Inuence of porosity on compressive and tensile strength of cement mortar

Xudong Chen

, Shengxing Wu, Jikai Zhou

College of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
h i g h l i g h t s
" Strength and porosity of cement mortar has been measured.
" Strength decreases with increasing porosity.
" Suitability of existing expressions relating strength and porosity is assessed.
" Extended Zheng model is good representation of experimental data.
" Compressive/tensile strength ratio decreases with increase porosity.
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 5 July 2012
Received in revised form 26 September
2012
Accepted 21 November 2012
Keywords:
Strength
Porosity
Cement mortar
a b s t r a c t
The compressive, exural and splitting tensile strength of cement mortar has been measured and inter-
preted in terms of its porosity. The authors rst reviewed the existing porositystrength relationships
(Ryshkewithch, Schiller, Balshin and Hasselman model) and assessed the suitability of existing relation-
ships. The Zheng model for porous materials has been used to evaluate the porositystrength relationship
of cement mortar. Over the porosity ranges examined, the extended Zheng model is good representation
of the experimental data on the strength of cement mortar. Based on the generality of the assumptions
used in the derivation of the extended Zheng model, this model for cement mortar can be applied for
other cement-based materials. The experimental data also show that the ratio between compressive
strength and indirect tensile (splitting tensile and exural) strength of cement mortar is not constant,
but is porosity dependent. The ratio decreases with increase porosity values of cement mortar.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The fact that a reduction of porosity in a solid material increases
its strength in general, and the strength of cement-based materials
in particular, was recognized long ago [13]. It has also been dis-
covered that porosity has an important role in the frost resistance
of concrete [46]. Furthermore, porosity has a role in the relation-
ship between mechanical properties of concrete, such as the
compressive strength-modulus of elasticity relationship [7]. The
practical importance of durability of cement-based materials
created such an upsurge in research activities that our knowledge
concerning the relationship between pore structure and frost
resistance of concrete is much more complete than the strength
porosity relationship. This does not mean that no efforts have been
made for the development of quantitative relationships between
strength and porosity but rather that these efforts have been spo-
radic [810] and the results have less than satisfactory.
In the eld of more basic research, the pore structure of cement-
based materials has been a dominant topic [2,1114]. But experi-
mentally measurement of a relevant porosity parameter has
proved to be extremely difcult in cement-based materials,
because of the special character of the hydration products formed
[15]. Hence the results obtained will depend not only on the mea-
suring principle but also on the drying method used prior to the
porosity measurements [16]. But even with these problems solved,
a connection between the porosity and strength has to be estab-
lished. The inuence of porosity on the strength of cement-based
material has already been investigated. Taking an empirical ap-
proach, Powers [11] was able to deduce an equation which relates
the compressive strength of mortar cubes to a function of the gel-
space ratio. Schiller [17] using a theoretical approach deduced an
equation relation the strength of material to the porosity. He ap-
plied this equation to experimental data on gypsum plasters and
obtained a good t for compressive and tensile strengths. Some
excellent reviews [1820] of the effect of porosity on the strength
of concrete presented some of the more important empirical and
theoretical equation for relating strength to porosity. The profusion
of the possible equation is enormous and whilst one equation is
0950-0618/$ - see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.11.072

Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 25 83786551; fax: +86 26 83786986.

E-mail address: cxdong1985@hotmail.com (X. Chen).
Construction and Building Materials 40 (2013) 869874
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Construction and Building Materials
j our nal homepage: www. el sevi er . com/ l ocat e/ conbui l dmat
most suitable for one material a quite different equation is most
suitable for a second material. Clearly some simplication is
desirable. Despite the relatively large number of experimental
investigations that have been conducted to characterize the link
between strength and porosity, few systematic evaluations have
been extended beyond simple expressions for tensile or compres-
sive strength of a specic material. None of these encompasses
both compressive and tensile strength for cement-based materials.
The compressive and tensile strength of concrete are important
design parameters in civil engineering. The splitting tensile and
exural test has been reported as two indirect measure of the ten-
sile strength of cement-based materials [21,22]. It has been used
widely in practice due to its testing ease, simplicity of specimen
preparation, and possible eld applications.
The objective of this paper is to determine the compressive
strength, splitting tensile, and exural strength of cement mortar,
and to study how porosity inuences the magnitude of and the
relationship between these mechanical properties. In addition,
the existing strengthporosity relationship have been reviewed
and compared with experimental results.
2. Experimental details
2.1. Materials and mix compositions
An adequate number of series of cement mortar compositions were prepared to
study the strengthporosity relationship. Cement mortar samples were prepared
from ordinary Portland cement 42.5. The ne aggregate used for mortar specimens
was river quartzite sand. The sand was passed through a No. 4 sieve before use. Four
watercement ratio (w/c), 03, 0.5, 0.6 and 0.7, were used for cement mortar. The
corresponding sandcement ratio (s/c) for all cement mortars is 1.2. Mixing was
done in a small mixer. Casting was completed in two layers which were compacted
on a vibrating table. The cast specimens were covered with polyurethane sheet and
damped cloth in a 20 2 C chamber and were demoulded at the age of 1 day. For
strength and porosity tests, the specimens were cured in saturated limewater at
20 2 C until the test age 7 and 28 days.
2.2. Strength measurements
Compressive tests were run on specimens according to ASTM C 349 [23]. The
specimens (40 40 160 mm) were prepared according to ASTM C 348 [24]. Three
specimens were tested for each mix proportions. Flexural tests for exural strength
of the mix proportions were carried out on the long surface of prism specimens
using a bend tester (ASTM C 348 [24]). Similar to the compressive tests, exural
tests were carried out on triplicate specimens and average exural strength values
were obtained. Splitting tensile tests were run on cubical specimens
(70.7 70.7 70.7 mm) according to BS 1881-117 [25].
2.3. Determination of porosity
After the exural tests, three pieces from each specimen were weighed under
water and in the saturated surface-dry (SSD) [26] condition, thus enabling the bulk
volume to be calculated. It was assumed that any volume change during drying or
re-saturation was negligible; this volume was used to calculate the bulk density of
each sample after drying (in the worst case, the bulk volume change due to drying
would be approximately 1.5% [26,27]). Each specimen was then dried in a carbon-
dioxide free oven at 105 C until it reached constant weight. The difference in
weight between in the water-saturated and oven-dry conditions was used to calcu-
late the porosity expressed as a percentage of the bulk specimen volume. The data
which are presented are the average of three replicates. The porosity was calculated
using the following equation:
p
W
ssd
W
d

W
ssd
W
w

100% 1
where p is the porosity (100%), W
ssd
is the specimen weight in the saturated surface-
dry (SSD) condition (g), W
d
is the specimen dry weight after 24 h in oven (g), and W
w
is the weight of saturated specimen (g).
This method has been used to measure the porosity of the cement-based mate-
rials successfully [15,2830].
3. Test results and discussion
Quite a few relationships involving strength and porosity of
engineering materials have been reported in the literature [20].
Historically, several general types of model have been developed
for cement-based materials.
Balshin [31], from his study of the tensile strength of metal
ceramics, suggested the relation (Eq. (2)):
r r
0
1 p
b
2
where r is the strength, r
0
is the strength at zero porosity, b is the
empirical constant.
Ryshkewitch [32], from a study of the compressive strength of
Al
2
O
3
and ZrO
2
, obtained the relation (Eq. (3)):
r r
0
e
kp
3
where k is the empirical constant.
Schiller [17], on the basis of the study of set sulfate plasters,
proposed the relation (Eq. (4)):
r n ln
p
0
p

4
where n is the empirical constant, p
0
is the porosity at zero strength.
Hasselman [33] suggested the equation of a linear relationship
between strength and porosity for different refractory materials
(Eq. (5)):
r r
0
cP 5
where c is the empirical constant.
Results of tting previously mentioned models of strength
porosity relations are given in Figs. 13. Values of parameters r
0
in models of Hasselman, Balshin, and Ryshkewithch correspond
to the strength of nonporous material or equivalently to the
extrapolated strength of specimens to the zero porosity. It should
also be mentioned that the estimated value of the parameter r
0
(strength at zero porosity) may not always provide a reliable esti-
mate of the material nonporous response. Other microscopic aws
remaining in the material under these conditions can control its
strength, and this aspect is not explicitly taken into account in
the above models. Hence, one should be careful with how this t-
ting parameter is used in practical applications. For cement-based
materials, the constant r
0
contains microstructure factors in-
volved, like density of cement particle and CSH, particle size dis-
tribution and size, and density of aws [3436]. The model of
Fig. 1. Experimental data on compressive strengthporosity dependence. Graphs of
the best t obtained for existing models tested are shown.
870 X. Chen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 40 (2013) 869874
Schiller has a vertical asymptote at zero porosity, and the value of
parameter k depends on the base of the logarithm so its value is
merely a way of obtaining the best t. The values of those param-
eters are approximately the same all mixes studied. Simple linear
relationship of Hasselman model shows articial intercept with
the abscissa at porosity less than the initial porosity and predicts
negative strength at higher porosities. A pore-initiated-failure
model for glass at low values of strength at higher porosity was of-
fered by Hasslman [37] in the explanation of the load-bearing
areas. In treating failure initiation from this complex, Hasselman
and Fulrath [38] used the cylindrical model solved by Bowie [39]
and assumed that crack extension parallel to the surface of the
specimen triggered catastrophic failure. As shown in Figs. 13,
the model of Hasselman overestimates the observed strength drop
with increasing porosity. Thus, although Hasselmans model ap-
pears to embody a rational concept, it is quantitatively subject to
question. Recently, Hyun et al. [40] suggested that the empirical
constant b in Balshins model is related with the stress concentra-
tion around pores in the porous materials. The stress concentration
factor of the pores depends on the pore geometry and orientation
with the direction of applied stress. Although the equation of Bal-
shins model is different from Hasselmans model, the basic con-
cept in these two models is similar, since load bearing area and
stress concentration around the pores are closely related to each
other. For example, the loading bearing area is reduced with
increasing the porosity, which causes stress concentration around
the pores [41,42]. Ryshkewitchs model is based on the assumption
that the relative strength of porous material is equal to the ratio of
the minimum solid area to the cell area normal to the reference
stress [43]. Rice [44] suggested that the Hasselman model have
shown to less accurate than the minimum solid area approach.
However, it is generally found that the minimum solid area can
be related to the porosity of relatively low volume fraction of
porosity [45,46] (p 6 0.4 p
c
, where p
c
is the critical porosity that
corresponds to the percolation limit of the solid phase). Also, the
assumption of the Ryshkewiths model, namely, that (a) the appli-
cation of a hydrostatic pressure to the composite sphere assem-
blage can adequately represent the stress and strain response to
other stresses and that the pressure is uniformly experienced by
all of the various hollow spheres comprising the model body, and
(b) Poissons ratio can either increase and decrease with increasing
porosity, with it converging to a xed value, are open to question
[41]. For the model of Balshin, the value of b is merely a way of
obtaining the best t and have no physical signicance, thus leav-
ing us with no respective to predict this value. Although the initial
porosity of the material enters in the model of Schiller, the pre-
dicted strength increase with the decrease in porosity is too high
and better t is obtained if both p
0
and n are tted freely. It is also
shown in Figs. 13 that Ryshkewithchs exponential and Schillers
logarithmic formulae for the strength of cement mortar are numer-
ically indistinguishable except in the neighborhood of the ex-
tremes of 0% and 100% porosity. In general the overestimated
zero-porosity strength is a consequence of tting strength data
using the models of Ryshkewithch and Schiller.
It is necessary to point out that the models summarized above,
which were based on specic structures. The microstructural evo-
lution of a material with increasing porosity is a 3D connectivity
problem. According to the percolation theory, there exist two crit-
ical porosity levels [46,47]. When the porosity reaches the critical
porosity value p
c
1
, a microstructural transition occurs from fully
isolated and closed pores with nearly spherical or ellipsoidal
shapes to open and interconnected with complex shapes. Finally,
the effective strength or elastic modulus vanishes when the poros-
ity reaches the second critical value (p
c
).
Grifths model of fracture [48] is usually taken as a classic the-
ory to explain how the mechanical performance is related to poros-
ity. Grifth found that the critical stress incurs crack propagation
within a brittle material and can be expressed by:
r

2Ec
pa
r
6
where E is the modulus of elasticity, c is the fracture surface energy
and a is the half length of an internal crack.
Ficker [49] suggested that the average value of pore size in por-
ous materials can be written as,
r
p
c
p
p
c

m
7
where r is the average value of pore size; m is the ratio of calculated
average distance to the nearest pore, m reects the randomness of
pore distribution, the degree of randomness can be sued to classify
the distribution of porosity in each location, if m is close to 1, the
pores are considered randomly distributed, for m less than 1, the
pore distribution is classied as clustered, for cement-based mate-
rials, m = 0.85 [50]; p
c
is the percolation porosity at failure
threshold.
Fig. 2. Experimental data on exural strengthporosity dependence. Graphs of the
best t obtained for existing models tested are shown.
Fig. 3. Experimental data on splitting tensile strengthporosity dependence.
Graphs of the best t obtained for existing models tested are shown.
X. Chen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 40 (2013) 869874 871
Therefore, according to the brittle fracture theory proposed by
Grifth [48] early in 1920, Zheng et al. [50] suggested that the
strength of porous materials with porosity p can be written as:
r a
p
c
p
p
c

m=2
K
Ic
8
K
Ic

2cE
p
9
where K
Ic
is the fracture toughness of porous material; a is a coef-
cient concerning stress state.Wagh et al. [51] given the porosity
dependence of the fracture toughness as:
K
Ic
K
Ico
p
c
p
p
c

1 p
2=3

1=2
10
where K
Ico
is the fracture toughness of pore-free material.
An important feature that differentiates Eq. (10) from other
expressions [44,52] relating the fracture toughness to porosity is
that it takes into account the effect of stress concentration induced
by the presence of pore. It has been demonstrated experimentally
[53] and theoretically [18,39,54] that the stress concentration due
to the presence of pores and the annular crack pore stress eld
interaction effects are so large that they cannot be neglected.
Substituting Eq. (10) into (8), one obtains:
r a K
Ico
p
c
p
p
c

1m
1 p
2=3

" #
1=2
11
Assuming that r
0
= aK
Ico
is the strength of pore-free materials, then
the following equation can be easily obtained:
r r
0
p
c
p
p
c

1:85
1 p
2=3

" #
1=2
12
The theoretical curves for strength against porosity are shown
in Figs. 46. The experimental results are generally in good agree-
ment with the theoretical curves. The application of the theoretical
equation to the experimental data leads to the constants given in
Table 1. The extended Zhengs model is a rigorous mathematical
formula that of a simple symmetry. It postulates no assumptions
on either physical properties or processes or microstructures. Thus,
it is believe that the extended Zhengs model reects the random
nature of microstructure in cement-based materials. This model
requires two parameters to dene the strength characteristics of
cement mortar and the parameter r
0
and p
c
can account the
changes in loading regime (splitting tension, exure or
compression).
4. Relation between compressive and indirect tensile strength
of cement mortar
The exural and splitting tensile tests are much cheaper, sim-
pler and quicker to carry out because the samples are smaller,
and the set up time for the tests is much less. All quantitative data
reported so far referred exclusively to compressive strength [7]. In
this section, we explore the role of porosity and how it inuences
the correlation between indirect tensile and compressive strength.
From a number of other investigators [7,21,5557], a simple power
law model has become one of the most widely used analytical
models for describing the relationship between the indirect tensile
(splitting tensile/exural) strength and compressive strength of
concrete. From the experimental results, we can write a new
expression for the ratio between indirect tensile strength and com-
pressive strength, as a function of porosity: Fig. 4. Comparison of predicted and observed compressive strength.
Fig. 5. Comparison of predicted and observed exural strength.
Fig. 6. Comparison of predicted and observed splitting tensile strength.
Table 1
Estimated values for r
0
and p
c
.
Loading regime p
c
r
0
Corr. coeff. (R)
Compression 0.562 69.4 0.989
Splitting tension 0.768 9.74 0.996
Flexure 0.783 5.56 0.993
872 X. Chen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 40 (2013) 869874
r
C
r
F
4:12 p
0:236
13
r
C
r
S
7:45 p
0:221
14
where r
C
is the compressive strength of cement mortar (MPa); r
S
is
the splitting tensile strength of cement mortar (MPa); and r
F
is the
exural strength of cement mortar (MPa).
The empirical relationship suggested in Eqs. (13) and (14) are
plotted in Figs. 7 and 8. It can be seen that the predicted results
from Eqs. (13) and (14) showed a relative good relationship be-
tween porosity and compressive-indirect tensile strength ratio of
cement mortar. The correlation coefcient (R), which indicates
how much of the total variation in the dependent variable can be
accounted for by the regression equation, was obtained as 0.959
and 0.973 for Eqs. (13) and (14) in this study, respectively. Further-
more, it may be inferred from Figs. 7 and 8 that weaker (higher
porosity) cement mortar has a lower compressive strength-indi-
rect tensile strength ratio, whereas stronger cement mortar (lower
porosity) has higher compressive-indirect tensile strength ratio.
Odler and Robler [58] also suggested that the ratio of compressive
strength and split tensile strength is porosity dependent for
hydrated cement paste. They found a linear relation between
compressive/splitting tensile strength ratio and porosity. The ratio
decrease linearly with increase porosity values. That the trends
indicated by Eqs. (13) and (14) are in conformity with the ndings
of Odler and Robler [58].
5. Conclusions
The dependence of compressive, splitting tensile and exural
strength on porosity for cement mortar was analysed empirically
and theoretically in this paper. The following conclusions can be
drawn:
(1) Ryshkewithchs exponential and Schillers logarithmic for-
mulae for the porositystrength relationship of cement mor-
tar are numerically indistinguishable except in the
neighborhood of the extremes of 0% and 100% porosity. Sim-
ple linear relationship of Hasselman model shows articial
intercept with the abscissa at porosity less than the initial
porosity and predicts negative strength at higher porosities.
Although the initial porosity of the material enters in the
model of Schiller, the predicted strength increase with the
decrease in porosity is too high.
(2) Over the porosity ranges examined, the extend Zhengs
model are good representations of the experimental data
on the strength of cement mortar. This model requires two
parameters to dene the strength characteristics of cement
mortar and the parameters can account the changes in load-
ing regime (splitting tension, exure or compression). Based
on the generality of the assumptions used in the derivation
of the extended Zhengs model, this model for cement mor-
tar can be applied for other cement-based materials.
(3) The experimental data also show that the ratio between
compressive strength and indirect tensile (split-tensile and
exural) strength of cement mortar is not constant, but is
porosity dependent. The ratio decreases with increase poros-
ity values of cement mortar.
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to the National Natural Science Foun-
dation (Nos. 50979032 and 51178162) for the nancial support.
References
[1] Yudenfreund M, Hanna KM, Skalny J, Odler I, Brunauer S. Hardened Portland
cement paste of low porosity, V: compressive strength. Cem Concr Res
1972;2:73143.
[2] Auskern A, Horn W. Capillary porosity in hardened cement paste. J Test Eval
1973;1:749.
[3] Pantazopoulou SJ, Mills RH. Microstructural aspects of the mechanical
response of plain concrete. ACI Mater J 1995;92(6):60516.
[4] Hasan M, Ueda T, Sato Y. Stressstrain relationship of frost-damaged concrete
subjected to fatigue loading. J Mater Civil Eng 2008;20(1):3745.
[5] Zuber B, Marchand J. Modeling the deterioration of hydrated cement systems
exposed to frost action, Part 1: description of the mathematical model. Cem
Concr Res 2000;30:192939.
[6] Hain M, Wriggers P. Computational homogenization of micro-structural
damage due to frost in hardened cement paste. Finite Elem Anal Des
2008;44:23344.
[7] Popovics S. Method for developing relationships between mechanical
properties of hardened concrete. J Am Concr Inst 1973;70:7958.
[8] Popovics S. New formulas for the relationships for the prediction of the effect
of porosity on concrete strength. J Am Concr Inst 1985;82:13646.
[9] Pann KS, Yen T, Tang CW, Lin LD. New strength model based on watercement
ratio and capillary porosity. ACI Mater J 2003;100(4):3118.
[10] Lian C, Zhuge Y, Beecham S. The relationship between porosity and strength
for porous concrete. Constr Build Mater 2011;25:42948.
[11] Powers TC. Structure and physical properties of hardened Portland cement
paste. J Am Ceram Soc 1958;41(1):16.
[12] Diamond S, Dolch WL. Generalized log-normal distribution of pore sizes in
hydrated cement paste. J Colloid Interf Sci 1972;38(1):23444.
[13] Zhang M, Li H. Pore structure and chloride permeability of concrete containing
nano-particles for pavement. Constr Build Mater 2011;25(2):60816.
Fig. 7. Effect of porosity on the ratio between compressive strength and splitting
tensile strength of cement mortar.
Fig. 8. Effect of porosity on the ratio between compressive strength and exural
strength of cement mortar.
X. Chen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 40 (2013) 869874 873
[14] Das BB, Kondraivendhan B. Implication of pore size distribution parameters on
compressive strength, permeability and hydraulic diffusivity of concrete.
Constr Build Mater 2012;28(1):3826.
[15] Day RL, Marsh BK. Measurement of porosity in blended cement pastes. Cem
Concr Res 1988;18:6373.
[16] Vodak F, Trtik K, Kapickova O, Hoskova S, Demo P. The effect of temperature on
strengthporosity relationship for concrete. Cem Concr Res 2004;14:52934.
[17] Schiller KK. Strength of porous materials. Cem Concr Res 1971;1:41922.
[18] Kendall K, Howard AJ, Birchall JD, Parrt PL, Proctor BA, Jefferis SA. The relation
between porosity, microstructure and strength, and the approach to advanced
cement-based materials. Philo Trans Roy Soc Lond 1983;SA310(1511):13953.
[19] Kumar R, Bhattacharjee B. Porosity, pore size distribution and in situ strength
of concrete. Cem Concr Res 2003;33:15564.
[20] Li L, Aubertin M. A general relationship between porosity and uniaxial strength
of engineering materials. Can J Civil Eng 2003;30:64458.
[21] Raphel JM. Tensile strength of concrete. J Am Concr Inst 1984;81(2):15865.
[22] Torrent RJ. A general relation between tensile strength and specimen
geometry for concrete-like materials. Mater Struct 1977;10(4):18796.
[23] ASTM C349. Standard test method for compressive strength of hydraulic-
cement mortars (using portions of prisms broken in exure). ASTM C349-08,
Annu book ASTM Stand 04.01.
[24] ASTM C348. Standard test method for exural strength of hydraulic-cement
mortars. ASTM C348-02, Annu book ASTM Stand 04.01.
[25] BS 1881: Part 117. Testing concrete method for the determination of tensile
splitting strength. British Standard Institute.
[26] Galle C. Effect of drying on cement-based materials pore structure as identied
by mercury intrusion porosimetry, a comparative study between oven-,
vacuum-, and freeze-drying. Cem Concr Res 2001;31(10):146777.
[27] Brue F, Davy CA, Skoczylas F, Burlion N, Bournon X. Effect of temperature on
the water retention properties of two high performance concretes. Cem Concr
Res 2012;42(2):38496.
[28] Matusinovic T, Sipusic J, Vrbos N. Porositystrength relation in calcium
aluminate cement pastes. Cem Concr Res 2003;33:18016.
[29] Papayianni I, Stefanidou M. Strengthporosity relationships in lime-pozzolan
mortars. Constr Build Mater 2006;20:7005.
[30] Chindaprasirt P, Rukzon S. Strength, porosity and corrosion resistance of
ternary blend Portland cement, rice husk ash and y ash mortar. Constr Build
Mater 2008;22:16016.
[31] Balshin MY. Relation of mechanical properties of powder metals and their
porosity and the ultimate properties of porous-metal ceramic materials. Dokl
Askd SSSR 1949;67(5):8314.
[32] Ryshkevitch R. Compression strength of porous sintered alumina and zirconia.
J Am Ceram Soc 1953;36(2):658.
[33] Hasselman DPH. Grifth aws and the effect of porosity on tensile strength of
brittle ceramics. J Am Ceram Soc 1969;52:457.
[34] Roy DM, Gouda GR. Porositystrength relation in cementitious materials with
very high strengths. J Am Ceram Soc 1973;56:54950.
[35] Relis M, Soroka I. Compressive strength of low-porosity hydrated Portland
cement. J Am Ceram Soc 1980;63:6904.
[36] Li YX, Chen YM, Wei JX, He XY, Zhang HT, Zhang WS. A study on the
relationship between porosity of the cement paste with mineral additives and
compressive strength of mortar based on this paste. Cem Concr Res
2006;36:17403.
[37] Hasselman DPH. On the porosity dependence of the elastic moduli of
polycrystalline refractory materials. J Am Ceram Soc 1962;45:4523.
[38] Hasselman DPH, Fulrath RM. Effect of small fraction of spherical porosity on
elastic moduli of glass. J Am Ceram Soc 1964;47:523.
[39] Bowie OL. Analysis of an innite plate containing radial cracks originating at
the boundary of an internal circular hole. J Math Phys 1956;35(1):6071.
[40] Hyun SK, Murakami K, Nakajima H. Anisotropic mechanical properties of
porous copper fabricated by unidirectional solidication. Mater Sci Eng A
2001;299:2418.
[41] Rice RW. Comparison of stress concentration versus minimum solid area based
mechanical propertyporosity relations. J Mater Sci 1993;28:218790.
[42] Rice RW. Comparison of physical propertyporosity behavior with minimum
solid area models. J Mater Sci 1996;31:150928.
[43] Carniglia SC. Working model for porosity effects on the uniaxial strength of
ceramics. J Am Ceram Soc 1972;55(12):6108.
[44] Rice RW. Relation of tensile strengthporosity effects in ceramics to porosity
dependence of Youngs modulus and fracture energy, porosity character and
grain size. Mater Sci Eng A 1989;112:21524.
[45] Krstic VD. Porosity dependence of strength in brittle solids. Theor Appl Fract
Mec 1988;10:2417.
[46] Winslow DN, Cohen MD. Percolation and pore structure in mortars and
concrete. Cem Concr Res 1994;24:2537.
[47] Ye G. Percolation of capillary pores in hardening cement pastes. Cem Concr Res
2005;35:16776.
[48] Grifth AA. The theory of rupture and ow in solids. Trans Roy Soc Lond A
1920;221:63.
[49] Ficker T. Fractal strength of cement gels and universal dimension of fracture
surfaces. Theor Appl Fract Mec 2008;50:16771.
[50] Zheng M, Zheng X, Luo ZJ. Fracture strength of brittle porous materials. Int J
Fract 1992;58:515.
[51] Wagh AS, Singh JP, Poeppel RB. Dependence of ceramic fracture properties on
porosity. J Mater Sci 1993;28:358993.
[52] Roberts JTA, Ueda Y. Inuence of porosity on deformation and fracture of UO
2
. J
Am Ceram Soc 1972;55(2):11724.
[53] Palchik V, Hatzor YH. Crack damage stress as a composite function of porosity
and elastic matrix stiffness in dolomites and limestones. Eng Geol
2002;63:23345.
[54] Lawrence P, Majumdar AJ, Nurse RW. The application of the Mackenzie model
to the mechanical properties of cements. Cem Concr Res 1971;1:7599.
[55] Nielsen LF. Strength development in hardened cement paste: examination of
some empirical equations. Mater Struct 1993;26:25560.
[56] Rashid MA, Mansur MA, Paramasivam P. Correlations between mechanical
properties of high-strength concrete. J Mater Civil Eng 2002;14(3):2308.
[57] Choi Y, Yuan RL. Experimental relationship between splitting tensile strength
and compressive strength of GFRC and PFRC. Cem Concr Res
2005;35:158791.
[58] Older I, Robler M. Investigations on the relationship between porosity,
structure and strength of hydrated Portland cement pastes. II. Effect of pore
structure and degree of hydration. Cem Concr Res 1985;15:40110.
874 X. Chen et al. / Construction and Building Materials 40 (2013) 869874