Universidad Estatal a Distancia

Escuela de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades

Ctedra de Enseanza del Ingls
5184 Investigacin en la Enseanza del Ingls II




IMPROVING THE LEARNING PROCESS OF USING THE ARTICLE THE IN AN EFL
CLASSROOM FOR YOUNG SPANISH SPEAKERS BY APPLYING SOME S.L.A. AND
U.G. THEORIES
Jose Villanea Paniagua




November, 2012


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables and Graphs ............................................................................................................ 4
1 Chapter I - Introduction ............................................................................................................ 5
1.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 5
1.2. Justification of the study .......................................................................................................... 6
1.3. Main Objective......................................................................................................................... 7
1.3.1. Specific Objectives ............................................................................................................... 7
1.4. Statement of the problem ......................................................................................................... 8
1.5. Hypothesis................................................................................................................................ 8

2 Chapter II - Theoretical Framework ....................................................................................... 9
2.1. Literature Review..................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.1. Structures indirectly related (nouns) and linguistic aptitude .............................................. 10
2.1.2. Distinction of structures across languages .......................................................................... 11
2.1.3. Common, contrastive, and marked uses ............................................................................. 11
2.2. Population and Work Design ................................................................................................. 13
2.2.1. Population ........................................................................................................................... 13
2.2.1.1. Sample Population ........................................................................................................... 14
2.2.2. Work Design ....................................................................................................................... 15

3 Chapter III - Methodological Framework ............................................................................. 16
3.1. Study, Reasoning, and Approach ........................................................................................... 16
3.2. Description of the instruments ............................................................................................... 17
3.2.1. Instrument 1: Linguistic Aptitude (6.2.2) ........................................................................... 17
3.2.2. Instrument 2: Uses of the articles el/la in Spanish (6.2.3) ............................................... 18
3.2.3. Instrument 3: Uses of the article the in English (6.2.4) ................................................... 18
3.3. Validity and Reliability .......................................................................................................... 19
3.4. Procedure ............................................................................................................................... 19
3.5. The use of Data ...................................................................................................................... 20
3.6. Delimitations of the study ...................................................................................................... 20
3.7. Participants and their context ................................................................................................. 20
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4 Chapter IV - Analysis of Data Collected................................................................................ 21
4.1. General data analysis ............................................................................................................. 21
4.1.1. Instrument 1: Linguistic Aptitude ....................................................................................... 22
4.1.2. Instrument 2: Uses of the Articles el/la in Spanish ......................................................... 22
4.1.3. Instrument 3: Uses of the Article The in English ............................................................ 23
4.2. Detailed data analysis ............................................................................................................ 24
4.2.1. Structures indirectly related (nouns) and linguistic aptitude .............................................. 24
4.2.2. Common, contrastive, and marked uses ............................................................................. 26

5 Chapter V - Conclusions and Recommendations ................................................................. 32
5.1. Conclusions ............................................................................................................................ 32
5.2. Recommendations .................................................................................................................. 33

6 Chapter VI - Bibliography and Annexes ............................................................................... 35
6.1. Bibliography .......................................................................................................................... 35
6.2. Annexes.................................................................................................................................. 36
6.2.1. The uses of the article in English and Spanish ................................................................... 36
6.2.2. Instrument 1: Linguistic Aptitude ....................................................................................... 37
6.2.2.1. Answer Sheet for Instrument 1: Linguistic Aptitude ....................................................... 39
6.2.2.2. Results from Instrument 1: Linguistic Aptitude .............................................................. 40
6.2.3. Instrument 2: Uses of the articles el/la in Spanish .......................................................... 41
6.2.3.1. Answer Sheet for Instrument 2: Uses of the articles el/la in Spanish .......................... 43
6.2.3.2. Results from Instrument 2: Uses of the articles el/la in Spanish .................................. 44
6.2.4. Instrument 3: Uses of the Article The in English ............................................................ 46
6.2.4.1. Answer Sheet for Instrument 3: Uses of the Article The in English ............................ 48
6.2.4.2. Results from Instrument 3: Uses of the Article The in English ................................... 49




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LIST OF TABLES AND GRAPHS

Table 1 - Results from Instrument 1: Linguistic Aptitude .......................................................... 24
Graph 1 - Frequency of Errors from Instrument 1: Linguistic Aptitude .................................... 25
Table 2 - Results from Instruments 2 & 3 about Common Uses of Articles in L1 and L2 ......... 26
Graph 2 - Frequency of Errors from Instruments 2 & 3 about Common Uses of Articles in L1
and L2 ....................................................................................................................................... 27
Table 3 - Results from Instruments 2 & 3 about Contrastive Uses of Articles in L1 and L2 ..... 28
Graph 3 - Frequency of Errors from Instruments 2 & 3 about Contrastive Uses of Articles in L1
and L2 ....................................................................................................................................... 29
Table 4 - Results from Instrument 2 about Marked Uses of Articles in L1 ................................ 29
Graph 4 - Frequency of Errors from Instrument 2 about Marked Uses of Articles in L1 .......... 30



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1 Chapter I - Introduction
1.1. Introduction
Spanish speakers learning English as a foreign language have to face some linguistic
differences between these two languages in their education process. Among those differences,
we can find the correct ways to use the definite article, which we categorize as common,
contrastive, or marked. Common uses correspond to those that both languages present in the
same way, while marked uses makes use of it in only one of them. We know contrastive uses as
those found in opposite situations across languages.
This project deals with the exploration of how young Spanish speakers use the definite
article in different situations in both languages to analyze their errors (if any) and find any lack
of basic linguistic knowledge and/or language interference that holds them back from succeeding
in the EFL classroom. This project attempts to propose some educational solutions to their
difficulties by the end of the analysis process mentioned. At the same time, this process seeks to
test the consistency of some S.L.A. (Second Language Acquisition) and U.G. (Universal
Grammar) theories to find out if they correctly predict what errors and solutions will likely show
up in students performance for Spanish speakers context as they do for other speakers from
another backgrounds. The main reasons for this topic lay in the fact that previous studies have
explored this phenomenon for other structures or other languages, but none have done it with
Spanish speakers learning the uses of this grammatical unit in English as a foreign language.
Therefore, this topic brings a new area of study in the linguistic field.

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1.2. Justification of the study
The time has come to apply some of the knowledge gathered through these years of
studying English and teaching EFL. Most of the S.L.A. and U.G. theories studied during this
time explain in detail how speakers from different linguistic backgrounds may struggle or
succeed in this process. Normally, those theories take speakers of French, German, Chinese,
Japanese and rarely Spanish to set examples that explain the process of learning English as a
foreign language. The examples set for Spanish speakers usually explore only the lack of
presence of auxiliary in affirmative sentences, double negation, yes/no and open questions.
However, my teaching context regards Spanish speakers only. Therefore, applying all
those theories from a linguistic perspective to the acquisition of English grammar for Spanish
speakers seems appropriate. This will take place in a professional manner using the scientific
linguistic knowledge available in the field and at the same time come up with practical solutions
so the results of this study become useful for the everyday teacher. This study will explore some
articles as the first new grammar structure to investigate about for their simplicity in form and
complexity in use. Hopefully, the chance to explore other grammar units in the future with
similar studies will come in time.
The following assumptions will fully justify this project. First, learners present
difficulties acquiring the correct uses of the definite article in the target language. Second, some
possible causes for it correspond to the facts that they have not clearly understood some basic
grammar concepts such as parts of the speech, uses of proper nouns, singular vs. plural; count vs.
non-count; and non-specific vs. specific vs. generic uses of nouns in given contexts. Third, since
some correct uses of articles in L1 not only differ, but also contrast to L2, students currently
make mistakes using them. Lastly, since some of the uses of the article in English do not exist in
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Spanish and the other way around (marked uses), those uses have a higher level of difficulty for
students to acquire as the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis would predict.

1.3. Main Objective
To apply some Second Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar theories in the
learning process of the correct uses of the definite article the for young Spanish speakers
learning English as a foreign language to facilitate that learning process.

1.3.1. Specific Objectives
First, to compare and contrast the correct uses of the definite article the in English with
el/la in Spanish to determine the level of difficulty at acquiring the uses of the in English for
young Spanish speakers based on their mother tongue.
Second, to test childrens ability to use correctly the definite article in Spanish and
English to isolate the main source of possible errors using it.
Third, to compare and contrast childrens performance in both tests to find whether
general cognitive disorders, interference of the first language, or level of difficulty in the target
language caused those errors.
Forth, to establish different ways to improve the acquisition of the correct uses of the
definite article in English for young Spanish speakers based on the results from the tests used.

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1.4. Statement of the problem
How can EFL teachers apply some Second Language Acquisition and Universal
Grammar theories to facilitate the learning process of the correct uses of the definite article the
for young Spanish speakers in a public elementary school in Costa Rica?

1.5. Hypothesis
If using S.L.A. and U.G. theories to assess the students learning process of the article
the, then the students acquisition of that structure will definitely improve.

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2 Chapter II - Theoretical Framework
2.1. Literature Review
EFL teachers should base their teaching practice on linguistic theories to make it more
scientific. As Bocaz de Arriagada (1970, p.4) states, teaching EFL should include the application
not only of methods, but it also should apply linguistic theories. This position supports the fact
that teaching EFL means teaching a language and so it should use serious and scientific
knowledge about it. Yet, teachers may find a challenge in that statement. How can those theories
facilitate the learning process of EFL? For instance, teaching the correct uses of grammar
structures across languages such as the definite article the in English vs. el/la in Spanish
should include the application of those theories, concepts and principles. The importance of this
study lays in a practical application of those theories in a real context in order to facilitate the
teaching process and to help it become more scientific and not only empirical. This research
project looks for the answer to the following question: How can EFL teachers apply some S.L.A.
and U.G. theories to facilitate the learning process of the correct uses of the definite article the
for young Spanish speakers in a public elementary school in Costa Rica?
The specification of the variables, theories, concepts and principles applied in this project
will lead to a clear understanding of this question. To summarize those variables and the theories
related to them, we need to explain them further:


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2.1.1. Structures indirectly related (nouns) and linguistic aptitude
If students have difficulties learning the correct uses of articles in the target language, we
should cover some factors that may relate to their difficulties such as the Analysis of Cognitive
Disorders Indirectly Associated and Linguistic Aptitude. On one hand, we need to take into
account that the correct uses of any structure may relate not only directly to the structure itself
(articles), but it also relates indirectly to another structure (nouns). In languages such as English
and Spanish, the nature and context of nouns determine the correct use of articles. Students
should master all basic knowledge about nouns before they attempt to learn the uses of articles.
On the other hand, we need to check for students linguistic aptitude. White (2003, p.3) states
some principles that support the existence of the Language Acquisition Device (L.A.D.)
the language capacity is species specific; ability to acquire language is
independent of intelligence; the pattern of acquisition is relatively uniform across
different children, different languages and different cultures; language is acquired with
relative ease and rapidity and without the benefit of instruction; children show creativity
which goes beyond the input they are exposed to. All of these observations point to an
innate component to language acquisition.
So, given the facts that students have the capability to acquire not only a first, but any
language due to their language device and that they have already mastered all basic linguistic
principles to continue with the next step in their education process, why they would still have
problems at learning the use of articles in the target language?


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2.1.2. Distinction of structures across languages
The distinction of the correct uses of a particular structure across languages may
represent a difficult task. Theories such as Interlanguage Grammar, Language Transfer, and
Language Interference will help to explain this variable. Interlanguage grammar refers to the
grammar that students build while acquiring a second language. It differs from L1 and L2, yet it
may show some features of both languages. Language Transfer occurs when the Interlanguage
grammar shows features of L1. And Language Interference happens when those features
transferred from L1 to L2 lack of accuracy in L2. This research looked for evidence that L2
learners can (or cannot) apply principles of UG as well as investigating the extent to which
the mother tongue (L1) was involved, for example through the adoption of L1 parameter settings
in Interlanguage grammars (White, 2003, p.15). Teachers should explore the nature of
Interlanguage Grammar in students and look for any negative Language Transfer (Language
Interference) to find out what features of L1 have become distractors for students. However, we
should also know what features of L1 can help students to master easily the new structure in the
target language as well. How can that happen?

2.1.3. Common, contrastive, and marked uses
As any set of languages, English and Spanish share some features in the correct uses of
its structures and some of those features differ. We should explore theories such as Language
Universals, Principles and Parameters, Markedness, and Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis to
clarify this variable. White (2003, p.2) explains that Universal Grammar includes principles
shared by all languages and parameters (defined as the variations among them). Moreover,
Markedness refers to all features present in a language that make that language distinctive from
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others. Furthermore, Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis establishes the level of difficulty of the
acquisition of L2 based on the nature of differences between the features of L1 and L2. In other
words, it compares and contrasts the features of L1 and L2 and then associates those differences
to a level of difficulty. Then, it sets the more difficult features of L2 to acquire for a speaker of
L1. Zhao-zi and Chang-zhong (2006, p.79) explain the relationship between these theories:
Since some knowledge is marked while the other is unmarked according to UG
[Universal Grammar], and the marked knowledge in L2 is less marked and relevant once
we have acquired them in our native language, it will hint a lot at our teaching of
L2Teachers should be good at comparing the mark knowledge with the unmarked
knowledge to help their teaching
Basically, this last variable invite us to explore the type of uses of articles in L1 and L2, take
advantage of all common uses since students can positively transfer them to L2, take care of all
contrastive uses since students should use them in opposite contexts across languages, and teach
all marked uses in L2 at the end based on the level of difficulty, starting with the easiest ones and
finishing with the more difficult ones.
Hence, this project has three main variables that previous experts have researched about
and the attempt to integrate them might solve the research question. Hopefully, this research
project will conduct to a practical, but scientific solution to the main question, so the gap
between theory and praxis can disappear and both become one at the service of learners.
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2.2. Population and Work Design
2.2.1. Population
This research will include 70 Spanish speakers learning English as a foreign language as
participants. They attend sixth grade and it corresponds to 3 groups of 23, 23, and 24 students
respectively. Their age varies from 12 to 15 years old. 38 of them correspond to male gender and
32 of them to female gender. All of them have different backgrounds regarding level of language
proficiency, language use, and represent two different regional language varieties since some of
them come from Nicaragua and the others from Costa Rica. This study includes a small
population, but representative of young Spanish speakers learning English as a foreign language.
Regarding their context inside the school, all of them attend the public primary school
Carolina Dent Alvarado at Sagrada Familia, San Jos, Costa Rica. The school forms part of
Circuito 06 and its classification corresponds to Direction 4. Although this building has
existed since the 1950s, they work to keep it in good conditions constantly. For example, it has
all the conditions required by law in order to give access to people with special physical needs
such as ramps. Moreover, it has a big space for children to play during breaks and a big and
comfortable dining room for lunch time. Also, the school counts with 22 classrooms where all
students develop their learning process. Students curriculum covers all basic subjects such as
Spanish their first language-, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies, English their foreign
language-, Musical Education, Religious Education, Home Education, and Computer class taught
by 38 teachers in different areas and grades. Additionally, students enjoy other services such as
cafeteria, library, dental clinic, and robotics exploration class; four tutors for basic subjects,
Aula Recurso, special education, sociologist, psychologist, and school counselor. On the other
hand, the classrooms themselves need paint, new windows to replace the broken ones, and new
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desks for children since the ones available became very old and damaged. Hence, although
Carolina Dent Alvarado offers many advantages to students as time goes on, it still has some
areas that need to improve in order to offer the best quality education to students.
Finally, Sagrada Familia as the neighborhood where most of the participants of this
research live plays a significant role in the context of this study. It forms part of the
neighborhoods at the South of the Capital and therefore, it turned into a zone at risk. Violence,
alcohol, drugs, and prostitution exist in this locality as everyday situations. Although they do not
occur in every single home, they happen in the context of the community and so they influence
in one or another way the participants of this research project. Likewise, different social classes
coexist there. Some students have all what they need to perform well at school while others need
help from the community and government to fulfill their basic needs. Among other
characteristics that make this population heterogeneous we can find ethnicity, nationality most
of them come either from Costa Rica or Nicaragua-, and beliefs. Consequently, the population of
this study comes from a context in which they need to learn better ways to face difficult
situations in order to succeed in life taking into account the coexistence with people from
different backgrounds.

2.2.1.1. Sample Population
Since the population of sixth graders includes less than 100 students (70 students), the
study will be conducted with all of them and so none of the sampling techniques will be required
following the guidelines of Gay and colleagues (2009, p. 133) cited by Leedy (2010, p.213) in
the course-book Practical Research Planning and design. Paul D. Leedy, Jeanne Ellis Ormrod 9th
Edition, 2010.
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2.2.2. Work Design
This research study corresponds to a content analysis with deductive reasoning and a
descriptive-quantitative method. Additionally, it uses subject-completed instruments with
diagnostic test format. As well, this research will mainly focus on the application of the S.L.A.
and U.G. theories mentioned in the theoretical framework to facilitate the learning process of the
correct uses of the definite article in English, specifically for young Spanish speakers.
In order to accomplish the research objective, the researcher will test some general
linguistic knowledge (Language Acquisition Device) and isolate some uses of nouns (Analysis of
Cognitive Disorders Associated to the Research Problem) to find out if the population has the
ability to start the learning process of the correct uses of articles in L1 and L2. The next step
correspond to a comparison and contrast of the use of the definite article in English and Spanish
(Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis) to find out some uses that may predict difficulties or errors in
the use of the article in the target language (Language Universals, Principles and Parameters, and
Markedness). After setting those contrastive uses of the article in both languages, some tests
about the uses of the article in L1 and L2 will take place separately to find out how students use
the article in different contexts in L1 and L2 respectively (Interlanguage Grammar, Language
Transfer, and Language Interference). Those tests include some uses of the article shared in
Spanish and English, some contrastive uses between both languages, and some uses of the article
present only in one of the languages (marked uses).

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3 Chapter III - Methodological Framework
3.1. Study, Reasoning, and Approach
As mentioned before, the researcher pretends to conduct a content analysis study. The
body of material to analyze corresponds to the nature and contexts of nouns and its relationship
with the use of articles in L1 and L2. Any error in students performance will help to build the
categories to study and the frequency of errors will help to tabulate the results. Then, the most
frequent errors in students performance will serve as a base to suggest all necessary
recommendations to solve the research main problem. Moreover, the project will follow a
deductive reasoning. As normally with this kind of study, which goes from general to specific,
the research question triggered the setting of all variables, theories related to the topic, and
instruments; at that point, the analysis of the results from the instruments will steer to the best
conclusions and recommendations.
Correspondingly, the project will take a qualitative-quantitative approach. On one hand,
the research presents a qualitative approach in the sense that it looks to determine the presence of
linguistic sensitivity in students. It has the purpose to describe their Interlanguage grammar
regarding the use of the definite article in L1 and L2 as well. On the other hand, the research
shows a quantitative approach for the reason that all collected data will aid to set the organization
and analysis process based on the frequency of errors in the students answers. Thus, the method
used in this research will benefit from the use of descriptions of linguistic patterns in both
languages and frequencies of errors to organize, summarize and analyze the data.

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3.2. Description of the instruments
The instruments used in the research project have the format of diagnostic tests and
consequently belong to the subject-completed type of instruments. They stick to different
objectives. First, they show the presence of any cognitive disorder indirectly associated to the use
of articles and the presence and access to linguistic knowledge and sensitivity. Second, they
describe the nature of the Interlanguage Grammar that students use. Finally, they will let the
teacher of these students know in which areas to focus their learning activities. Therefore, the
instruments will collect all necessary data to solve the research problem and apply a practical
follow up solution.

3.2.1. Instrument 1: Linguistic Aptitude (6.2.2)
This instrument will help to measure some general cognitive disorders associated with the
problem of the research project. This instrument relates generally with logic, morphology, and
syntax. In its first part, students will recognize the parts of the speech by their name such as
nouns, adjectives, and articles. Then, they will identify proper names of people, places, countries,
and objects in the second part. Following in part three, they will classify nouns into singular
count nouns, plural count nouns, and non-count nouns. Finally, they will recognize the uses of
nouns based on the context as in non-specific, specific, or generic for part four. The ability to
recognize those nouns and their uses will determine whether any lack of knowledge on nouns
themselves caused errors in students performance.

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3.2.2. Instrument 2: Uses of the articles el/la in Spanish (6.2.3)
This instrument will test childrens ability to use the definite articles in Spanish el/la. It
includes some common, contrastive and marked uses of the article in Spanish in regards to
English
1
. It collects data about the uses of the article in the first language based on students
perspective. Since students should master the uses of articles in Spanish by sixth level, this
instrument has only two parts. Part one asks students to complete sentences with articles el/la
where necessary, while part two asks them to add, change, or delete articles from a letter.

3.2.3. Instrument 3: Uses of the article the in English (6.2.4)
This instrument will test childrens ability to use the definite article in English. Again,
this instrument includes some common, contrastive and marked uses of the article in English in
regards to Spanish
2
. It also collects data about the uses of the article in the target language based
on students perspective. This instrument has four parts. Part one asks students to complete
sentences with the article the where necessary. Part two requires students to circle one option -
out of three options for each sentence- that shows an incorrect use of the article. Part three
requests them to choose between using the article or not in a specific part of the sentence.
Finally, part four asks them to add, or delete articles from a diary entry.





1
See Appendix 6.2.1.: The uses of the article in English and Spanish. (page 36)
2
See Appendix 6.2.1.: The uses of the article in English and Spanish. (page 36)
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3.3. Validity and Reliability
The instruments will base their validity in the objectives set for each one. They will prove
their validity as long as the results help to achieve them. Likewise, since students will show their
performance in both languages, each instrument needs to test students performance in the
corresponding language. Hence, students will read instruments 1 and 2 in Spanish as they do not
intent to measure the knowledge of the target language to avoid distractions or misinterpretations
from the participants; contrary to that, students will read instrument 3 in English since it tests
students performance in L2 avoiding any language switch through its application. Consequently,
objectives and use of both languages add validity to the instruments.
Additionally, the instruments follow standard grammar principles about the use of articles
in L1 and L2 so that any Spanish speaker learning EFL with the same level of the present
population can take the tests. In fact, the design of the instruments and the amount of population
(70 students) will balance the results to give reliability to the study.

3.4. Procedure
Participants will take first instrument 1 since it relates generally with logic, morphology,
and syntax. This will measure their mental condition to proceed with the following tests. Then,
they will take test 2 because it tests the grammar unit in L1. Lastly, students will take test 3 as
the last one since it attempts to measure the uses of the definite article in L2. Previous tests will
show any cognitive disorder or misuse of the article in L1 without L2 as a distractor. In this order
we can measure if any cognitive disorder or language interference exists among the participants.
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3.5. The use of Data
First of all, the basic demographics information of participants (group, age, and gender)
will help the researcher to organize the data collected during this study. Next, instrument 1 will
help to find any lack of basic knowledge for students to acquire the correct uses of articles in L1
and L2. Then, a comparison of the results of the students performance in instruments 2 and 3
will follow to find the presence of language interference and Interlanguage grammar affecting
the use of articles in English or the level of difficulty in the target language regarding the use of
articles.

3.6. Delimitations of the study
This project will limit to the application of some theories to teach EFL to children
Spanish speakers attending a public elementary school in Costa Rica. Moreover, it only intends
to apply those theories to the acquisition of the correct uses of the article the in English and
compare it to the uses of the articles el/la in Spanish.

3.7. Participants and their context
The project will include only sixth graders who attend the day of the application of
instruments and want to participate. This will take place in a natural day of school during the
morning when students have more energy and motivation. Each group will take the tests at
different times during the day at the specific moment they come to the English class.
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4 Chapter IV - Analysis of Data Collected
4.1. General data analysis
This chapter includes the description, tabulation, summary, analysis and interpretation of
the data collected after applying the instruments designed for this project. Although the
researcher intended to apply the instruments to the full population of 70 sixth graders at Carolina
Dent Alvarados primary school, only 68 of them attended the day of data collection. This fact
took the project from using the full population to including only a nonrandom sample since only
available students participated. Fortunately, 68 out of 70 students fully represent the results from
the complete population.
Moving forward in the collection of data stage, describing the data collection methods
and instruments seem appropriate at this point. Content analysis studies as this one, regard a
systematic examination of the contents of a particular body of material for the purpose of
identifying patterns, themes, or biases (Paul D. Leedy, 2010, p. 144). For that reason, three
different diagnostic tests used as data collection methods helped to gather the data needed for the
project because having set all correct answers for the tests, an error analysis of students answers
will serve to the purpose of identifying any pattern, theme, or bias in the interlanguage grammar
of students regarding the use of articles in L1 and L2. In fact, the answers from each instrument
helped to find out what structure or type of article use in L1 and L2 students present problems
with. After all, the purpose of this study consists on finding not if students show problems with
the article acquisition process, but on finding in which stage of this process they currently
struggle. In this case, each instrument represents a different stage in this process where
instrument 1 concerns the primary stage of finding if students can start the process of learning
the use of articles in L1 and L2 because they manage all linguistic concepts and ideas related to
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the structure and its uses, instrument 2 represents the stage in which students have the first
encounters with articles and their uses in their native language, and finally instrument 3 denotes
the stage in which students apply the uses of articles in L2. Having said that and stated the
relation between instruments and variables once again, and at the same time clarifying that
meaningful data for this project corresponds to errors in students answers for each test no matter
the low frequency in the amount of errors; a description of meaningful data obtained for each
instrument follows.

4.1.1. Instrument 1: Linguistic Aptitude
Instrument 1 intended mainly to find out if students can identify articles and nouns with
their respective types and uses. Based on the results from exercise 2, they show certain level of
misperception regarding names of common places, countries, and people. Also, some of them
answered incorrectly specific items regarding the identification of non-count nouns from
exercise 3. Finally, some students confused non-specific and specific uses of nouns in different
contexts as shown in some answers from exercise 4.

4.1.2. Instrument 2: Uses of the articles el/la in Spanish
This instrument pretended to measure the uses of articles in L1. Among the common uses
of articles in L1 and L2, students exhibited some errors regarding articles before names of
countries, phrases with the particle of, specific things, and proper names of individuals through
the test. Moreover, articles before inventions and musical instruments in some contexts and time
expressions fall in the category of contrastive uses of articles between L1 and L2 that students
had wrong answers in this test. Finally, only some items regarding articles before the names of
languages in some contexts denoted wrong answers for the marked uses of articles category.
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4.1.3. Instrument 3: Uses of the Article The in English
This final instrument looked to measure the uses of articles in L2. This instrument only
presented common and contrastive uses of articles in L1 and L2. On one hand, common uses of
articles before names of countries; specific singular count nouns, plural count nouns, and non-
count nouns; specific things, and subjects/nouns referred for the second time, revealed wrong
answers from students in this instrument. On the other hand, students failed some items
regarding contrastive uses of articles such as adjectives to make a generic statement, inventions
and musical instruments only in general statements where nouns present their singular form,
nouns and noun phrases with public places, and time expressions.

Up to now, the reader has found some data analysis techniques such as identifying themes
and coding applied over the data collected in order to summarize students wrong answers into
more meaningful categories that will help to understand more students interlanguage grammar.
The reader can find the full tabulation of results in the annexes 6.2.2.2. Results from Instrument
1: Linguistic Aptitude (page 40), 6.2.3.2. Results from Instrument 2: Uses of the articles el/la
in Spanish (page 44), and 6.2.4.2. Results from Instrument 3: Uses of the Article The in
English (page 49). As for now, the following section of detailed analysis will display graphically
the tabulation and frequency distribution for the selected results grouped into the categories
mentioned to proceed with the respective interpretation of the data. Since instruments 2 and 3
present common, contrastive, and marked uses of articles in L1 and L2 respectively, an analysis
of both at the same time based on the type of article use seems more appropriate than doing it
separately for this coming part.
24

4.2. Detailed data analysis
After the application of the instruments and the description of the meaningful data
gathered took place; the tabulation, summary, analysis and interpretation of the data collected
should follow in order to find the answer to the research question. Therefore, this part should
help to apply correctly the theories previously mentioned in order to improve students learning
process of articles in L2. Based on that principle, the following charts include only the amount of
correct and incorrect answers along with the no answer frequency for each item to focus more on
errors and type of errors than on other details such as group, gender, and age of students.

4.2.1. Structures indirectly related (nouns) and linguistic aptitude
The following chart tabulates and summarizes the wrong answers from students in
instrument 1 by combining students answers within the category of structure to recognize in the
respective item of the test, where fr means frequency and % stands for the percentage
calculated in relation to the total of answers from that particular item.

Table 1 - Results from Instrument 1: Linguistic Aptitude
Objective Exercise Item
X N/A Totals
fr % fr % fr % fr %
Names of Common Places 2 1 60 88,24 8 11,76 0 0,00 68 100
Names of Countries 2 2 64 94,12 4 5,88 0 0,00 68 100
Names of People 2 11 65 95,59 3 4,41 0 0,00 68 100
Non-Count Nouns
3 2 60 88,24 8 11,76 0 0,00 68 100
3 5 55 80,88 8 11,76 5 7,35 68 100
3 9 62 91,18 6 8,82 0 0,00 68 100
Singular-Count Nouns 3 3 66 97,06 2 2,94 0 0,00 68 100
Non-Specific Nouns 4 1B 65 95,59 3 4,41 0 0,00 68 100
Specific Nouns 4 4A 62 91,18 5 7,35 1 1,47 68 100

25

Fortunately, all participants showed a high level of understanding of nouns and its uses in
different contexts. They all obtained correct answers in most of the items from the test since the
errors do not represent more than 12% in any case. Even though, the objective relates to
describing students interlanguage grammar regarding the errors found; therefore, a pattern will
show up when grouping the amount of errors from specific items into the general category they
fall into as shown in the following graph.

This graph displays clearly that among the errors found in this test, most of them
correspond to the failure to recognize non-count nouns when grouping the amount of errors from
items 2, 5, and 9 from exercise 3. This represents the main structure to reinforce in the future
regarding nouns and linguistic aptitude. This fact predicts errors with articles before non-count
nouns based on the Analysis of Cognitive Disorders Indirectly Associated to articles principle
(study of nouns and its uses). A further detailed analysis in that article use should conclude this
result.
8
4
3
22
3
2
5
0
5
10
15
20
25
Exercise 2 Exercise 3 Exercise 4
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

o
f

E
r
r
o
s

Names of Common Places
Names of Countries
Names of People
Non-Count Nouns
Non-Specific Nouns
Singular-Count Nouns
Specific Nouns
Graph 1 - Frequency of Errors from Instrument 1: Linguistic Aptitude
26

4.2.2. Common, contrastive, and marked uses
Regarding the tabulation, summary, analysis, and interpretation of the results from
instruments 2 and 3; the approach that follows this project will group L1 and L2 into the type of
article use to make a comparative-contrastive analysis as stated before. First of all, students show
that they master most of the common article uses in L1 and L2 since they had most of the
answers correct regarding this type of use in instruments 2 and 3 as shown in the following chart.

Table 2 - Results from Instruments 2 & 3 about Common Uses of Articles in L1 and L2
Use Test Ex. Item
X N/A Totals
fr. % fr. % fr. % fr. %
Names of a few
countries
2 1 06D 65 95,59 3 4,41 0 0,00 68 100
3 2 06C 65 95,59 3 4,41 0 0,00 68 100
Phrases with of 2 1 02B 65 95,59 3 4,41 0 0,00 68 100
Proper names of
individuals
2 1 01C 65 95,59 3 4,41 0 0,00 68 100
2 2 01C 66 97,06 2 2,94 0 0,00 68 100
Specific singular
count nouns, plural
count nouns, and
non-count nouns
3 1 02B 62 91,18 5 7,35 1 1,47 68 100
3 1 06B 65 95,59 3 4,41 0 0,00 68 100
3 1 07B 64 94,12 4 5,88 0 0,00 68 100
3 1 07C 64 94,12 4 5,88 0 0,00 68 100
3 4 01E 66 97,06 2 2,94 0 0,00 68 100
Specific things
3 2 01C 62 91,18 6 8,82 0 0,00 68 100
2 1 01B 65 95,59 3 4,41 0 0,00 68 100
2 1 04B 66 97,06 2 2,94 0 0,00 68 100
2 1 12A 50 73,53 15 22,06 3 4,41 68 100
3 1 02A 62 91,18 5 7,35 1 1,47 68 100
3 1 06A 66 97,06 2 2,94 0 0,00 68 100
3 2 04A 65 95,59 3 4,41 0 0,00 68 100
3 2 07C 66 97,06 2 2,94 0 0,00 68 100
3 3 6 66 97,06 2 2,94 0 0,00 68 100
Subjects or nouns
referred for the
second time
3 2 05B 66 97,06 2 2,94 0 0,00 68 100
3 2 05C 67 98,53 1 1,47 0 0,00 68 100


27

However, categories such as articles used to specify (specific things) and articles before
specific singular count nouns, plural count nouns, and non-count nouns still denote opportunities
to improve when grouping those items into these categories. The following graph does not only
show that, but it also compares and contrasts those errors found in L1 (test 2) with the ones
found in L2 (test 3).

This graph clarifies that students need to improve the use of articles to specify (specific
things) and before names of some countries in both languages equally, but they need the
specifications for articles before specific-singular count nouns, plural count nouns, and non-
count nouns (as anticipated for the previous result) in English only. In other words, articles for
specific things and names of countries indicate language interference since they failed those
items in both languages, while articles before specific singular count nouns, plural count nouns,
3 3
5
20
3
18
20
3
0
5
10
15
20
25
Names of a
few countries
Phrases with
of
Proper names
of individuals
Specific
singular count
nouns, plural
count nouns,
and non-count
nouns
Specific things Subjects or
nouns referred
for the second
time
Test 2
Test 3
Graph 2 - Frequency of Errors from Instruments 2 & 3 about Common Uses of Articles in L1
and L2
28

and non-count nouns show a higher level of difficulty for these uses in the target language since
students do not have problems for those uses in their native language for the third instrument.
Second, once again students had only few errors regarding the contrastive uses of articles,
but they still presented some issues with them. Essentially, some of them struggled with the
articles before time expressions and before inventions/musical instruments as summarized in the
chart below.

Table 3 - Results from Instruments 2 & 3 about Contrastive Uses of Articles in L1 and L2
Use Test Ex. Item
X N/A Totals
fr. % fr. % fr. % fr. %
Adjectives to make a
generic statement
3 2 07B 66 97,06 2 2,94 0 0,00 68 100
Inventions and
musical instruments
in some contexts
2 2 01J 65 95,59 3 4,41 0 0,00 68 100
3 2 02B 62 91,18 5 7,35 1 1,47 68 100
3 2 03A 64 94,12 4 5,88 0 0,00 68 100
Nouns and noun
phrases with public
places
3 4 01H 67 98,53 1 1,47 0 0,00 68 100
Time expressions
2 2 01L 65 95,59 3 4,41 0 0,00 68 100
3 1 05B 62 91,18 6 8,82 0 0,00 68 100
3 2 01B 65 95,59 3 4,41 0 0,00 68 100
3 2 02C 64 94,12 4 5,88 0 0,00 68 100
3 4 01G 66 97,06 2 2,94 0 0,00 68 100

In contrary to common uses of articles, students exhibit language interference for
contrastive uses when they apply the same rules of L1 in L2, but those rules lack precision in L2.
The next graph displays this fact for both categories where students had more wrong answers in
test 3 (L2) than in test 2 (L1) for the same categories of article use.


29


Finally, although the results show a low frequency of errors, participants answer
incorrectly some questions about marked uses in Spanish regarding names of languages as
presented in the next chart.

Table 4 - Results from Instrument 2 about Marked Uses of Articles in L1
Use Test Ex. Item
X N/A Totals
fr. % fr. % fr. % fr. %
The names of
languages in some
contexts
2 1 08C 66 97,06 2 2,94 0 0,00 68 100
2 2 01I 65 95,59 3 4,41 0 0,00 68 100

Nevertheless, this concerns more L1 than L2. This means good news for EFL teachers
since students do not transfer these errors into the target language. Therefore, this fact blocks any
comparative-contrastive analysis between L1 and L2 as exposed in the graph that follows. Even
3 3
2
9
1
15
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Adjectives to make a
generic statement
Inventions and
musical instruments in
some contexts
Nouns and noun
phrases with public
places
Time expressions
Test 2
Test 3
Graph 3 - Frequency of Errors from Instruments 2 & 3 about Contrastive Uses of Articles in
L1 and L2
30

though, EFL teachers can still prevent any negative language transfer by teaching this article use
before students attempt to do it.

From the previous exploration of the results, the research question and hypothesis, the
best resolution to apply the S.L.A and U.G. theories to improve the learning process of articles in
L2 regards the reinforcement of positive language transfer with most of common uses of articles
in L1 and L2 explaining in detail the difference between specific, non-specific, and general
context of nouns for the use of articles to specify along with the recognition of specific singular
count nouns, plural count nouns, and non-count nouns with their corresponding article uses; a
deep analysis of the restrictions of articles in L2 regarding contrastive uses as in inventions,
musical instruments, and time expressions; and a clear explanation of uses of articles in L1 not
present at all in L2 to avoid any possible misunderstanding. This answer to the research question
supports the hypothesis stated because students will definitely show improvement in this learning
process if the EFL teacher follows the previous recommendations.

2
3
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
The names of languages in some contexts
Exercise 2
Exercise 1
Graph 4 - Frequency of Errors from Instrument 2 about Marked Uses of Articles in L1
31

To summarize the results obtained in this study, students have shown a great language
aptitude by recognizing most of the structures required to start the learning process of articles in
the target language. Students should mainly work in the recognition of non-count nouns to have
all necessary tools for this process. Also, students transfer positively most of common uses of
articles from L1 to L2, excluding the ones for names of some countries and articles to specify.
These ones reveal language interference. Articles before specific singular count nouns, plural
count nouns, and non-count nouns seem to have a higher level of difficulty in the target language
than in the native language since students have problems with them only in L2. Moreover,
students understand when they should or should not use articles in L2 for most of the contrastive
uses of articles, except for the ones before time expressions and before inventions/musical
instruments. They seem to apply the same rules from L1 in L2 incorrectly for these cases. To
finish, students have learned well that some article uses apply only in Spanish and so they do not
use them in English for the same conditions.
Further conclusions for this project follow in the next chapter.




32

5 Chapter V - Conclusions and Recommendations
5.1. Conclusions
First of all, the Analysis of Cognitive Disorders Indirectly Associated to articles principle
(study of nouns and its uses) correctly predicted that since students showed some errors at
identifying non-count nouns, they also had difficulties at using articles for this type of nouns.
Besides that, the Language Acquisition Device theory properly anticipated that since
students have most of the basic knowledge about nouns and articles, they also had most of the
answers correct in all instruments written either in Spanish or English language.
Also, theories such as Interlanguage Grammar, Language Transfer, and Language
Interference helped to describe the current level of language proficiency in students regarding the
use of articles in L1 and L2. Since students have access to the knowledge of articles in both
languages, they currently use features of both of them in the EFL classroom as an Interlanguage
stage where they transfer some features from L1 to L2 correctly and transfer other features
incorrectly. The results showed specific cases for both scenarios.
Moreover, Language Universals, Principles and Parameters, Markedness, and Contrastive
Analysis Hypothesis theories facilitated the researcher to find the specifications for articles in
both languages, design the instruments to use, describe, tabulate, summarize, analyze, and
interpret the results through the whole project to follow a coherent sequence of analysis based on
common, contrastive, and marked uses of articles in L1 and L2. These principles suitably
projected that a contrastive analysis between both languages would help to improve the teaching
practice in regards to EFL.
Likewise, the selected population has the level to understand and actively participate in
projects like this one. After all, they represent Spanish speakers learning English as a Foreign
33

Language which corresponds with the purpose of this work. 68 participants turned into a great
amount of people who represented the population this project intended to help.
Additionally, the type of study carefully chosen for this project (content analysis), the
data collection methods and instruments simplified a lot the fulfillment of the objectives set at
the beginning. The best way to improve the academic learning of a specific structure in the EFL
class starts by looking for current patterns, themes, and biases in students interlanguage
grammar in order to find out the best way to help them reinforce all positive aspects and prevent
or avoid all the negative ones.
As a final point, factors such as gender, age, and group turned into meaningless variables
among the population for this study. The error analysis approach answered the research question
without having to scrutinize accessory details.

5.2. Recommendations
EFL teachers should always look for the comparative-contrastive analysis of L1 and L2
for any structure to teach even if students do not show any problem with it. This approach not
only helps to correct present learning difficulties, but it also eases to prevent them.
Based on the results from this study, teachers should always start with marked uses in L1
by tutoring students not to transfer those uses into the target language. Then, instruction about
common uses should take place by clarifying when they can transfer positively uses from L1 to
L2. After that, teachers should cover contrastive uses by explaining how those uses differ across
languages and why they should not use the structure in the same way they currently do in L1.
Finally, the teacher should lastly cover marked uses in L2 since they likely show a higher level
of difficulty for students to acquire.
34

On the other hand, the future researcher who attempts to carry out a project like this
should know in advance that the triangulation concept can enhance this project either by
analyzing 3 languages at the same time or using 3 different types of instruments with the same
objectives instead of using one for each variable. Any of those options would show stronger
results and conclusions.
In addition to that, using post-tests after implementing the results from this project would
definitely prove if applying S.L.A. and U.G. theories really help to improve students learning
process for articles or any other structure.
Finally, still another idea for this project consists of using experimental groups in which
one of them receives instruction about articles in L2 while another does not, to find if instruction
in articles plays an important factor in students uses of articles in natural contexts. This
instruction can take place before and/or after the application of the diagnostic tests. If the
instruction comes after the application of pre-tests, then post-tests must happen to have a
complete vision of this new factor.

35

6 Chapter VI - Bibliography and Annexes
6.1. Bibliography

Bocaz de Arriagada, A. (1970, May). TEFL and Language Ontogeny. Retrieved June 6, 2012,
from ERIC:
http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/recordDetails.jsp?searchtype=keyword&
pageSize=10&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED040395&eric_displayStartCount=1&
ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&_pageLabel=RecordDetails&objectId=0900019b80
00d270&accno=ED040395&_nfl
Paul D. Leedy, J. E. (2010). Practical Research Planning and design (9th ed.). New Jersey:
Pearson Education Inc.
Schoenberg, I. E. (2006). Focus On Grammar 1. An integrated skills approach (2nd ed.). White
Plains, NY: Pearson Education Inc.
Schoenberg, I. E. (2006). Focus On Grammar 2. An integrated skills approach (3rd ed.). White
Plains, NY: Pearson Education Inc.
White, L. (2003). Universal Grammar and Second Language Acquisition. Retrieved June 6,
2012, from http://bilder.buecher.de/zusatz/23/23181/23181107_lese_1.pdf
Zhao-zi, J. a.-z. (2006, August). Markedness in Universal Grammar and Second Language
Acquisition. Retrieved June 6, 2012, from ERIC:
http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/recordDetails.jsp?searchtype=basic&page
Size=10&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=Markedness+in+Universal+Grammar+and+S
econd+Language+Acquisition&eric_displayStartCount=1&ERICExtSearch_SearchType
_0=kw&_pageLabel=RecordDetails&objectId=0900019b80176ba3&accno=ED497374&
_nfls=false

36

6.2. Annexes
6.2.1. The uses of the article in English and Spanish
COMMON USES OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE IN ENGLISH AND SPANISH
1) Use it for specific things that the speaker and listener know about. The context makes it
clear which person, place, or thing you mean.
2) Use it before specific singular count nouns (not for non-specific or general singular count
nouns), plural count nouns, and non-count nouns.
3) Use it with subjects or nouns referred for the second time.
4) Use it with subjects or nouns that refer to a part of a group.
5) Use it with unique persons, places, or things.
6) Use it with the comparative and superlative form of adjectives.
7) Use it with phrases with of when there is only one of the items that follows it:
English: Paris is the capital of France. the + Noun + of + Noun
Spanish: Pars es la capital de Francia. el/la + sustantivo + de + sustantivo
8) Use it before the plural name of a whole family. Do not use it before proper names of
individuals.
9) Use it with the names of a few countries.
10) Use it before the names of oceans, rivers, mountain ranges, seas, canals, deserts, and zoos.
11) Use it before the names of ships.
12) Use it with familiar items.
13) Use it with professionals who offer a service.

CONTRASTIVE USES OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE IN ENGLISH AND SPANISH
1) English speakers use it with adjectives to make a generic statement. This implies a head
noun such as people or individuals. The adjective has a plural meaning and takes a plural
verb. On the other hand, Spanish speakers can use the same type of statements as long as
they change el for los and la for las because articles have number in Spanish.
2) Spanish speakers use it with nouns and noun phrases with public places, while English
speakers use it with some of them such as the bank, the post office, the library, and the
movies. However, they do not use it with habitual locations such as home, school, and work.
3) Spanish speakers use it with inventions and musical instruments in some contexts. In
contrast to that, English speakers use it with inventions and musical instruments only in
general statements and the noun in their singular form.
4) Spanish speakers use it with the plural of names of peoples and animal species in general
use. Although English speakers can use it in the same conditions, they rarely do.
5) Spanish speakers use it with time expressions; meanwhile, English speakers use it with
some of them.

MARKED USES IN SPANISH
1) Use it to determine the gender of the noun. La for female and el for male.
2) Use it with general non-count nouns besides specific ones.
3) Use it to generalize a noun.
4) Use it before the names of languages in some contexts.
5) Use it with sports and names of games in some contexts.
37

6.2.2. Instrument 1: Linguistic Aptitude
Universidad Estatal a Distancia
Escuela de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades
Ctedra de Enseanza del Ingls
Researcher: Jose Villanea Paniagua

Fecha: Grupo: 6 - Edad: aos Gnero: M / F
Objetivo: Reconocer el sustantivo y sus usos en diferentes contextos.
Instrucciones Generales: Llene los espacios de arriba con letra legible. No escriba su nombre.
Utilice bolgrafo de tina azul o negra para llenar la prueba. No utilice corrector. No
comparta sus respuestas con los compaeros. Lea con cuidado las instrucciones antes de
contestar a los ejercicios. Recuerde que esta es una prueba diagnstica y no tiene ningn efecto
en su calificacin. Tiene 20 minutos para finalizar la prueba.
Ejercicio 1. A continuacin se le presenta una serie de palabras. Escriba en el parntesis que est
junto a cada palabra: (Sust.) si la palabra es un sustantivo, (Adj.) si la palabra es un adjetivo, o
(Art.) si la palabra es un artculo.
1. carro ( ) 4. casa ( ) 7. lago ( ) 10. nuevo ( )
2. la ( ) 5. verde ( ) 8. carta ( ) 11. tercero ( )
3. grande ( ) 6. el ( ) 9. las ( ) 12. los ( )

Ejercicio 2. De la siguiente serie de palabras identifique:
3 nombres de personas y subryelos (abc)
3 lugares comunes y encirrelos (abc)
3 nombres de pases y tchelos (abc)
3 objetos y marque una equis sobre ellos
(abc)

1. Banco 2. Chile 3. Computadora 4. Espaa
5. Farmacia 6. Mara 7. Panadera 8. Pedro
9. Per 10. Radio 11. Rosa 12. Telfono
38

Ejercicio 3. Lea las siguientes oraciones. Encierre el sustantivo en cada oracin. Indique con una
equis en la columna que corresponda si ese sustantivo es singular contable, plural contable o
incontable
3
.

Singular
Contable
Plural
Contable
Incontable
1. Comimos muchas galletas.
2. Necesito alguna informacin.
3. Hay un men por all
4. No hay muchos clientes.
5. Comimos algo de pan
6. Necesitamos una servilleta ms.
7. Haba un servidor all
8. Es a 10 kilmetros de aqu.
9. El caf es caro
10. El mesero es muy amable.
11. No queda nada de comida.
12. Aquellas personas llegaron antes que nosotros

Ejercicio 4. Lea las siguientes conversaciones y observe las palabras subrayadas. Encierre la
explicacin adecuada para cada situacin
4
.
1. A: El sol est brillante hoy! (un / ms de un) sol
B: Si. Necesitas un sombrero. un sombrero en (general / especfico)
2. A: Dnde est el gato? (un / ms de un) gato
B: Est durmiendo en el sof. (un / ms de un) sof
3. A: Tienes un carro? un carro en (general / especfico)
B: No. Los carros son caros. carros en (general / especfico)
4. A: Te gustan los abrigos? (todos / algunos ) abrigos
B: Solo me gusta el rojo. (un / ms de un) abrigo rojo

3
Adapted from Focus On Grammar 2. An integrated skills approach, Schoenberg, Irene E. 2006. 3
rd
ed. p. 243.
4
Adapted from Focus On Grammar 1. An integrated skills approach, Schoenberg, Irene E and Maurer, Jay. 2006.
2
nd
ed. p. 149.
39

6.2.2.1. Answer Sheet for Instrument 1: Linguistic Aptitude
Exercise 1

1. carro (Sust.)
2. la (Art.)
3. grande (Adj.)
4. casa(Sust.)
5. verde (Adj.)
6. el (Art.)
7. lago(Adj.)
8. carta (Sust.)
9. las (Art.)
10. nuevo (Adj.)
11. tercero (Adj.)
12. los (Art.)

Exercise 2

1. Banco
2. Chile
3. Computadora
4. Espaa
5. Farmacia
6. Mara
7. Panadera
8. Pedro
9. Per
10. Radio
11. Rosa
12. Telfono

Exercise 3

1. Comimos muchas galletas. Plural Contable
2. Necesito alguna informacin. Incontable
3. Hay un men por all. Singular Contable
4. No hay muchos clientes. Plural Contable
5. Comimos algo de pan. Incontable
6. Necesitamos una servilleta ms. Singular Contable
7. Haba un servidor all. Singular Contable
8. Es a 10 kilmetros de aqu. Plural Contable
9. El caf es caro. Incontable
10. El mesero es muy amable. Singular Contable
11. No queda nada de comida. Incontable
12. Aquellas personas llegaron antes que nosotros. Plural Contable

Exercise 4
1. A: un sol
B: un sombrero en general
2. A: un gato
B: un sof
3. A: un carro en general
B: carros en general
4. A: algunos abrigos
B: un abrigo rojo

40

6.2.2.2. Results from Instrument 1: Linguistic Aptitude



Note: Ex. stands for exercise.
Objective Ex. Item X N/A Totals
Adjectives
1
3
68 0 0 68
5
68 0 0 68
10
68 0 0 68
11
65 3 0 68
Articles
2
68 0 0 68
6
68 0 0 68
9
68 0 0 68
12
68 0 0 68
Nouns
1
68 0 0 68
4
68 0 0 68
7
68 0 0 68
8
68 0 0 68
Names of
Common
Places
2
1
60 8 0 68
5
68 0 0 68
7
68 0 0 68
Names of
Countries
2
64 4 0 68
4
68 0 0 68
9
68 0 0 68
Names of
Objects
3
68 0 0 68
10
68 0 0 68
12
68 0 0 68
Names of
People
6
68 0 0 68
8
68 0 0 68
11
65 3 0 68
Objective Ex. Item

X N/A Totals
Non-Count
Nouns
3
2
60 8 0 68
5
55 8 5 68
9
62 6 0 68
11
68 0 0 68
Plural-Count
Nouns
1
68 0 0 68
4
68 0 0 68
8
68 0 0 68
12
68 0 0 68
Singular-Count
Nouns
3
66 2 0 68
6
68 0 0 68
7
68 0 0 68
10
68 0 0 68
Generic Nouns
4
3B
68 0 0 68
Non-Specific
Nouns
1B
65 3 0 68
3A
68 0 0 68
Specific Nouns
1A
68 0 0 68
2A
68 0 0 68
2B
68 0 0 68
4A
62 5 1 68
4B
68 0 0 68
41

6.2.3. Instrument 2: Uses of the articles el/la in Spanish
Universidad Estatal a Distancia
Escuela de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades
Ctedra de Enseanza del Ingls
Researcher: Jose Villanea Paniagua

Fecha: Grupo: 6 - Edad: aos Gnero: M / F
Objetivo: Usar correctamente los artculos el /la en diferentes contextos.

Instrucciones Generales: Llene los espacios de arriba con letra legible. No escriba su nombre.
Utilice bolgrafo de tina azul o negra para llenar la prueba. No utilice corrector. No
comparta sus respuestas con los compaeros. Lea con cuidado las instrucciones antes de
contestar a los ejercicios. Recuerde que esta es una prueba diagnstica y no tiene ningn efecto
en su calificacin. Tiene 20 minutos para finalizar la prueba.
Ejercicio 1. Llene los espacios en blanco con los artculos el/la donde corresponda. Deje el
espacio en blanco donde no sea necesario el uso del artculo.
1. muchacho con camisa azul es Marcos.
2. Mara es prima de Elena de quien te habl.
3. disco que compr ayer es de msica tropical.
4. De todos esos cuadros, grande me gusta ms porque tiene delfines.
5. Pars es capital de Francia.
6. Salvador, Italia, Puerto Rico y Reino Unido son pases muy bonitos.
7. Carlos y yo fuimos a conocer Everest ao pasado.
8. Estoy tomando clases de guitarra, natacin y japons fines de semana.
9. mandarn es un idioma muy importante.
10. Roberto polica es muy amable con gente que vive en vecindario.
11. Me gusta msica en general. clsica es ms bonita de todas.
12. Me gusta escuchar msica cuando estoy en playa con mis amigos.
42

Ejercicio 2. Corrija los usos del artculo el/la en la siguiente carta. Agregue, cambie o elimine
los artculos cuando sea necesario. Encontrar 12 errores.


Querida mam,
Estas vacaciones han sido increbles! Semana pasada fui a conocer Cerro
Chirrip. Caminamos todo el da en busca de insectos y plantas que el
profesor Ral nos iba mostrando a todos. El Carlos encontr varias clases de
mariposas de diferente color. El azul era ms bonita de todas. Ya sabes que
azul es mi color preferido. En la tarde fuimos a comer. Yo com el tamal de
elote y sopa de pollo. El tamal de elote no me gusto mucho, pero sopa de
pollo me encant. Aunque no hay mucho que hacer de noche, me paso el
tiempo practicando ingls, tocando guitarra y leyendo sobre como jugar ajedrez.
Ajedrez es un juego muy interesante. La maana vamos a ir a la playa. Ser
muy divertido.
Y cmo va todo en casa ? Escrbeme para saber de ti y de todos.
Abrazos,
Elena

43

6.2.3.1. Answer Sheet for Instrument 2: Uses of the articles el/la in Spanish
Exercise 1
1. El muchacho con la camisa azul es Marcos.
2. Mara es la prima de Elena de quien te habl.
3. El disco que compr ayer es de msica tropical.
4. De todos esos cuadros, el grande me gusta ms porque tiene delfines.
5. Pars es la capital de Francia.
6. El Salvador, Italia, Puerto Rico y el Reino Unido son pases muy bonitos.
7. Carlos y yo fuimos a conocer el Everest el ao pasado.
8. Estoy tomando clases de guitarra, natacin y japons /(los) fines de semana.
9. El mandarn es un idioma muy importante.
10. Roberto el polica es muy amable con la gente que vive en el vecindario.
11. Me gusta la msica en general. La clsica es la ms bonita de todas.
12. Me gusta escuchar msica cuando estoy en la playa con mis amigos.

Exercise 2
Querida mam,
Estas vacaciones han sido increbles! La semana pasada fui a conocer el Cerro
Chirrip. Caminamos todo el da en busca de insectos y plantas que el profesor Ral
nos iba mostrando a todos. El Carlos encontr varias clases de mariposas de
diferente color. El La azul era la ms bonita de todas. Ya sabes que el azul es mi
color preferido. En la tarde fuimos a comer. Yo com el tamal de elote y sopa de
pollo. El tamal de elote no me gusto mucho, pero la sopa de pollo me encant.
Aunque no hay mucho que hacer de noche, me paso el tiempo practicando el ingls,
tocando la guitarra y leyendo sobre como jugar ajedrez. El Ajedrez es un juego muy
interesante. La maana vamos a ir a la playa. Ser muy divertido.
Y cmo va todo en casa? Escrbeme para saber de ti y de todos.
Abrazos,
Elena

44

6.2.3.2. Results from Instrument 2: Uses of the articles el/la in Spanish
Common Uses
Use Ex Item Correct Answer X N/A Totals
Names of a few countries
1 05C _ Francia 68 0 0 68
1 06A El Salvador 68 0 0 68
1 06B _ Italia 68 0 0 68
1 06C _ Puerto Rico 68 0 0 68
1 06D el Reino Unido 65 3 0 68
Names of oceans, rivers, mountain
ranges, seas, canals, deserts, and zoos
1 05A _ Pars 68 0 0 68
1 07B el Everest 68 0 0 68
2 01B el cerro Chirrip 68 0 0 68
Not for non-specific or general
singular count nouns
1 03B _ msica tropical 68 0 0 68
2 01G
Yo com el tamal de
elote
68 0 0 68
Phrases with of
1 02B la prima de _ Elena 65 3 0 68
1 05B la capital de _ Francia 68 0 0 68
Proper names of individuals
1 01C _ Marcos 65 3 0 68
1 02A _ Mara 68 0 0 68
1 02C _ Elena 68 0 0 68
1 07A _ Carlos 68 0 0 68
1 10A _ Roberto 68 0 0 68
2 01C El Carlos 66 2 0 68
Specific things
1 01A El muchacho 68 0 0 68
1 01B la camisa azul 65 3 0 68
1 03A El disco 68 0 0 68
1 04A el grande 68 0 0 68
1 04B _ delfines 66 2 0 68
1 10B el polica 68 0 0 68
1 11B La clsica 68 0 0 68
1 12A _ msica 50 15 3 68
Subjects or nouns referred for the
second time
2 01H
pero la sopa de pollo me
encant
68 0 0 68
Subjects or nouns that refer to a part
of a group
1 10C la gente 68 0 0 68
The comparative and superlative form
of adjectives
1 11C la ms bonita de todas 68 0 0 68
2 01E la ms bonita de todas 68 0 0 68



45


Contrastive Uses
Use Ex Item Correct Answer X N/A Totals
Inventions and musical instruments in
some contexts
1 08A _ guitarra 68 0 0 68
2 01J tocando la guitarra 65 3 0 68
Nouns and noun phrases with public
places
1 10D el vecindario 68 0 0 68
1 12B la playa 68 0 0 68
Time expressions
1 07C el ao pasado 68 0 0 68
1 08D _ (los) fines de semana 68 0 0 68
2 01A La semana pasada 68 0 0 68
2 01L La maana vamos a ir a
la playa
65 3 0 68

Marked Uses
Use Ex Item Correct Answer X N/A Totals
General non-count nouns besides
specific ones
1 11A la msica 68 0 0 68
Sports and names of games in some
contexts
1 08B _ natacin 68 0 0 68
2 01K El ajedrez es un juego
muy interesante
68 0 0 68
The names of languages in some
contexts
1 08C _ japons 66 2 0 68
1 09A El mandarn 68 0 0 68
2 01I practicando el ingls 65 3 0 68
To determine the gender of the noun
2 01D El azul / La azul 68 0 0 68
To generalize a noun
2 01F el azul es mi color
preferido
68 0 0 68

Note: Ex. stands for exercise.
46

6.2.4. Instrument 3: Uses of the Article The in English
Universidad Estatal a Distancia
Escuela de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades
Ctedra de Enseanza del Ingls
Researcher: Jose Villanea Paniagua
Date: Group: 6 - Age: years old Gender: M / F

Objective: To use correctly the article the in English in different contexts.

General Instructions: Fill up the spaces above with legible handwriting. Do not write your
name. Use pen with blue or black ink to answer the exercises. Do not use liquid paper. Do
not share your answers with your classmates. Read carefully the instructions of each exercise
before you answer. Remember that this is a diagnostic test and the result will not be included in
your final grade for this course. You have 20 minutes to finish this test.

Exercise 1. Complete the sentences with the where necessary. Leave a blank if you don't need
an article.
1. ____ Americans are friendly. They help tourists when they need to.
2. May I have a cup of coffee more and menu, please?
3. ____ Mississippi River is located in United States.
4. Please, turn down TV and turn on computer. I need to do my homework.
5. I need to go to dentist at 3:30 pm today.
6. I like shoes. I love blue shoes over there, but I dont like black ones.
7. I like to eat at restaurant we went last night. cookies and coffee are delicious.

Exercise 2. Each sentence has three underlined words or phrases. The three underlined parts of
the sentence are marked A, B, and C. Circle the letter of the one underlined word or phrase that
is NOT CORRECT.
1. I usually go to the theatre on the Saturdays. I like to watch horror movies.
A B C
2. I read about the history of the computers last night. It is amazing!
A B C
3. Martha likes the instruments. She plays the piano and the guitar.
A B C
4. She loves the stories and music; specially, the love stories and the romantic music.
A B C
5. We ate the chicken and the rice. The chicken was good, but the rice was bad.
A B C
6. The Susan is from Costa Rica and the Gonzlez are from the Philippines.
A B C
7. The rich should help the poor in need. Friendship is more important than the money.
A B C
47

Exercise 3. Choose the option that best completes each sentence. Circle the if you need an
article or if you do not need it.
1. Then, we went to a restaurant near the museum. It was pretty. We ate the / pasta and
meatballs.
2. I do not know what to think about the food there. The pasta was good, but the / meatballs
were spicy.
3. After lunch, we went to the park to play the / guitar for a while.
4. There we met the / Morales. They are a very nice family.
5. We also saw the / Peter at the park. He is our classmate at the primary school.
6. At last, we went to the cinema. We watched a horror movie. It was great. I love the / horror
movies.
7. I need to sleep now. Tomorrow I have an appointment with the / dentist.

Exercise 4. Find and correct the mistakes in the use of the article the in the following diary
entry. You may need to add or eliminate it. There are 10 mistakes.
Dear diary,
Today was the most wonderful day in my life! I had a lot of fun with the Ana and
Alex.
In morning, we went shopping at new mall. It has many stores in it. The stores in the
first floor were not good, but ones in the second floor were awesome. We saw shoes,
jackets, and the pants. Ana bought red, black, and blue shoes. Blue ones were the most
beautiful. We all got something for the party the next week.
In the afternoon, we visited museum. I learned a lot about ancient cultures, geography,
and inventions. First, The Egyptians were very smart. They built pyramids and located
them according the position of the starts. Second, Mississippi River is longest river in
the United States. Finally, the TV was invented on 1920s by Farnsworth and Zorinsky.
The museum is a very interesting place. I had a lot of fun today!
Rosa

48

6.2.4.1. Answer Sheet for Instrument 3: Uses of the Article The in English
Exercise 1
1. __/The Americans are friendly. They help tourists when they need to.
2. May I have a cup of coffee more and the menu, please?
3. The Mississippi River is located in the United States.
4. Please, turn down the TV and turn on the computer. I need to do my homework.
5. I need to go to the dentist at 3:30 pm today.
6. I like shoes. I love the blue shoes over there, but I dont like the black ones.
7. I like to eat at the restaurant we went last night. The cookies and the coffee are delicious.

Exercise 2
1. the Saturdays
2. the computers
3. the instruments
4. the stories and music
5. the chicken and the rice
6. The Susan
7. the money

Exercise 3
1. pasta
2. the meatballs
3. the guitar
4. the Morales
5. Peter
6. horror movies
7. the dentist

Exercise 4
Dear diary,
Today was the most wonderful day in my life! I had a lot of fun with the Ana and Alex.
In the morning, we went shopping at the new mall. It has many stores in it. The stores in
the first floor were not good, but the ones in the second floor were awesome. We saw
shoes, jackets, and the pants. Ana bought red, black, and blue shoes. The blue ones were
the most beautiful. We all got something for the party the next week.
In the afternoon, we visited the museum. I learned a lot about ancient cultures,
geography, and inventions. First, The Egyptians were very smart. They built pyramids
and located them according the position of the starts. Second, the Mississippi River is the
longest river in the United States. Finally, the TV was invented on 1920s by Farnsworth
and Zorinsky. The museum is a very interesting place. I had a lot of fun today!
Rosa


49

6.2.4.2. Results from Instrument 3: Uses of the Article The in English

Common Uses
Use Ex Item Correct Answer X N/A Totals
Familiar items
1 04A the TV 68 0 0 68
1 04B the computer 68 0 0 68
Names of a few
countries
1 03B the United States 68 0 0 68
2 06C C the Philippines 65 3 0 68
Names of oceans, rivers,
mountain ranges, seas
1 03A The Mississippi River 68 0 0 68
4 01I The Mississippi River 68 0 0 68
Professionals who offer
a service
1 05A the dentist 68 0 0 68
3 7 the dentist 68 0 0 68
Proper names of
individuals
2 06A The Susan 68 0 0 68
3 5 Peter 68 0 0 68
4 01A the Ana and Alex 68 0 0 68
Specific singular count
nouns, plural count
nouns, and non-count
nouns
1 02B the menu 62 5 1 68
1 06B the blue shoes over there 65 3 0 68
1 07B the cookies 64 4 0 68
1 07C the coffee 64 4 0 68
2 02A A the history 68 0 0 68
4 01E We saw shoes, jackets, and the pants 66 2 0 68
Specific things
2 01C C horror movies 62 6 0 68
1 02A _ coffee 62 5 1 68
1 06A _ shoes 66 2 0 68
1 06C the black ones 68 0 0 68
1 07A the restaurant we went last night 68 0 0 68
2 04A the stories and music 65 3 0 68
2 04B B the love stories 68 0 0 68
2 04C C the romantic music 68 0 0 68
2 05A the chicken and the rice 65 0 0 65
2 07C the money 66 2 0 68
3 1 pasta 68 0 0 68
3 6 horror movies 66 2 0 68
4 01C the new mall 68 0 0 68
4 01F The blue ones were the most beautiful 68 0 0 68
Subjects or nouns
referred for the second
time
2 05B B The chicken 66 2 0 68
2 05C C the rice 67 1 0 68
3 2 the meatballs 68 0 0 68


50

Subj./n. part of a group 4 01D the ones in the second floor 68 0 0 68
The comparat./superlat. 4 01J is the longest river in the U.S.A. 68 0 0 68
The plural name of a
whole family
2 06B B the Gonzlez 68 0 0 68
3 4 the Morales 68 0 0 68

Contrastive Uses
Use Ex Item Correct Answer X N/A Totals
Adjectives to make a
generic statement
2 07A A The rich 68 0 0 68
2 07B B the poor 66 2 0 68
Inventions and musical
instruments only in
general statements and
the noun in their singular
form
2 02B the computers 62 5 1 68
2 03A the instruments 64 4 0 68
2 03B B the piano 68 0 0 68
2 03C C the guitar 68 0 0 68
3 3 the guitar 68 0 0 68
Nouns and noun phrases
with public places
2 01A A the theatre 68 0 0 68
4 01H we visited the museum 67 1 0 68
The plural of names of
peoples and animal
species in general use
1 01A _ /The Americans 68 0 0 68
Time expressions
1 05B _ 3:30 pm 62 6 0 68
2 01B the Saturdays 65 3 0 68
2 02C C last night 64 4 0 68
4 01B In the morning 68 0 0 68
4 01G for the party the next week 66 2 0 68

Note: Ex. stands for exercise.