aft er t hanki ng hi m and maki ng due
apol ogi es, we offered hi m a pr es ent . He r ef used, s ayi ng,
" No , gent l emen, I am not so well pl eased wi t h you as t o
accept pr es ent s from you. You cannot hel p bei ng under
an obl i gat i on t o me, a nd t hat i s r evenge enough. But , you
see, gener osi t y is t o be f ound i n ever y st at i on i n life ; I t ake
pay for my per f or mances , not for my l e s s ons . "
As he was goi ng out , he r epr i manded me poi nt edl y and
al oud. " I wi lli ngly par don t hi s chi l d, " sai d h e ; " h e has
offended only t hr ough i gnor ance. But you, si r, mus t have
known t he nat ur e of hi s f aul t ; why di d you allow hi m t o
commi t such a f aul t ? Si nce you live t oget her , you, who
ar e ol der , ought t o have t aken t he t r oubl e of advi si ng h i m;
t he aut hor i t y of your exper i ence shoul d have gui ded hi m.
Wh e n he i s old enough t o r epr oach you for hi s chi ldi sh er r or s ,
he will cer t ai nl y bl ame you for t hose of whi ch you di d not
war n hi m. "
1
He went away, l eavi ng us gr eat l y abas hed. I t ook u]3on
myself t he bl ame of my easy compl i ance, and pr omi sed t he
child t hat , anot her t i me, I would sacrifice i t t o hi s i nt er est ,
and war n hi m of hi s fault s bef or e t hey wer e commi t t ed.
For a t i me was comi ng when our r el at i ons woul d be changed,
and t he sever i t y of t he t ut or mus t succeed t o t he compl ai -
sance of an equal . Thi s change shoal d be g r a d ua l ; ever y-
t hi ng mus t be f or eseen, and t hat l ong bef or ehand.
The followi ng day we r et ur ned t o t he fai r, t o see once
mor e t he t r i ck whose secr et we ha d l ear ned. We appr oached
our j uggl i ng Socr at es wi t h deep r espect , har dl y vent ur i ng t o
look at hi m. He over whel med us wi t h ci vi li t i es, and seat ed
us wi t h a ma r ke d at t ent i on whi ch added t o our humi l i at i on.
He per f or med hi s t r i cks as usual , but t ook pai ns t o amus e
himself for a l ong t i me wi t h t he duck t r i ck, oft en l ooki ng at
us wi t h a r at her defiant ai r. We under s t ood i t per f ect l y, and
di d not br eat he a syllable. I f my pupi l had even dar ed t o
open hi s mout h, he woul d have deser ved t o be anni hi l at ed.
Al l t he det ai l s of t hi s i l l ust rat i on ar e far mor e i mpor t ant
t han they appear . Ho w ma ny l essons ar e her e combi ned i n
one ! How ma ny mor t i f yi ng effects does t he first feeli ng of
vani t y br i ng upon us ! Young t eacher s, wat ch carefully i t s
first mani f es t at i on. If you can t hus t ur n it i nt o humi l i at i on
and di sgr ace, be as s ur ed t hat a second l esson will not soon be
necessar y.
" Wh a t an amount of pr epar at i on ! " you will s ay. Tr ue ;
and all t o ma ke us a compass t o use i nst ead of a mer i di an
line !
1
Rousseau here informs his readers that even these reproaches are ex-
pected, he having dictated them beforehand to the mountebank; all this
scene has been arranged to deceive the child. What a refinement of artifice
in this passionate lover of the natural!
Havi ng l ear ned t hat a magnet act s t hr ough ot her bodi es,
we were all i mpat i ence unt i l we had made an appar at us like
t he one we had seen, a hollow t abl e-t op wi t h a ver y shallow
basi n adj ust ed upon *it and filled wi t h wat er , a duck r at her
mor e carefully made, and so on. Wa t c hi ng t hi s appar at us
at t ent i vel y and oft en, we finally obser ved t hat t he duck, when
at r est , near l y al ways t ur ned in t he same di r ect i on. Fol l ow-
i ng up t he exper i ment by exami ni ng t hi s di r ect i on, we f ound
i t t o be from sout h t o nor t h. Not hi ng mor e was necessar y ;
our compass was i nvent ed, or mi ght as well have been. We
had begun t o st udy physi cs.
Ex p e r i me n t a l P h y s i c s .
T HE ear t h has different cl i mat es, and t hese have different
t emper at ur es . As we appr oach t he poles t he var i at i on of
seasons is mor e per cept i bl e, all bodi es cont r act wi t h cold
and e xpa nd wi t h heat . Thi s effect is mor e r eadi l y meas ur ed
in li qui ds, and is par t i cul ar l y not i ceabl e in spi r i t uous l i quor s.
Thi s fact suggest ed t he i dea of t he t her momet er . The wi nd
st r i kes our faces ; air is t her ef or e a body, a fluid; we feel it
t hough we cannot see i t . Tur n a gl ass vessel upsi de down i n
wat er , and t he wat er will not fill i t unl ess you l eave a vent
for t he air ; t her ef or e ai r is capabl e of r es i s t ance. Si nk
t he gl ass lower, and t he wat er r i ses in t he air-filled r egi on of
t he gl ass, al t hough i t does not ent i rel y fill t hat s pace. Ai r
is t her ef or e t o some ext ent compr essi bl e. A bal l filled wi t h
compr essed ai r bounds much bet t er t han when filled wi t h
anyt hi ng else : ai r is t her ef or e el ast i c. Wh e n l yi ng at full
l engt h in t he bat h, r ai se t he ar m hor i zont al l y out of t he
wat er , and you feel i t bur dened by a gr eat we i ght : ai r is t her e-
fore heavy. P ut air in equi li bri um wi t h ot her bodi es, a nd
you can meas ur e i t s wei ght . Fr o m t hese obser vat i ons were
const r uct ed t he bar omet er , t he si phon, t he ai r -gnn, and t he
ai r - pump. Al l t he l aws of st at i cs and hydr os t at i cs wer e di s-
cover ed by exper i ment s as si mple as t hese. I woul d not
have my pupi l st udy t hem in a l abor at or y of exper i ment al
physi cs. I di sli ke all t hat ar r ay of machi nes a nd i ns t r ument s .
The par ade of sci ence is f at al t o sci ence itself. Al l t hose
machi nes fri ght en t he chi l d; or else t hei r si ngul ar f or ms
di vi de and di s t r act t he at t ent i on he ought t o gi ve t o t hei r
effects.
I would ma ke all our own machi nes , and not begi n by mak-
i ng t he i ns t r ument bef or e t he exper i ment has been t r i ed.
But aft er appar ent l y l i ght i ng by chance on t he exper i ment ,
I should by degr ees i nvent i ns t r ument s for veri fyi ng i t .
Thes e i ns t r ument s slloulcl not be so perfect and exact as our
i deas of what t hey shoul d be and of t he oper at i ons r esul t i ng
from t hem.
N
For t he first l esson in st at i cs, i nst ead of usi ng bal ances , I
put a st i ck acr oss t he back of a chai r, and when evenl y bal -
anced, meas ur e i t s t wo por t i ons. I add wei ght s t o each par t ,
somet i mes equal, somet i mes unequal . Pus hi ng i t t o or fro as
may be neces s ar y, I finally di scover t hat equi li bri um r esul t s
from a r eci pr ocal pr opor t i on bet ween t he amount of wei ght
and t he l engt h of t he l ever s. Thus my li t t le s t udent of phys -
ics can rect i fy bal ances wi t hout havi ng ever seen t hem.
"When we t hus l ear n by our sel ves i ns t ead of l ear ni ng from
ot her s, our i deas ar e f ar mor e definite and clear. Besi des, if
our r eason is not accust omed t o slavi sh submi ssi on t o au-
t hor i t y, t hi s di scover i ng r el at i ons, l i nki ng one i dea t o anot her ,
and i nvent i ng appar at us , r ender s us much mor e ingenious".
If, i nst ead, we t ake ever yt hi ng j us t as i t is gi ven t o us , we
allow our mi nds t o si nk down i nt o indifference ; j us t as a ma n
who always let s hi s s er vant s dr ess hi m and wai t on hi m, and
hi s hor ses car r y hi m about , loses finally not only t he vi gor
but even t he use of Ms l i mbs. Boi l eau boas t ed t bat he had
t aught Raci ne t o r hyme wi t h difficulty. Ther e ar e ma ny ex-
cellent l abor -savi ng met hods for st udyi ng sci ence ; but we ar e
in sore need of one t o t each us how t o l ear n t hem wi t h mor e
effort of our own.
The mos t mani f est val ue of t hese slow and l abor i ous r e-
sear ches i s, t hat ami d specul at i ve st udi es t hey mai nt ai n t he
act i vi t y and suppl eness of t he body, by t r ai ni ng t he ha nds t o
l abor , and cr eat i ng habi t s useful t o any ma n. So ma ny i n-
s t r ument s ar e i nvent ed t o ai d in our exper i ment s and t o s up-
pl ement t he act i on of our senses, t hat we negl ect t o use t he
senses t hemsel ves. I f t he gr aphomet er meas ur es t he size of
an angl e for us , we need not est i mat e i t our sel ves. The eye
whi ch meas ur ed di st ances wi t h precision* i nt r ust s t hi s wor k t o
t he c ha i n; t he st eel yar d saves me t he t r oubl e of meas ur i ng
wei ght s by t he hand. The mor e i ngeni ous our appar at us , t he
mor e cl umsy and awkwar d do our or gans become. If we
s ur r ound our sel ves wi t h i ns t r ument s , we shall no l onger find
t hem wi t hi n our sel ves.
But when, in maki ng t he appar at us , we empl oy t he skill
a nd sagaci t y r equi r ed in doi ng wi t hout t hem, we do not lose,
but gai n. By addi ng ar t t o nat ur e, we become mor e i n-
geni ous and no less skilful. If, i ns t ead of keepi ng a child
at hi s books , I keep hi m busy in a wor ks hop, hi s ha nds l abor
t o hi s mi nd' s advant age : whi le he r egar ds hi mself onl y as a
wor kman he is gr owi ng i nt o a phi l osopher . Thi s ki nd of
exer ci se has ot her us es , of whi ch I will s peak he r e a f t e r ; and
we shall see how phi losophi c amus ement s pr epar e us for t he
t r ue f unct i ons of manhood.
I have al r eady r emar ked t hat pur el y specul at i ve st udi es ar e
r ar el y adapt ed t o chi l dr en, even when appr oachi ng t he per i od
of y o ut h ; but wi t hout maki ng t hem ent er ver y deepl y i nt o
s ys t emat i c physi cs, let all t he exper i ment s be connect ed by
NOTHING TO BE TAKEN UPON AUTHORITY; 141
some ki nd of dependence by whi ch t he chi ld can ar r ange t hem
in hi s mi nd and r ecal l t hem at need. For we cannot wi t h-
out somet hi ng of t hi s sor t r et ai n i sol at ed f act s or even r ea-
soni ngs l ong in memor y.
I n i nvest i gat i ng t he l aws of na t ur e , al ways begi n wi t h t he
mos t common and mos t easi ly obser ved phenomena, and ac-
cust om your pupi l not t o consi der t hese phenomena as r eas ons ,
but as f act s. Ta ki ng a st one, I pr et end t o l ay i t upon t he
a i r ; openi ng my hand, t he st one falls. Looki ng at Emi l e ,
who is wat chi ng my mot i ons , I say t o hi m, " Wh y di d t he
st one fall ? "
No chi ld will hesi t at e i n answer i ng such a quest i on, not
even fimile, unl ess I have t a ke n gr e a t car e t hat he shall not
know how. An y child will say t hat t he st one falls because
i t is heavy. " An d wha t does heavy me a n ? " " Wha t e ve r
falls is he a vy. " He r e my li t t le phi l osopher is r eal l y at a
s t and. Whe t he r t hi s first l esson i n exper i ment al physi cs
ai ds hi m i n under s t andi ng t hat subj ect or not , i t will al ways
be a pr act i cal l esson.
No t h i n g t o- be Ta k e n u p o n Au t h o r i t y . Le a r n i n g f r o m
t h e Pupi l ' s o wn Ne c e s s i t i e s .
As t he chi ld' s under s t andi ng ma t ur e s , ot her i mpor t ant con-
si der at i ons demand t hat we choose hi s occupat i ons wi t h mor e
car e. As soon as he under s t ands himself a nd all t ha t r el at es
t o hi m well enough and br oadl y enough t o di scer n what is t o
hi s advant age and what is becomi ng i n hi m, he can appr eci at e
t he difference bet ween wor k and pl ay, and t o r egar d t he one
solely as r el axat i on, from t he ot her , Obj ect s r eal l y useful
may t hen b e . i ncl uded among his s t udi es , a nd he will pa y
mor e at t ent i on t o t hem t han i f amus ement al one wer e con-
cerned. The ever -pr esent l aw of necessi t y ear l y t eaches us
t o do wha t we di sli ke, t o escape evils we shoul d di sli ke even
mor e. Such is t he use of f or esi ght from whi ch, j udi ci ous or
i nj udi ci ous, spr i ngs all t he wi sdom or all t he unhappi nes s of
manki nd.
We all l ong for happi nes s , but t o acqui r e i t we ought first
t o know wha t i t i s. To t he nat ur al ma n i t i s as si mpl e as hi s
mode of life ; it means heal t h, l i ber t y, and t he necessar i es of
life, a nd f r eedom from suffering. The happi nes s of ma n as a
mor al bei ng is anot her t hi ng, forei gn t o t he pr es ent quest i on.
I cannot t oo oft en r epeat t hat onl y obj ect s pur el y physi cal
can i nt er est chi l dr en, especi ally t hose who have not ha d t hei r
vani t y ar oused and t hei r nat ur e cor r upt ed by t he poi son of
opi ni on.
Wh e n t hey pr ovi de bef or ehand for t hei r own wa nt s , t hei r
under s t andi ng is somewhat devel oped, and t hey ar e begi nni ng
t o l ear n t he val ue of t i me. We ought t hen by all me a ns to
accust om a nd t o di r ect t hem t o i t s empl oyment t o useful ends ,
t hese bei ng such as ar e useful at t hei r age and r eadi l y under -
st ood by t hem. The subj ect of mor al or der and t he us ages
of soci et y shoul d not yet be pr es ent ed, because chi l dr en ar e
not in a condi t i on t o unde r s t a nd such t hi ngs . To force t hei r
at t ent i on upon t hi ngs whi ch, as we vaguel y t ell t hem, will be
for t hei r good, when t hey do not know what t hi s good means ,
is fooli sh. I t is no less foolish t o assur e t hem t hat such
t hi ngs will benefit t hem when g r o wn ; for t hey t ake no i nt er -
est in t hi s s uppos ed benefit, whi ch t hey cannot unde r s t a nd.
Le t t he child t ake not hi ng for gr a nt e d because some one
says i t is so. Not hi ng is good t o hi m but what he feels t o
be good. You t hi nk it far si ght ed t o pus h hi m beyond hi s
under s t andi ng of t hi ngs , but you ar e mi s t aken. For t he
s ake of ar mi ng hi m wi t h weapons he does not know how t o
us e, you t ake from hi m one uni ver sal a mong men. common
s e ns e : you t each hi m t o allow hi mself al ways t o be l ed,
never t o be mor e t ha n a machi ne i n t he ha nds of ot her s . I f
you will have hi m doci le whi le he is young, you will ma ke
hi m a cr edul ous dupe when he is a, ma n. You ar e cont i nu-
ally sayi ng t o hi m, " Al l I r equi r e of you is for your own
good, but you cannot unde r s t a nd it yet . Wh a t does i t
mat t er t o me whet her you do what I r equi r e or not ? You
ar e doi ng i t ent i rely for your own s a ke . " Wi t h such fine
speeches you are pavi ng t he way for some ki nd of t r i cks t er
or fool, some vi si onar y babbl er or char l at an, who will
ent r ap hi m or per s uade hi m t o adopt hi s own folly.
A ma n ma y be well acquai nt ed wi t h t hi ngs whose ut i l i t y a
child cannot c ompr e he nd; but is it r i ght , or even possi bl e,
for a child t o l ear n what a ma n ought t o know? Tr y t o
t each t he child all t hat is useful t o hi m now, and you will
keep hi m bus y all t he t i me. Wh y would you i njure t he
st udi es sui t able t o hi m at hi s age by gi vi ng hi m t hose of an
age he may never at t ai n? " But , " you say, " will t her e be
t i me for l ear ni ng what he ought t o know when t he t i me t o
use i t has al r eady come ? " I do not kn o w; but I am sur e
t hat he cannot l ear n i t sooner. Fo r exper i ence and feeli ng
ar e our r eal t eacher s, a nd we never unde r s t a nd t hor oughl y
what is bes t for us except from t he ci r cumst ances of our
case. A chi ld knows t hat he will one day be a ma n. Al l
t he i deas of manhood t hat he can under s t and gi ve us op-
por t uni t i es of t eachi ng h i m; but of t hose he cannot under -
s t and he shoul d r emai n i n absol ut e i gnor ance. Thi s ent i r e
book is only a cont i nued demons t r at i on of t hi s pr i nci pl e of
educat i on.
F i n d i n g o u t t h e Ba s t . Th e F o r e s t o f
Mo n t mo r e n c y .
I DO not li ke expl anat or y l e c t ur e s ; young peopl e pay
ver y little at t ent i on t o t hem, and sel dom r emember t hem.
Th i n g s ! t h i n g s ! I canri ot r epeat oft en enough t hat we
at t ach t oo much i mpor t ance t o wor ds . Our babbl i ng educa-
t i on pr oduces not hi ng but babbl er s .
Suppos e t hat whi le we ar e s t udyi ng t he cour se of t he s un,
aWd t he manner of finding wher e t he eas t i s, Emi l e all at
once i nt er r upt s me , t o as k, " Wh a t is t he use of all t hi s ? "
Wh a t an oppor t uni t y for a fine di s cour s e! Ho w ma ny
t hi ngs I coul d t ell hi m of i n answer i ng t hi s quest i on, espe-
ci ally if anybody wer e by t o l i s t en! I could ment i on t he
a dva nt a ge s of t r avel and of commer ce ; t he pecul i ar pr oduct s
of each c l i ma t e ; t he manner s of different n a t i o n s ; t he use
of t he c a l e nda r ; t he cal cul at i on of s eas ons i n agr i cul t ur e;
t he a r t of navi gat i on, and t he manner of t r avel l i ng by sea,
followi ng t he t r ue cour se wi t hout knowi ng wher e we ar e. I
mi ght t ake up poli t i cs, nat ur al hi st or y, as t r onomy, even
et hi cs and i nt er nat i onal law, by way of gi vi ng my pupi l an
exal t ed i dea of all t hese sci ences, and a st r ong desi re t o
l ear n t hem.
x
Wh e n I have done, t he boy will not ha ve
under s t ood a si ngle i dea out of all my pedant i c di spl ay. Ho
would li ke t o as k agai n, " Wh a t is t he use of finding out
wher e t he east i s ? " but dar es not , l est I mi ght be angr y.
He finds i t mor e t o hi s i nt er est t o pr et end t o under s t and
what he has been compelled t o hear . Thi s is not at all an
uncommon case i n super i or educat i on, so-called.
But our iDmile, br ought up mor e like a r ust i c, a nd car e-
fully t aught t o t hi nk ver y slowly, will not l i st en t o all t hi s.
He will r un away at t he first wor d he does not under s t and,
and pla}^ about t he r oom, l eavi ng me t o har angue all by
myself. Le t us find a si mpler wa y ; t hi s scientific di spl ay
does hi m n a good.
We we r e notfeing^ ther posi t r on of t he f or est nor t h of
Mont mor e nc y, when he i nt er r upt ed me wi t h t he eager ques-
t i on, " Wh a t i s t he us e of knowi ng t ha t ? " " Yon ma y be
r i ght , " sai d I ; " w e mus t t ake t i me t o t hi nk about i t ; and
if t her e is r eal l y no use in i t , we will not t r y it agai n, for we
have enough t o do t ha t is of us e . " We went at s omet hi ng
else, and t her e was no mor e geogr aphy t hat day.
The ne xt mor ni ng I pr opos ed a wal k before br eakf as t .
Not hi ng could have pl eased hi m bet t er ; chi l dr en ar e al ways
r eady t o r un about , and t hi s boy ha d s t ur dy l egs of hi s own.
We went i nt o t he forest , and wander ed over t he i i el ds ; we
l ost our sel ves, havi ng no i dea wher e we wer e ; a n d when we
i nt ended t o go home, could not find our way. Ti me pas s ed ;
t he heat of t he day came on ; we were hungr y. I n vai n di d
we hur r y about from pl ace t o pl a c e ; we f ound ever ywher e
not hi ng but woods, quar r i es , plains,, and not a l a ndma r k
t hat we knew. Se a t e d , wor n out wi t h f at i gue, and ver y
hungr y, our r unni ng about onl y led us mor e and mor e ast raj-.
At l ast we sat down t o r est and t o t hi nk t he ma t t e r over.
Emi l e, li ke any ot her chi ld, di d not t hi nk about i t ; he cri ed.
He di d not know t hat . we wer e near t he gat e of Mont mor e nc y,
and t hat only a nar r ow st r i p of woodl and hid it from us .
But t o hi m t hi s nar r ow st r i p of woodl and was a whol e f or es t ;
one of his s t at ur e would be l ost t o si ght among bus hes .
Af t er some moment s of si lence I sai d t o hi m, wi t h a
t r oubl ed ai r,
" My clear Emi l e, what shall we do t o get away from her e ? "
EMI LE. \_In a profuse perspiration, and crying bitterly.,] I
don' t know. I ' m t i r ed. I ' m hungr y. I ' m t hi r st y. I can' t
do anyt hi ng.
JEAN JACQUES. D O you t hi nk I am bet t er off t han you, or
t hat I woul d mi nd cr yi ng t oo, if cr yi ng woul d do for my
br eakf as t ? Ther e is no use in cr yi ng ; t he t hi ng i s, t o find
our way. Le t me see your wat ch ; what t i me is i t ?
3MILE. I t is t wel ve o' clock, and I ha ve n' t had my br eak-
fast .
J EAN JACQUES. Tha t is t r ue. I t is t wel ve o' clock, and I
haven' t had my br eakf as t , ei t her.
EMI LE. Oh, how hungr y you mus t be !
JEAN JACQUES. The wor st of it is t hat my di nner will not
come her e t o find me. Twel ve o' cl ock? i t was j us t t hi s t i me
yes t er day t hat we not i ced wher e Mont mor ency i s. Coul d we
see wher e it is j us t as well from t hi s f or est ?
EMI LE. Yes ; but yes t er day we saw t he f or est , a nd we can-
not see t he t own from t hi s pl ace.
JEAN JACQUES. Th a t is a pi t y. I wonder if we could find
out wher e i t is wi t hout seei ng i t ?
EMI LE. Oh, my dear fri end !
JEAN JACQUES. Di d, not we say t hat t hi s f or est i s *
EMI LE. Nor t h of Mont mor ency.
JEAN JACQUES. If that i s t r ue, Mont mor ency mus t be
#
MI LE. Sout h of t he f or est .
JEAN JACQUES. The r e is a way of finding out t he nor t h at
Moon.
ISMILE. Ye s ; by t he di r ect i on of our s hadows .
JEAN JACQUES. But t he s out h?
EMI LE. How can we find t ha t ?
JEAN JACQUES. The sout h is opposi t e t he nor t h.
EMI LE. Th a t is t r ue ; all we have t o do is t o find t he si de
opposi t e t he s hadows . Oh, t her e' s t he s out h! t her e' s t he
s out h! Mont mor ency mus t surely be on t ha t s i d e ; l et us
look on t hat si de.
J EAN JACQUES. Pe r ha ps you ar e r i ght . Let us t ake t hi s
pa t h t hr ough t he f or est .
EMI LE. [Clapiying his hands, with a joyful shout.'] Oh, I
see Mont mor ency ; t her e it i s, j us t bef or e us , in pl ai n si ght .
Le t us go t o our br eakf as t , our di nne r ; l et us r un f ast .
As t r onomy is good for somet hi ng !
Obser ve t hat even if he does not ut t er t hese l ast wor ds ,
t hey will be i n hi s mi nd. I t mat t er s li t t le so l ong as i t is
not I who ut t er t hem. Re s t assur ed t ha t he will never i n hi s
life f or get t hi s day' s l esson. Now if I had only made hi m
i magi ne i t . all i ndoor s, my l ect ur e woul d have been ent i r el y
f or got t en by t he ne xt day. We should t each as much as
possi bl e by act i ons, and say only what we cannot do.
Ro b i n s o n Cr us o e .
I N hi s l egi t i mat e preference f or t eachi ng by the eye and hand
and by real t hi ngs , and i n hi s aversi on t o the barren and erroneous
met hod of t eachi ng f rom books al one, Rous s eau, const ant l y carri ed
away by the passi onat e ardor of hi s nature, rushes . i nto an oppos i t e
ext reme, and excl ai ms, " I hate books ; t hey onl y t each us t o tal k
about what we do not understand. " Then, checked in the ful l ti de
of t hi s decl amat i on by hi s own good sense, he adds :
Si nce we mus t have books , t her e is one whi ch, t o my mi nd,
furni shes t he finest of t r eat i ses on educat i on accor di ng t o
nat ur e. My Emi l e shall r ead t hi s book before any ot her ; i t
shall for a l ong t i me be hi s ent i re l i br ar y, and shall al ways
hold an honor abl e pl ace. I t shall be t he t ext on whi ch all
our di scussi ons of nat ur al sci ence shall be only comment ar i es .
I t shall be a t est for all we meet dur i ng our pr ogr ess t owar d
a r i pened j udgment , and so long as our t as t e is unspoi l ed,
we shall enjoy r eadi ng i t . Wh a t wonder f ul book is t hi s ?
Ar i s t ot l e? Pl i ny? Buffon? N o ; i t is
u
Robi ns on Cr us oe . "
The st or y of t hi s ma n, alone on hi s i sl and, unai ded by hi s
fellow-men, wi t hout any ar t or i t s i mpl ement s , and yet pr o-
vi di ng for hi s own pr es er vat i on and subsi st ence, even con-
t r i vi ng t o li ve i n what mi ght be called comf or t , i s i nt er est i ng
t o-per sons of all ages . I t ma y b e made deli ght ful t o chil-
dr en in a t hous and ways . Thus we make t he des er t i sl and,
whi ch I used at t he out s et for a compar i son, a r eal i t y.
Thi s condi t i on is not , I gr ant , t hat of man i n s oci et y; and
t o all appear ance Emi l e will never occupy i t ; but from i t he
ought t o j udge of all ot her s . The sur est way t o ri se above
pr ej udi ce, and t o j udge of t hi ngs in t hei r t r ue r el at i ons, is t o
put our sel ves i n t he place of an i sol at ed ma n, and deci de as
he mus t concer ni ng t hei r r eal ut i l i t y.
Di s encumber ed of i t s less profitable por t i ons , t hi s r omance
from i t s begi nni ng, t he shi pwr eck of Cr usoe on t he i sl and, t o
i t s end, t he ar r i val of t he vessel whi ch t akes hi m away, will
yi eld amus ement and i nst r uct i on t o Emi l e dur i ng t he peri od
now in quest i on. I would have hi m compl et el y car r i ed away
by i t , cont i nual l y t hi nki ng of Cr usoe' s fort , hi s goat o, . and
hi s pl ant at i ons . I woul d have hi m l ear n, not from books ,
but from r eal t hi ngs , all he woul d need t o know under t he
s ame ci r cumst ances. He shoul d be encour aged t o pl ay
Robi ns on Cr usoe ; t o i magi ne himself clad in s ki ns , wear i ng
a gr eat cap and swor d, and all t he ar r ay of t hat gr ot esque
fi gure, down t o t he umbr el l a, of whi ch he would have no
need I f he happens t o be in want of anyt hi ng, I hope he
will cont r i ve somet hi ng t o suppl y i t s pl ace. Let hi m look
carefully i nt o all t hat hi s her o di d, and deci de whet her any of
i t was unneces s ar y, or mi ght ha ve been done in a bet t er way.
Le t hi m not i ce Cr usoe' s mi s t akes a nd avoi d t hem under like
ci r cums t ances . He will ver y li kely pl an for hi mself sur-
r oundi ngs li ke Cr us oe' s , - a r eal cast l e i n t he ai r, nat ur al at
hi s happ}
7
age when we t hi nk our sel ves ri ch if we are free
a nd have t he necessar i es of li fe. Ho w usef ul t hi s hobby
mi ght be ma de if some ma n of sense would only suggest it
a nd t ur n i t t o good account ! The chi ld, eager t o bui l d a
st or ehouse for hi s i sl and, would be mor e desi r ous t o l ear n
t ha n hi s mas t er woul d be t o t each hi m. He would be anx-
i ous t o know ever yt hi ng he could ma ke use of, and not hi ng
besi des. You would not need t o gui de, but t o r es t r ai n hi m.
Here Rous s eau i ns i s t s upon gi vi ng a chi l d s ome trade, no mat t er
what hi s s t at i on i n l i f e may be ; and i n 1762 he ut t ered t hes e pro-
pheti c words , remarkabl e i ndeed, whe n we cal l t o mi nd the di sorders
at t he cl ose of t hat century :
You t r us t t o t he pr es ent condi t i on of soci et y, wi t hout r e-
flecting t hat i t i s subj ect t o unavoi dabl e r evol ut i ons, and t hat
you can nei t her foresee nor pr event what is t o affect t he f at e
of your own chi l dr en. The gr eat ar e br ought low, t he poor
ar e made ri ch, t he ki ng becomes a subj ect . Ar e t he bl ows
of fat e so uncommon t hat you can expect t o escape t he m?
We are appr oachi ng a cri si s, t he age of r evol ut i ons . Wh o
can t ell what will become of you t hen ? Al l t ha t ma n has
done ma n may des t r oy. No char act er s but t hose s t amped
by nat ur e ar e ineffaceable ; and nat ur e di d not ma ke pr i nces,
or r i ch men, or nobl es.
Thi s advi ce was f ol l owed. In the hi ghes t grades of s oci et y i t
became t he f as hi on t o l earn s ome handi craft. It i s wel l kno wn that
Loui s XVI . was proud of hi s ski l l as a l ocksmi t h. Among t he exi l es
of a l ater peri od, many owe d thei r l i vi ng t o the trade t hey had t hus
learned.
To return t o Emi l e : Rousseau sel ect s f or hi m t he trade of a
joi ner, and goe s s o far as t o empl oy hi m and hi s t ut or i n t hat ki nd
of l abor f or one or more clays of every week under a mast er who
pays t hem actual wage s f or thei r work.
J u d g i n g f r o m Ap p e a r a n c e s . The Br o k e n S t i c k .
I F I have t hus far made myself under s t ood, you ma y see
how, wi t h r egul ar physi cal exer ci se and manual l abor , I am
at t he same t i me gi vi ng my pupi l a" t as t e for reflection and
medi t at i on. Thi s will count er bal ance t he i ndol ence whi ch
mi ght r esul t from hi s indifference t o ot her men a nd from t he
dor mant st at e of hi s pas s i ons . He mus t wor k li ke a peas ant
and t hi nk li ke a phi l osopher , or he will be as i dle as a s a va ge .
Th e gr eat secr et of educat i on is t o ma ke physi cal and ment al
exer ci ses ser ve as r el axat i on for each ot her . At first our
pupi l ha d not hi ng but s ens at i ons , and now he has i deas.
The n he only per cei ved, but now he j udges . For from com-
par i son of ma ny successi ve or si mul t aneous sensat i ons,
wi t h t he j udgme nt s bas ed on t hem, ar i ses a ki nd of mi xed or
compl ex sensat i on whi ch I call an i dea.
The different ma nne r i n whi ch i deas ar e f or med gi ves each
mi nd i t s pecul i ar char act er . A mi nd i s solid if i t shape i t s
i deas accor di ng t o t he t r ue r el at i ons of t hi ngs ; superficial, if
cont ent wi t h t hei r appar ent r el at i ons ; accur at e, if i t behol d
t hi ngs as t hey really ar e ; uns ound, if i t unde r s t a nd t hem i n-
cor r ect l y ; di sor der ed, if it f abr i cat e i magi nar y r el at i ons,
nei t her appar ent nor r e a l ; i mbeci le, if i t do not compar e
i deas at all. Gr eat er or less ment al power in different men
consi st s in t hei r gr eat er or less r eadi ness i n compar i ng i deas
and di scover i ng t hei r r el at i ons.
Fr om si mple as well as compl ex s ens at i ons , we form j udg-
ment s whi ch I will call si mple i deas. I n a sensat i on t he
j udgme nt is wholly passi ve, only affirming t ha t we feel what
we feel. I n a pr ecept i on or i dea, t he j udgme nt is act i ve ; i t
br i ngs t oget her , compar es , and det er mi nes r el at i ons not de-
t er mi ned by t he senses. Thi s is t he only poi nt of difference,
but*it is i mpor t ant . Na t ur e never decei ves us ; i t is al ways
we who decei ve our sel ves.
I see a chi ld ei ght year s old hel ped t o some f r ozen cus t ar d.
Wi t hout knowi ng what i t i s, he put s a spoonf ul i n hi s mout h,
a nd feeli ng t he cold sensat i on, excl ai ms,
4 4
Ah , t ha t bur ns ! "
He feels a keen sensat i on ; he knows of none mor e so t han
heat , and t hi nks t ha t is what he now f eel s. He is of course
mi s t a ke n; t he chill i s pai nf ul , but does not bur n hi m ; and
t he t wo sensat i ons ar e not al i ke, si nce, aft er encount er i ng
bot h, we never mi s t ake one for t he ot her . I t is not , t her e-
fore, t he sensat i on whi ch mi sl eads hi m, but t he j udgment
bas ed on i t .
I t is t he same when any one sees for t he first t i me a mi r-
ror or opt i cal a ppa r a t us ; or ent er s a deep cellar in mi d-
wi nt er or mi ds ummer ; or pl unges his hand, ei t her ver y war m
or ver y cold, i nt o t epi d wa t e r ; or rolls a li t t le bal l bet ween
t wo of his fingers held cr osswi se. If he is satisfied wi t h
descr i bi ng what he per cei ves or feels, keepi ng hi s j udgme nt
i n abeyance, he c a nnot be mi s t aken. But when he deci des
upon appear ances , hi s j udgment is a c t i ve ; it compar es , and
i nfers r el at i ons it does not per cei ve ; a nd i t ma3
r
t hen be
mi s t aken. He will need exper i ence t o pr event or cor r ect
such mi s t akes . Show your pupi l clouds pas s i ng over t he
moon at ni ght , and he will t hi nk t ha t t he moon is movi ng in
an opposi t e di r ect i on, and t hat t he clouds ar e at r est . He
will t he mor e r eadi l y infer t hat t hi s is t he case, becaus e he
usually sees smal l obj ect s, not l ar ge ones , in mot i on, and
becaus e t he clouds seem t o hi m l ar ger t han t he moon, of
whose di st ance he has no i dea. Wh e n from a movi ng boa t
he sees t he shor e at a li t t le di s t ance, he makes t he cont r ar y
mi s t ake of t hi nki ng t hat t he ear t h moves . For , unconsci ous
of hi s own mot i on, t he boat , t he wat er , a nd t he ent i r e
hori zon seem t o hi m one i mmovabl e whole of whi ch t he
movi ng shor e is only one par t .
The first t i me a chi ld sees a st i ck half i mmer sed i n wat er ,
it seems t o be br oken. The sensat i on is a t r ue one, and
would be, even if we di d not know t he r eason for t hi s
appear ance. I f t her ef or e you ask him what he sees, he
answer s t r ul y,
4 4
A br oken s t i ck, " because he is fully con-
sci ous of t he sensat i on of a br oken st i ck. But when, de-
cei ved by hi s j udgment , he goes f ar t her , and af t er sayi ng
t hat he sees a br oken st i ck, he says agai n t hat t he st i ck
really is br oken, he says what is. not t r ue ; and why?
Becaus e hi s j udgme nt becomes act i ve ; he deci des no l onger
from obser vat i on, but from i nf er ence, when he decl ar es as a
f act what he does not act ual l y pe r c e i ve ; namel y, t hat t ouch
would confirm t he j udgme nt bas ed upon si ght al one.
The best way of l ear ni ng t o j udge cor r ect l y is t he one
whi ch t ends t o si mpli fy our exper i ence, and enabl es us t o
make no mi s t akes even when we di spense wi t h exper i ence
al t oget her . I t follows from t hi s t ha t af t er havi ng l ong ver i -
fied t he t es t i mony of one sense by t hat of anot her , we mus t
f ur t her l ear n t o veri fy t he t es t i mony of each sense by itself
wi t hout appeal t o any ot her . The n each sensat i on at once
becomes an i dea, and an i dea in accor dance wi t h t he t r ut h.
Wi t h such acqui si t i ons I have endeavor ed t o st or e t hi s t hi r d
per i od of huma n li fe.
To follow t hi s pl an r equi r es a pat i ence and a ci r cumspec-
t i on of whi ch few t eacher s ar e capabl e, and wi t hout whi ch
a pupi l will never l ear n t o j udge correct l y. For e x a mpl e :
if, when he is mi sled by t he appear ance of a br oken st i ck,
you endeavor t o show hi m hi s mi s t ake by t aki ng t he st i ck
qui ckl y out of t he wat er , you may per haps undecei ve hi m,
but wha t will you t each hi m? Not hi ng he mi ght not have
l ear ned for himself. You ought not t hus t o t each hi m one
det ached t r ut h, i nst ead of showi ng hi m how he ma}
T
al ways
di scover for hi mself any t r ut h. If you r eal l y me a n t o t each
hi m, do not at once undecei ve hi m. Let Emi l e and myself
ser ve you for exampl e.
I n t he first pl ace, any child educat ed i n t he or di nar y way
woul d, t o t he second of t he t wo quest i ons above ment i oned,
ans wer , " Of course t he st i ck is br oke n. " I doubt whet her
Emi l e woul d gi ve t hi s answer . Seei ng no need of bei ng
l ear ned or of appear i ng l ear ned, he never j udges hast i l y, but
only' ' from evi dence. Knowi ng how easi ly appear ances de-
cei ve us , as in t he case of per spect i ve, he is far from
finding t he evi dence i n t he pr es ent case sufficient. Besi des-
knowi ng from exper i ence t hat my mos t t r i vi al quest i on
al ways has an obj ect whi ch he does not at once di scover , he
is not in t he habi t of gi vi ng heedl ess ans wer s . On t he con-
t r ar y, he is on hi s guar d and at t ent i ve ; he looks i nt o t he
mat t er ver y carefully bef or e r epl yi ng. He never gi ves me
a n answer wi t h which he is not hi mself satisfied, and he is
not easi ly satisfied. Mor eover , he a nd I do not pr i de our -
selves on knowi ng f act s exact l y, but onl y on maki ng few
mi s t akes . We shoul d be much mor e di sconcer t ed if we
found our sel ves satisfied wi t h an insufficient r eas on t han if
we had di scover ed none at all. The confessi on, " I do not
know, " sui t s us bot h so well, and we r epeat i t so of t en, t hat
i t cost s nei t her of us anyt hi ng. But whet her for t hi s once
he is car el ess, or avoi ds t he difficulty by a conveni ent " I
do not kn o w, " my ans wer is t he s ame : " Le t us see ; let us
find out . "
The st i ck, hal f -way in t he wat er , is fixed i n a ver t i cal
posi t i on. To find out whet her it is br oken, as i t appear s t o
be, how much we mus t do before we t ake i t out of t he wat er ,
or even t ouch i t ! Fi r s t , we go ent i r el y r ound i t , and
obser ve t hat t he f r act ur e goes ar ound wi t h us . I t is our
eye al one, t hen, t hat changes i t ; and a gl ance cannot move
t hi ngs from place t o pl ace.
Secondl y, we look di rect ly clown t he st i ck, from t he end
out si de of t he wa t e r ; t hen t he st i ck is no l onger bent ,
because t he end ne xt our eye exact l y hi des t he ot her end
from us . Ha s our eye st r ai ght ened t he s t i ck?
Thi r dl y, we st i r t he sur f ace of t he wat er , and see t he st i ck
bend itself i nt o sever al cur ves, move in a zi g-zag di r ect i on,
and follow t he undul at i ons of t he wat er . Ha s t he mot i on
we gave t he wat er been enough t hus t o br eak, t o sof t en, and
t o mel t t he st i ck ?
Four t h, we dr aw off t he wat er and see t he st i ck s t r ai ght en
itself as fast as t he wat er is l ower ed. I s not t hi s mor e t han
enough t o i l l ust r at e t he fact and t o find out t he r ef r act i on ?
I t is not t hen t r ue t ha t t he eye decei ves us , si nce by i t s ai d
al one we can cor r ect t he mi s t akes we ascr i be t o at .
Suppos e t he child so dull as not t o under s t and t he r esul t
of t hese exper i ment s . The n we mus t call t ouch t o t he ai d
of si ght . I ns t e a d of t aki ng t he st i ck out of t he wat er , l eave
i t t her e, and l et hi m pas s hi s ha nd from one end of i t t o t he
ot her . He will feel no a ngl e ; t he st i ck, t her ef or e, is not
br oken.
You will tell me t hat t hese ar e not only j udgme nt s but
formal r eas oni ngs . Tr ue ; but do you not see t hat , as soon
as t he mi nd has at t ai ned t o i deas, all j udgme nt i s r eas oni ng?
The consci ousness of any sensat i on is a pr oposi t i on, a j udg-
ment . As soon, t her ef or e, as we compar e one sensat i on
wi t h anot her , we r eas on. The ar t of j udgi ng and t he ar t of
r eas oni ng ar e pr eci sel y t he s ame.
If, from t he lesson of t hi s st i ck, iDmile does not under -
s t and t he i dea of r ef r act i on, he will never unde r s t a nd i t at
all. He shall never di ssect i nsect s, or count t he spot s on t he
s un ; he shall not even know what a mi cr oscope or a t ele-
scope i s.
Your l ear ned pupi l s will l augh at hi s i gnor ance, and will
not be ver y far wr ong. For before he uses t hese i nst r u-
me nt s , I i nt end he shall i nvent t h e m; and. you ma y well
suppose t ha t t hi s will not be soon done.
Thi s shall be t he spi ri t of all my met hods of t eachi ng
dur i ng t hi s per i od. I f t he chi ld rolls a bul l et bet ween t wo
cr ossed fingers, I will not l et hi m look a t i t till he is ot her -
wi se convi nced t hat t her e is onl y one bul l et t her e.
Re s u l t . The Pu p i l a t t h e Age of Fi f t e e n .
I THINK t hese expl anat i ons will suffice t o ma r k di st i nct l y
t he advance my pupi l ' s mi nd has hi t her t o ma de , and t he
r out e by whi ch he has advanced. You ar e pr obabl y al ar med
at t he number of subj ect s I have br ought t o hi s not i ce. You
ar e afrai d I will over whel m hi s mi nd wi t h all t hi s knowl edge.
But I t each hi m r at her not t o know t hem t ha n t o know t hem.
I am showi ng hi m a pat h t o knowl edge not i ndeed difficult,
but wi t hout li mi t , slowly meas ur ed, l ong, or r at her endl ess,
and t edi ous t o follow. I am showi ng hi m how t o t ake t he
first st eps, so t hat he may know i t s begi nni ng, but allow hi m
t o go no f ar t her .
Obl i ged t o l ear n by hi s own effort, he empl oys hi s own
r eason, not t hat of anot her . Mos t of our mi st akes ar i se l ess
wi t hi n our sel ves t han f r om ot her s ; so t hat if he is not t o be
r ul ed by opi ni on, he mus t recei ve not hi ng upon aut hor i t y.
Such cont i nual exer ci se mus t i nvi gor at e t he mi nd as l abor
a nd f at i gue s t r engt hen t he body.
The mi nd as well as t he body can bear only what i t s
s t r engt h will allow. Wh e n t he under s t andi ng fully mas t er s
a t hi ng before i nt r ust i ng i t t o t he memor y, what it af t er war d
dr aws t her ef r om is i n r eal i t y i t s own. But if i nst ead we l oad
t he memor y wi t h mat t er s t he under s t andi ng has not mas t er ed,
we r un t he r i sk of never finding t her e anyt hi ng t hat bel ongs
t o it.
r t mi l e has li t t le knowl edge, but i t is really hi s own ; he
knows not hi ng by hal ves ; and t he mos t i mpor t a nt fact i s t hat
he does not now know t hi ngs he will one day kn o w; t hat
many t hi ngs known t o ot her peopl e he never will know ; and
t hat t her e is an infinity of t hi ngs whi ch nei t her he nor any
one else yer will know. He is pr epar ed for (knowledge of
ever y ki n d ; not because he has so much, but because, he
knows how t o acqui r e i t ; hi s mi nd is open t o i t , and, as Mon-
t ai gne s ays , if not t aught , he is a t l east t eachabl e. I shall be
satisfied if he knows how t o find out t he " wh e r e f o r e " of
ever yt hi ng he knows and t he
u
wh y " of ever yt hi ng he be-
li eves. I r epeat t hat my obj ect is not t o gi ve hi m knowl edge,
but t o t each hi m how t o acqui r e i t at n e e d ; t o es t i mat e it a t
i t s t r ue val ue, and above all t hi ngs , t o love t he t r ut h. B}
r
t hi s met hod we advance slowly, but t ake no usel ess s t eps , and
ar e not obli ged t o r et r ace a si ngle one.
iSmile under s t ands onl y t he nat ur al and pur el y physi cal
sci ences. He does not even know t he name of hi st or y, or t he
meani ng of met aphysi cs and et hi cs. He knows t he essent i al
r el at i ons bet ween me n and t hi ngs, but not hi ng of t he mor al
r el at i ons bet ween ma n and ma n. He does not r eadi l y gener -
ali ze or concei ve of abs t r act i ons . He obser ves t he quali t i es
common t o cer t ai n bodi es wi t hout r eas oni ng about t he qual i -
t i es t hemsel ves. Wi t h t he ai d of geomet r i c figures and al-
gebr ai c s i gns , he knows somet hi ng of ext ensi on and quant i t y.
Upon t hese figures and si gns hi s senses r es t t hei r knowl edge
of t he abst r act i ons j us t named. He makes no a t t e mpt t o
l ear n t he nat ur e of t hi ngs , but only such of t hei r r el at i ons as
concer n himself. He est i mat es ext er nal t hi ngs onl y by t hei r
r el at i on t o hi m ; but t hi s est i mat e is exact and posi t i ve, and
in i t fanci es and convent i onal i t i es have no s har e. He val ues
mos t t hose t hi ngs t ha t ar e mos t useful t o hi m ; and never de-
vi at i ng from t hi s s t andar d, is not influenced by gener al
opi ni on.
Emi l e is i ndus t r i ous , t emper at e, pat i ent , s t eadf as t , and full
of cour age. Hi s i magi nat i on, never ar oused, does not exag-
ger at e da nge r s . He feels few di scomf or t s, and can bear
pai n wi t h . f or t i t ude, because he has never l ear ned t o cont end
wi t h f at e. j t does not yet know exact l y what deat h i s, but ,
accus t omed t o yi eld to t he. law of necessi t y, he will die whe n
he must , wi t hout a gr oan or a s t r uggl e. Na t ur e can clo no
mor e at t ha t moment abhor r ed by all. To live free and t o
ha,ve li t t le t o do wi t h huma n affairs is t he bes t way of l ear n-
i ng how t o di e.
I n a word, iSmile has ever y vi r t ue whi ch affects hi mself.
To have t he soci al vi r t ues as well, he only needs t o know t he
r el at i ons whi ch make t hem ne c e s s a i y; a nd t hi s knowl edge
hi s mi nd i s r eady t o r ecei ve. He consi der s hi mself i ndepend-
ent l y of ot her s , and is satisfied when ot her s clo not t hi nk of
hi m at all. He exact s not hi ng from ot her s , and never t hi nks
of owi ng anyt hi ng t o t hem. He is al one in huma n soci et y,
and depends solely upon himself. He has t he bes t r i ght of
all t o be i ndependent , for he is all t hat any one can be at hi s
age. He has no er r or s but such as a human bei ng mus t
have; no vi ces but t hose from whi ch no one can wa r r a nt hi m-
self exempt . He has a sound const i t ut i on, act i ve l i mbs, a
fai r and unpr ej udi ced mi nd, a hear t free and wi t hout pas s i ons .
Self-love, t he first and mos t nat ur al of all, has scar cel y mani -
fest ed itself at all. Wi t hout di s t ur bi ng any one's peace of
mi nd he has l ed a happy, cont ent ed li fe, as free as nat ur e
will allow. Do you t hi nk a 3<outh who has t hus at t ai ned hi s
fifteenth year has l ost t he year s t hat have gone before ?
Press of Berwick 6^ Smith, 118 Purchase Street.
Pestalozzi 's Leonard and Gertrude.
Translated and abridged by EVA CHANNING. With an Introduction by G.
STANLEY HALL, Professor of Pedagogy in J ohns Hopkins University.
Cloth. 1 93 pp. Price by mail, 85 cts.
T N these days, when the prosperity of a young and flourishing nation is
powerless to relieve much of the poverty and distress which glare at
us on every si de; when selfishness still reigns supreme in all classes of
society ; when corruption prevails in the high places, and the grog-shop
lays its snares for the weak and unwary at every street corner, in the
midst of these evils, it is both instructive and interesting to go back a
hundred years, and see how the same battle was fought against poverty,
ignorance, and vice, in a little village of Switzerland. If, in " Leonard
and Gertrude," we find the picture even darker than we behold it in
this country to-day, this should be an encouragement to us, as a sign
that the world is growing bet t er; but there is so much need of
regeneration, even under our improved conditions, that Pestalozzi's
little book cannot fail to be a help to every thoughtful person who
reads it.
There is a quaint simplicity and naturalness about it which would
certainly make it intelligible to all classes, and it might do untold good
if placed in the hands of those people, both young and old, who are
especially in need of the lessons it teaches. But its ethical value is by
no means its only merit. The book has an intense living interest, and
we can hardly divest ourselves of the impression that its characters
really breathe and speak.
Dr. G. Stanley Hall says in his Introduction: " It is a story of deep
and ardent love, not for an individual, but for the wretched, the weak,
and for children. It is of peasants who kick their wives, of hungry
children who steal a handful of raw potatoes, and who only on gala-
days have the cream left on their milk; of literal dunghills and stable
drains. It is, moreover, fairly packed with incident and character.
The hypocrite, the fool, the gossip, the miser, the sot, the sycophant,
the schemer, the just judge, the good parson, the intriguing woman
from the court, the old schoolmaster enraged at a new departure in
education, the quack doctor sentenced to dig the graves of those he
kills, and many more, stand out from these pages in as sharp relief as
words can well paint them.
1-
'
Of the many notices furnished by the press, testifying to the value
and interest of the work, a few are subjoined :
. Mrs. E. D. Che ne y, i n La w a nd
Order : This chaiming little story
gives the history of a small German
village which was redeemed fiom vice,
immorality, and poverty by the wise
administration of a benevolent land-
lord, seconded by the influence of a
good mother and an intelligent teacher.
Are not these just the influences that
are needed to redeem our towns and
villages from vice, intemperance, and
crime, to sobriety, industry, and com-
fort? We are apt to consider the
tempeiance movement as a modem
reform ; but Pestalozzi presents an un-
scrupulous innkeeper, who tempts the
men to waste their substance in drink-
ing, as the very embodiment of evil in
the community.
Pr o v i de nc e Sunda y St ar : Un-
der the veil of a sweet stoiy, the princi-
ples of love, of virtue, of learning, and
of right, of respect and reverence for
women, and of detestation of vice, are
clearly brought out, and the great
writer of a past century has given to
his period noble sentiments that be-
long to all time, nor are confined to a
single land.
San Fr a nc i s c o Ev e ni ng Bul l e-
t i n : It is a story full of inteiest and
action, of wit and wisdom, of humor
and pathos.
Pe nns y l v a ni a Sc hool J our nal :
Even those who do not care for Pes-
talozzi's educational theories will find
Leonard and Gertrude interesting for
the sweetness of the story and the emi-
nently faithful, delineation of Swiss
scenery and peasant life therein de-
picted.
Ann Ar bor Uni v e r s i t y : The
book is so catholic that we wonder
that the Associated Charities have not
claimed it as a text-book of theii ac-
tivities ; the advocates of the industrial
schools adopted it as setting forth their
views, and the state prison reformers
quoted it from their standpoint. It
can be heartily recommended to all, its
very blemishes being wholesome.
Ohi o Educ at i onal Mo nt hl y :
This is a lealistic tale of peasant life
in Euiope a hundred yeais ago. It
breathes tender love for the weak and
wretched, and especially for childreri.
Gertrude is the " excellent woman," the
true wife and mother, in a miserable
hamlet where nothing thrives but the
alehouse. This good woman training
her childien presents the author's ideal
of home education. The story, as a
whole, is a picture of the renovation
and elevation of a degraded commu-
nity by woman's love and devotion.
Zi on' s He r al d : It is a simple story
of Swiss life, in which are portrayed the
great schoolmaster's manner of teach-
ing and illustrating the morals and vir-
tues of daily life, his mode of develop-
ing the humblest lives, and of laboring
successfully for the uplifting of society.
A gentle?nan of Boston, who comes in contact with many young
men without means or employment, thinks the book would be of es-
pecial benefit to them. He writes to the publishers : " I am charmed
with Pestalozzi's
1
Leonard and Ger t r ude' ; henceforth it will be one of
my bibles.'
1
D. C HEATH & CO., Publishers,
BOSTON, NEW YORK, AND CHICAGO.
Monographs on Education.
M
ANY contributions to the theory or the practice of teaching are
yearly lost.to the profession, because they are embodied in arti-
cles which are too long, or too profound, or too limited as to number
of interested readers, for popular magazine articles, and yet not suffi-
ci ent in volume for books. We propose to publish from time to time,
under the title of Monographs on Education, just such essays, prepared
by specialists, choice in matter, practical in treatment, and of unques-
tionable value to teachers. Our plan is to furnish the monographs in
paper covers, and at low prices. We shall continue the series as long
as teachers buy freely enough to allow the publishers to recover merely
the money invested.
For the plait of publication, and for the series so far as issued, we
have many good words, such a$ the following:
Sc i e nc e , New York: Every teacher
should welcome such contributions to
pedagogics when presented in so at-,
tractive a form.
Sc ho o l Educ a t i o n: Heath & Go.
are doing the profession a service in pub-
lishing these monographs. {Jan., 1887.)
Ann Arbor Chr oni c l e : They are
the best things of the kind in the country,
and are worth the careful attention of all
our students of pedagogy. {Dec. 18, 1886. )
N. E. J our nal : A series that will be
gladly welcomed- by teachers. This is a
capital plan, worthy of hearty encourage-
ment. {Feb. 24, 1887.)
Uni v e r s i t y Quar t e r l y: These are
valuable contributions to the theory and
practice of teaching, . {April, 1887.)
S. W. J our nal of Educ a t i o n:
A valuable series, and teachers would do
jvell to subscribe for them. {Dec, 1886.)
The Hart f ord Po s t : These motio-
Waphs are of $he utmost importance;
and mark an epoch in educational'
matters. {Nov. 22, 1886.)
( i
Educ at i onal Gazet t e, Rochester,
N.Y.r All admiiable little works on their
respective subjects. {January, 1887. )
Wi s c o ns i n J our nal of Educ a-
t i o n: The series deserves the patron-
age of teachers. {November, 1886.)
The Cri ti c, NY.: This series has
alteady shown that it has a place.
Buf f al o Ex pr e s s : They are exceed-
ingly interesting and suggestive. Eveiy
teacher of these times ought to freshen
up his thoughts by the peiusal of such
essays as these; and their value Hvill be
found to lie not only in tne suggestions
they make, and the errors they point
out, but in the stimulus they impart to a
teacher's own powers of investigation
and invention, {March 13, 1887.)
E. S. Cox, Stept. of Schools, Ports-
mouth, Ohio: I cannot commend too
highly your Monographs on Education.
{Jan. i
3 >
1887.)
Levana; or, the Doctrine of Education.
A Translation from J EAN PAUL FREDERICH RICHTER. 5 by 7 ^ inches.
Cloth, xliv + 4 1 3 pages. Price by mail, $ 1 . 3 5 ; Introduction price, $ 1 . 2 5 .
" ^ ^ E add this volume to our series of *Educational Classics" in
the belief that it will tend to ameliorate that department of
education which is most neglected and yet needs most care, home
training.
Among other topics, it treats of:
The Impoitance of Education. Development of the Desire for Intel-
The Spirit and Principle of Education. lectual Progress.
To Discover and to Appreciate the Speech and
s
Writing.
Individuality of the Ideal Man. Attention and the Power of Adaptive
Religious Education. Combination.
The Beginning of Education. Development of Wit.
The J oyousness of Children. Development of Reflection.
Games of Children. Abstraction and Self-Knowledge, to-
Music. gether with an extra paragraph on
Commands, Prohibitions, Punish- the Powers of Action and Business.
ments. On the Education of the Recollection
Physical Education. not of the Memory.
Female Education. ' Development of the Sense of Beauty.
The Moral Education of Boys. Classical Education.
A Descriptive Bibliography of Education.
Arranged by topics. By G. STANLEY HALL, Professor of Psychology and
Pedagogy, J ohns Hopkins University, and J OHN M. MANSFIELD. 5 ^ by
7 ^ inches. Cloth, xv + 3 0 9 pages. Price by mail, # 1 . 7 5 . Introduction
price, $ 1 . 6 0 . Interleaved edition, $ 2 . 0 0 .
T N his preface to this book, Dr. Hall says :
In the field of more strictly pedagogic literature, which is rela-
tively
;
limited, the material is yet far too great to be mastered in a life-
time of the most diligent reading, and the reading time of most
teachers is quite limited. Hence they cannot be too select in their
choice of books. . . . The habit of reading what is beneath one's
level, whether fostered by a sense of duty, or, worst of all, by a false
sense of the authority of things printed, is belittling, and the exact
inverse of educational.
" Teachers who will be as select in their reading as we should all
be in the society we keep, and who will vigorously reject the second
best, to say nothing of the t ent hs or twentieth best, and making all
reasonable reservations, may, I believe, in the time at their disposal,
and now squandered on print unworthy of them, reasonably hope to
master most of the best, if they confine themselves to one language
and one department.
" To do this, however, not only is some hardihood of self-denial, but
also some knowledge of the good and evil in pedagogic print, needed,
and just this is what American teachers are at present seeking with
more interest and in more ways, as I believe, than ever before. In
seeking the best there is much to mislead and little to guide teachers.
In the great work of designating and grouping the best, the present
volume is only a hint, a first suggestion. It is, in the phrase of an
educational leader td whom its writer has been chiefly indebted for
suggestions during its preparation, only a foot-path roughly blazed,
and by no means a finished highway, though the latter may eventually
follow about this course. . . .
" In the general reading of every teacher, of whatever grade, should
be included some work on the history of education, and some psycho-
logical and some hygienic literature. Every teacher should also select
some departnfent or topic, connected in many cases probably with the
teaching they prefer, about which the reading should centre. In this
field they would in time come to know the best that had been done or
said, and themselves become more or less an authoritative * centre of
information for others about them, and perhaps make contributions
that would render many their debtors, not only by positive additions
to their knowledge, but in guiding their reading, which is one of the
greatest aids one person can render another. As teachers thus gradu-
ally become specialists in some such limited sense, their influence will
do more than has yet been accomplished to realize the ideal of making
their work professional in a way in some degree worthy that high term,
and they will be able gradually to effect a greatly needed reform in the
present character of text-books, and all who would lead in public school
education will slowly come to see the need of thorough and extended
professional study."
N. B. J our, of Educ a t i o n : Prof.
G. Stanley Hall's Bibliography of Educa-
tional Literatuie promises to be the
most valuable teacher's aid in Jome
study ever issued.
We know of no man who is better
equipped for such service; and he has
taken the time and been given all the
assistance necessary for the perfection of
the enterprise.
ENGLISH.
Hyde's Lessons in English. Book I. (Price, 3 5 cents.)
For third and fourth years of school. Contains exercises for reproduction, picture
lessons, letter-writing, uses of parts of speech, etc.
Hyde's Lessons in English. Book II. (Price, 54 cents.)
For grammar schools. Has enough technical grammar for correct use of language.
Meiklejohn's English Grammar. (Price, 8 0 cents.)
Also composition, versification, paraphrasing, etc. For high schools and colleges.
Meiklejohn's English Literature. (Price, 8 0 cents.)
For high schools and colleges. A compact and reliable statement of the essentials.
Meiklejohn's English Language. (Price, $ 1 . 3 0 . )
The above* two books in one volume. Readable style. Treats salient features with a
master's skill and with the utmost clearness and simplicity.
Williams''s Composition and Rhetoric by Practice. (Price, 75 cents.)
For high school and college. Combines the smallest amount of theory with an abun-
dance of practice.
Strang's Exercises in English. (Price, 3 0 cents.)
Examples in Syntax, Accidence, and Style for criticism and correction.
Hodgkin's Studies in English Literature. (Price, 5 cent s; $ 3 . 0 0 per hund. )
Gives full list of aids for laboratory method. Twenty-four authors. A separate pam-
phlet for each author.
plujfcttt's English in the Preparatory School. (Price, 1 5 cents.)
Presents, as practically as possible, some of the advanced methbds of teaching English
grammar and composition in the secondary schools.
Woodward's Study of English. (Price, 1 5 cents. )
Discusses English teaching from primary school to high collegiate work.
Genung's Study of Rhetoric. (Price, 1 5 cents.)
Shows the most practical discipline of students for the making of literature.
George's Wordsworth's Prelude. (Price, paper, 5 0 cents; cloth, $ 1 . 0 0 . )
For high school and college. The only separate edition now in print.
George's Selections from Wordsworth. (In press. )
Corson's Introduction to Browning. (Price, paper, 5 0 cent s; cloth, $ 1 . 4 0 . )
A guide to the Study of Browning's Poetry. Also has thirty-three poems with notes.
Cook's Judith. (Price, $ 1 . 25 . )
The old English Epic poem, with introduction, translation, and glossary.
Simond's Sir Thomas Wyatt and his Poems. (In press.)
D. 0. HEATH & CO., Publishers,
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