The Hawthorne studies stimulated OB researchers to study the impact of

psychological factors on organizations.[citation needed] In his 191 !oo"# Human

$ro!lems of an Industrial %i&ilization# 'lton (ayo ad&ised managers to deal with
emotional needs of employees. The human relations mo&ement# an outgrowth of
the Hawthorne studies# in)uenced OB researchers to focus on teams# moti&ation#
and the actualization of indi&iduals* goals within organizations.
The +econd ,orld ,ar prompted a shift the -eld# as it turned its attention to
large.scale logistics and operations research. There was a renewed interest in
rationalist approaches to the study of organizations.[citation needed] Her!ert
+imon# /ames 0. (arch# and the so.called 1%arnegie +chool1 conducted
in)uential OB research. Other prominent OB researchers include %hester
Barnard# Henri 2ayol# 2rederic" Herz!erg# 3!raham (aslow# 4a&id (c%lelland#
and 5ictor 5room# 4ouglas (c0regor# 6arl ,eic" and (ary $ar"er 2ollett.
In the 1978s and 1998s# the -eld !ecame more :uantitati&e and produced such
ideas as !ounded rationality# the informal organization# and resource
dependence. %ontingency theory# institutional theory# and organizational ecology
also emerged.[citation needed]
+tarting in the 19;8s# cultural e<planations of organizations and organizational
change !ecame areas of study. Informed !y anthropology# psychology and
sociology# :ualitati&e research !ecame more accepta!le in OB.[citation needed]
%urrent state of the -eld[edit]
=esearch in and the teaching of OB can !e found in uni&ersity management
departments as well as psychology departments and !usiness schools. In the >6
particularly# OB graduate training is part of the re:uirements to !ecome an
occupational psychologist. [9]
?uestion !oo".new.s&g
This section does not cite any references or sources. $lease help impro&e this
section !y adding citations to relia!le sources. >nsourced material may !e
challenged and remo&ed. @/une A81BC
4uring the last A8 years# there ha&e !een additional de&elopments in OB
research and practiceD
3nthropology has !ecome increasingly in)uential# and led to the idea that one
can understand -rms as communities# !y introducing concepts such as
organizational culture# organizational rituals# and sym!olic acts.[1]
Eeadership studies !ecame part of OB.
OB researchers ha&e shown increased interest in ethics and its importance in an
organization.[citation needed]
OB researchers ha&e !ecome interested in the aesthetic sphere of organizations#
[18] drawing on theories and methods from the humanities# including theater#
literature# music# and art.
(ethods used[edit]
3 &ariety of methods are used in organizational !eha&ior# many of which are
found in other social sciences.
?uantitati&e research[edit]
(ain articleD ?uantitati&e research
+tatistical methods[11][1A] commonly used in OB research includeD
3FO53
%orrelation
(eta.analysis
(ultile&el modeling
(ultiple regression
Fon.parametric statistics
+tructural e:uation modeling
Time series analysis
%omputer simulation[edit]
(ain articleD %omputer simulation and organization studies
%omputer simulation is a prominent method in organizational !eha&ior.[1] ,hile
there are many uses for computer simulation# most OB researchers ha&e used
computer simulation to understand how organizations or -rms operate. (ore
recently# howe&er# researchers ha&e also started to apply computer simulation to
understand indi&idual !eha&ior at a micro.le&el# focusing on indi&idual and
interpersonal cognition and !eha&ior[1B] such as the thought processses and
!eha&iors that ma"e up teamwor".[1G]
?ualitati&e research[edit]
(ain articleD ?ualitati&e research
?ualitati&e research[11] consists of a num!er of methods of in:uiry that
generally do not in&ol&e the :uanti-cation of &aria!les. ?ualitati&e methods can
range from the content analysis of inter&iews or written material to written
narrati&es of o!ser&ations. +ome common methods includeD
'thnography
+ingle and multiple case analysis
0rounded theory approaches
Historical methods
Topics[edit]
%ounterproducti&e wor" !eha&ior[edit]
(ain articleD %ounterproducti&e wor" !eha&ior
%ounterproducti&e wor" !eha&ior consists of !eha&ior !y employees that harm
or intended to harm organizations and people in organizations.[17]
4ecision.ma"ing[edit]
(ain articleD 4ecision.ma"ing
=ational planning model
Formati&e decision.ma"ing @concerned with how decision should is ordinarily
madeC
4escripti&e decision.ma"ing @concerned with how a thin"er arri&es at a
HudgmentC
$rescripti&e decision.ma"ing @aims to impro&e decision.ma"ingC
'mployee mistreatment[edit]
There are se&eral types of mistreatment that employees endure in organizations
including a!usi&e super&ision# !ullying# inci&ility# and se<ual harassment.
3!usi&e super&ision[edit]
(ain articleD 3!usi&e super&ision
3!usi&e super&ision is the e<tent to which a super&isor engages in a pattern of
!eha&ior that harms su!ordinates.[19]
Bullying[edit]
(ain articleD ,or"place !ullying
3lthough de-nitions of wor"place !ullying &ary# it in&ol&es a repeated pattern of
harmful !eha&iors directed towards an indi&idual.[1;] In order for a !eha&ior to
!e termed !ullying# the indi&idual or indi&iduals doing the harm ha&e to ha&e
either singly or Hointly more power than the &ictim.
Inci&ility[edit]
(ain articleD ,or"place inci&ility
,or"place inci&ility consists of low.intensity discourteous and rude !eha&ior with
am!iguous intent to harm that &iolates norms go&erning appropriate wor"place
!eha&ior.[19]
+e<ual harassment[edit]
(ain articleD +e<ual harassment
+e<ual harassment is !eha&ior that denigrates or mistreats an indi&idual due to
his or her gender# creates an oIensi&e wor"place# and interferes with an
indi&idual !eing a!le to do the Ho!.[A8]
Teams[edit]
(ain articleD Team
/o!.related attitudes and emotions[edit]
Organizational !eha&ior deals with employee attitudes and feelings.
/o! satisfaction is the feelings one has a!out the Ho! or facets of the Ho!# such as
pay or super&ision[A1]
Organizational commitment is the e<tent to which employees feel attachment to
their organization.[AA]
'motional la!or concerns the re:uirement that employees display certain
emotions# li"e smiling at customers.[A]
Eeadership[edit]
(ain articleD Eeadership
There ha&e !een a num!er of approaches and theories that concern leadership.
'arly theories focused on characteristics of leaders# while later theories focused
on leader !eha&ior# and conditions under which indi&iduals can !e eIecti&e.
+ome leadership approaches and theories includeD
%ontingency theory says that good leadership depends on characteristics of the
leader and the situation.[AB]
Eeader.mem!er e<change theory or E(J focus on relationships !etween
indi&idual super&isor.su!ordinate pairs.[AG]
Ohio +tate Eeadership +tudies identi-ed the dimensions of consideration
@showing concern and respect for su!ordinatesC and initiating structure
@assigning tas"s and setting performance goalsC.[A7][A9]
$ath.goal theory is a contingency theory lin"ing appropriate leader style to
organizational conditions# and su!ordinate personality.[A;]
Transformational leadership theory concerns the !eha&iors leaders do that
inspire followers to high le&els of moti&ation and performance. =elated to
charismatic leadership that is part of transformational.[A9]
(anagerial roles[edit]
(ain articleD (intz!erg*s managerial roles
In the late 1978s Henry (intz!erg# a graduate student at (IT# carefully studied
the acti&ities of -&e e<ecuti&es. On the !asis of his o!ser&ations# (intz!erg
arri&ed at three categories that su!sume managerial rolesD interpersonal rolesK
decisional rolesK and informational roles.[8]
(oti&ation[edit]
(ain articleD (oti&ation
Baron and 0reen!erg @A88;C[1] wrote that moti&ation in&ol&es 1the set of
processes that arouse# direct# and maintain human !eha&ior toward attaining
some goal.1
There are se&eral diIerent theories of moti&ation rele&ant to OB.
':uity theory[A]
'<pectancy theory[]
(aslow*s hierarchy of needs[B]
Incenti&e theory
Organizational /ustice theory[G]
2rederic" Herz!erg*s two.factor theory[7]
Theory J and Theory L[9]
Fational culture[edit]
Fational culture is thought to aIect the !eha&ior of indi&iduals in organizations.
This idea is e<empli-ed !y Hofstede*s cultural dimensions theory. Hofstede
sur&eyed a large num!er of cultures and identi-ed si< dimensions of national
cultures that in)uence the !eha&ior of indi&iduals in organizations.[;]
$ower distance
Indi&idualism &s. collecti&ism
>ncertainty a&oidance
(asculinity &s. femininity
Eong.term orientation &s. short term orientation
Indulgence &s. restraint
Organizational citizenship !eha&ior[edit]
(ain articleD Organizational citizenship !eha&ior
Organizational citizenship !eha&ior is !eha&ior that goes !eyond assigned tas"s
and contri!utes to the well.!eing of organizations.[9]
Organizational culture[edit]
(ain articleD Organizational culture
Organizational culture emphasizes the culture of the organization itself. This
approach presumes that organizations can !e characterized !y cultural
dimensions such as !eliefs# &alues# rituals# sym!ols# and so forth.[B8] ,ithin this
approach# the approaches generally consist of either de&eloping models for
understanding organizational culture or de&eloping typologies of organizational
culture. 'dgar +chein de&eloped a model for understanding organizational
culture and identi-ed three le&els of organizational cultureD
3rtifacts and Beha&iors
'spoused 5alues
+hared Basic 3ssumptions
+chein argued that if any of these three le&els were di&ergent tension would
resultD if# for e<ample# espoused &alues or desired !eha&iors were not consistent
with the !asic assumptions of an organisation it is li"ely that these &alues or
!eha&iors would !e reHected.
Typologies of organizational culture identi-ed speci-c organisational culture and
related these cultures to performance[B1] or eIecti&eness[BA] of the
organization.
$ersonality[edit]
(ain articleD $ersonality
$ersonality concerns consistent patterns of !eha&ior# cognition# and emotion in
indi&iduals.[B] The study of personality in organizations has generally focused
on the relation of speci-c traits to employee performance. There has !een a
particular focus on the Big 2i&e personality traits# which refers to -&e o&erarching
personality traits.
Occupational stress[edit]
(ain articleD Occupational stress
There are num!er of ways to characterize occupational stress. One way of
characterizing it is to term it an im!alance !etween Ho! demands @aspects of the
Ho! that re:uire mental or physical eIortC and resources that help manage the
demands.[BB]
,or".family[edit]
(ain articleD ,or".family con)ict
%hester Barnard recognized that indi&iduals !eha&e diIerently when acting in
their wor" role than when acting in roles outside their wor" role.[BG] ,or".family
con)ict occurs when the demands of family and wor" roles are incompati!le# and
the demands of at least one role interfere with the discharge of the demands of
the other.[B7]
Organization theory[edit]
Organization theory is concerned with e<plaining the organization as a whole or
populations of organizations. The focus of organizational theory is to understand
the structure and processes of organizations and how organizations interact with
industries and societies. ,ithin !usiness schools# organization theory or OT is
considered a separate specialization in management from OB.[citation needed]
Bureaucracy[edit]
(ain articleD Bureaucracy
(a< ,e!er argued that !ureaucracy in&ol&ed the application of rational.legal
authority to the organization of wor"# ma"ing !ureaucracy the most technically
eMcient form of organization.[B9] %harles $errow e<tended ,e!er*s wor"#
arguing that all organizations can !e understood in terms of !ureaucracy and
that organizational failures are more often a result of insuMcient application of
!ureaucratic principles.[B;]
,e!er*s principles of !ureaucratic organizationD
3 formal organizational hierarchy
(anagement !y rules
Organization !y functional specialty and selecting people !ased on their s"ills
and technical :uali-cations
3n 1up.focused1 @to organization*s !oard or shareholdersC or 1in.focused1 @to the
organization itselfC mission
$urposefully impersonal# applying the same rules and structures to all mem!ers
of the organization
'conomic theories of organization[edit]
Theory of the -rm
Transaction cost economics
3gency theory
Institutional theory[edit]
(ain articleD Institutional theory
Organizational ecology[edit]
(ain articleD Organizational ecology
Organizational ecology models apply concepts from e&olutionary theory to the
study of populations of organisations# focusing on !irth @foundingC# growth and
change# and death @-rm mortalityC. In this &iew# organizations are *selected*
!ased on their -t with their operating en&ironment.
Organization structures and dynamics[edit]
%omple<ity theory and organizations
2rench and =a&en*s -&e !ases of power[B9]
Hy!rid organization
Informal organization
=esource dependence theory
(intz!erg*s Organigraph
+cienti-c management[edit]
(ain articleD +cienti-c management
+cienti-c management refers to an approach to management !ased on
principles of engineering. It focuses on incenti&es and other practices empirically
shown to impro&e producti&ity.
+ystems theory[edit]
(ain articleD +ystems theory
The systems framewor" is also fundamental to organizational theory.
Organizations are comple<# goal.oriented entities.[G8] 3le<ander Bogdano&# an
early thin"er in the -eld# de&eloped his tectology# a theory widely considered a
precursor of BertalanIy*s general systems theory. One of the aims of general
systems theory was to model human organizations. 6urt Eewin# a social
psychologist# was in)uential in de&eloping a systems perspecti&e with regard to
organizations. He coined the term 1systems of ideology#1 partly !ased on his
frustration with !eha&iorist psychology# which he !elie&ed to !e an o!stacle to
sustaina!le wor" in psychology @see 3sh 199AD 19;.A89C. Fi"las Euhmann# a
sociologist# de&eloped a sociological systems theory.