Materials used in fixed restorations can be classified as:
Metals Porcelain Resins and solders METALS Taggart in 1907 introduced the lost wax technique for casting dental restorations. eneering of !etal su"structure with #orcelain "eca!e successful in the late 19$0%s Classification of dental casting alloys A. According to function 1. Gold casting alloys (Bureau of standards,1927). T&#e ' (soft). *!all inla&s+easil& "urnished, su"-ect to slight stress. T&#e '' (!ediu!) 'nla&s su"-ect to !oderate stress, thic. three+quarter crowns, a"ut!ents, Pontics and full crowns. T&#e ''' (hard). 'nla&s su"-ect to high stress, thin three quarter crowns, thin cast "ac.ings, a"ut!ents #ontics, full crowns, denture "ases and short s#an fixed #artial dentures. These allo&s can "e age hardened. 1 T&#e ' (extra hard) 'nla&s su"-ect to /er& high stress, denture "ase "ars, clas#s, long s#an 0P1*, full crowns can "e age hardened. T&#es ''' and ' are generall& called 2rown and "ridge allo&s. 2. Metal ceramic (hard and extra hard) *uita"le for /eneering with dental #orcelain, co#ings, thin walled crowns, short s#an 0P1* (hard t&#e) and long s#an 0P1* (extra hard t&#e) . !emo"able #artial denture alloys$Base metal alloys and ty#e %& gold alloys. B. According to description (composition). 1. 'ro(n and bridge alloys. a) 3old "ased (no"le) i) t&#e '''4 ' gold (high gold) ii) alternati/e crown and "ridge allo&s (low gold)containing less than 506 "ut !ore than 7068u. ") 9on gold+"ased i) *li/er #alladiu! allo&s 70 :7; 68g, ;$6Pd. Pd resists the tarnishing of 8g. *o!e 8g+#d allo&s contain s!all a!ounts (1$6) of 2u and ha/e #ro#erties si!ilar to t&#e ' gold allo&s. ii) <ase !etal allo&s 9i+or co+ "ased, chea#er ; 2. Metal ceramic alloys a) 9o"le !etal allo&s i) 3old :#latinu! : #alladiu! ii) 3old :#alladiu! :sil/er iii) 3old :#alladiu! i/) Palladiu! :sil/er /) =igh #alladiu! ") <ase !etal allo&s i) 9ic.el : chro!iu! ii) 2o"alt : chro!iu! iii) >ther s&ste!s The sil/er in #d+8g allo&s can cause discoloration (&ellow, green or "rown) of so!e #orcelains. 9on+greening #orcelain s&ste!s ha/e #artiall& o/er co!e this.
? T&#ical co!#ositions of so!e !odern no"le !etal dental allo&s Au% Cu% Ag% Pd% In, Sn, Fe !, "n T&#e ' 3old @? 5 10 0.$ <alance T&#e '' 3old 77 7 17 1 <alance T&#e ''' 3old 7$ 9 11 ?.$ <alance T&#e ''' Aow gold 75 @ ?9 5 <alance T&#e ''' 8g+Pd + + 70 ;$ <alance T&#e ' 3old 59 10 1;.$ ?.$ (B?0.o#t) <alance T&#e ' Aow gold $5 17 ;$ 7 <alance T&#e ' 8g+#d 1$ 17 7$ ;$ <alance Metal cera!ic (Chite) 3old $; + + ?@ <alance Metal cera!ic Pd+8g + + ?0 50 <alance Metal cera!ic (&ellow) 3old @@ + 1 5.$(B7.0#t) <alance Metal cera!ic =igh #d 0+5 0+1$ or 0+ @2o 0+5.$ 77+@@ <alance The #h&sical #ro#erties and handling characteristics of 9i+2r allo&s are i!#ro/ed "& addition of ;6"& weight of "er&lliu!. >ne #articular "rand of 9i+ 2r+<e allo& has a low enough casting te!#erature to "e successfull& cast into a g&#su! "onded in/est!ent. 9i gi/es strength and 2r the #assi/ating effect which !a.es the allo& corrosion resistant. <e reduces /ision te!#erature, 7 i!#ro/es casting characteristics, refines grain structure and #artici#ates in #orcelain "onding. Metal ceramic alloys ha"e common features) a) The #otential to "ond to dental #orcelain ") 2oefficient of ther!al ex#ansion co!#ati"le with #orcelain c) *ufficientl& high solidus te!#erature #er!itting the a##lication of low fusing #orcelains. Properties of modern cro#n !nd $ridge !%%o&s 8!ong the !inor additi/es, Dinc is added #ri!aril& as an ox&gen sca/enger. 'n the a"sence of En, sil/er causes a"sor#tion of > ; during !elting, the > ; re-ected during solidification causes gas #orosit&. 'ndiu!, tin and iron harden the allo&. The eli!ination of 8g fro! these allo&s !ar.edl& decreases the #ro#ensit& for the green stain at the !argins of the !etal #orcelain interface. 8ll !odern no"le !etal crown and "ridge allo&s are fine grain. 2o##er is the #rinci#al hardenerF in excessi/e a!ounts it reddens the &ellow allo&s and reduces resistance to tarnish and corrosion. *il/er !ini!iDes this reddening effect. Pd hardens and whitens the allo& and reduces its cost. $ Lo#er go%d content !%%o&s 8 7;6gold allo& containing 96 #alladiu! was clinicall& found to tarnish less than a7$6gold allo& containing no #alladiu!. This .nowledge led to the introduction of 8g+#d t&#e ''' and ' allo&s containing little, of an&, gold. 'n t&#e ' 8g+Pd allo&, gold is added not for its no"ilit& and colour, "ut for its age hardening effect. Chen 2u is added to the 8g+#d allo&, the !elting range is reduced to #er!it the use of g&#su! "onded in/est!ent and gas air torch. P'&sic!% properties The u##er li!it of the !elting range is the liquidus. Chen 7$to 1$0 0 c is added to the liquidus, we arri/e at the casting te!#erature. The lower li!it or solidus can si!ilarl& "e used to o"tain the !axi!u! soldering te!#erature. The !etal cera!ic allo&s should ha/e high !elting range so that the !etal is solid well a"o/e the #orcelain "a.ing te!#erature to !ini!iDe distortion (sag) of the casting. (e!t tre!tment of no$%e met!% !%%o&s 3old allo&s can "e su"-ected to hardening heat treat!ent or age hardening, if the allo& contains sufficient a!ount of 2u. T&#e ', and '' allo&s do not harden li.e t&#e ''' and ' allo&s. The allo&s can also "e softened "& softening heat treat!ent or solution heat treat!ent.
5 Softening 'e!t tre!tment The casting is #laced in a furnace at 700G2 for 10 !inutes and then quenched in water. 8ll inter!ediate #hases are changed to a disordered solid solution, and the ra#id quenching #re/ents ordering during cooling. Tensile strength, #ro#ortional li!it and hardness are reduced "& such a treat!ent, "ut the ductilit& is increased. This ena"les the !etal to "e ground, sha#ed or otherwise cold wor.ed, either in or out of the !outh. (!rdening 'e!t tre!tment The dental casting is soa.ed or aged for 1$ to ?0 !inutes at ;00G2 to 7$0G2. The casting is su"-ected to a softening heat treat!ent to relie/e all strain hardening "efore a hardening heat treat!ent. The #ro#ortional li!it (or &ield strength) and !odulus of resilience and hardness are increased which !a.es the #rosthesis withstand !echanical stresses without #er!anent defor!ation. *o!e ductilit& is essential if !argin and ad-ust!ent and "urnishing are to "e done. <ut a cast #rosthesis that has undergone #lastic defor!ation has failed in ser/ice. 1uctilit& is decreased "& age hardening. C!sting s'rin)!ge *his occurs in three stages 1) Ther!al contraction of the liquid !etal "etween the te!#erature to which it is heated and the liquidus te!#erature. ;) 2ontraction of !etal fro! liquid to solid stateF and ?) Ther!al contraction of solid !elt down to roo! te!#erature. 7 +inear casting shrin,age of inlay casting gold alloys Metal 2asting shrin.age (6) 3old (1006) ;;+.arat allo& T&#e+' T&#e+'' T&#e+''' <ase !etal 1.57 1.$0 1.$5 1.?7 1.7; ;.76 Platinu!, #alladiu! and co##er are effecti/e in reducing casting shrin.age. 8s ther!al contraction of the allo& as it cools to roo! te!#erature do!inates casting shrin.age the higher !elting allo&s tend to exhi"it greater shrin.age. ener!% fe!tures of met!% cer!mic !%%o&s Porcelain has low tensile and shear strength "ut can resist co!#ressi/e stresses with reasona"le success. To facilitate co!#ressi/e loading, and #orcelain is fused to a cast allo& su"structure which fits o/er the #re#ared tooth, this can a/oid or !ini!iDe "rittle fracture. Harlier, !echanical retention and undercuts were used to #re/ent detach!ent of the cera!ic /eneer. <& adding less than 16 oxide for!ing ele!ents such as iron, indiu! and tin to the high gold content allo&, the #orcelain+!etal "ond strength was i!#ro/ed ? ti!es. @ Mec'!nic!% properties The #rosthesis should "e rigid to a/oid "rittle fracture of #orcelain. 1ou"ling the thic.ness of the !etal su"structure increases the rigidit& "& a factor of @. <ut occlusion and esthetics li!it the extent to which the !etal thic.ness can "e increased. <ase !etal allo&s ha/e a !odulus of elasticit& a##roxi!atel& thrice that of #re/iousl& used gold allo&s and hence are !ore suita"le for long s#an "ridges and thinner castings. <ase !etals are harder, reducing occlusal wear significantl&. 1ensit& of "ase !etal allo&s is @.0 g!Ic! ? co!#ared to 1@.?9 g!Ic! ? for co!#ara"le no"le !etal allo&s, thus !a.ing centrifugal casting of "ase !etal allo&s easier and #recise. *ag resistance is the a"ilit& of an allo& to resist #er!anent defor!ation or wear induced "& ther!al stresses. 't is #articularl& i!#ortant in long s#an "ridges during #orcelain firing. <ase !etal allo&s will defor! less than 0.001 inch, while a no"le !etal allo& will defor! 0.009 inch. The higher fusion te!#erature of "ase !etal allo&s also contri"utes to their su#erior sag resistance. To "e co!#ati"le, the allo& !ust not interact with the cera!ic so as to /isi"l& discolour the #orcelain, and their "ond should "e strong. The use of "ase !etal allo&s has increased ra#idl& at the ex#ense of the high no"le !etal cera!ic allo&s. *or)ing c'!r!cteristics a) -ase of casting : 8llo& !ust "e eas& to !elt and !ust ra#idl& fill the !old. 9 ") -ase of soldering : the liquid solder !ust wet the allo& surface readil&, no"le !etal allo&s render the!sel/es well to "oth #re+cera!ic and #ost+ cera!ic soldering. c) -ase of burnishing : no"le !etals with high+gold or high #alladiu! contents are "urnisha"le. 9i+2r allo&s ha/e lower casting accurac& and greater surface roughening than cold allo&s, "ut higher strength and sag resistance. C!sting in+estments a) 3&#su! "onded in/est!ents : for gold "ased crown and "ridge allo&s. ") 2ar"on containing #hos#hate "onded in/est!ents : for gold "ased !etal cera!ic allo&s. c) 9on+car"on #hos#hate "onded in/est!ents : for non gold "ased allo&s li.e 9i+2r or 2o+2r allo&s. Bio%ogic!% consider!tions 'nhalation of dust and fu!es of <er&lliu! is toxic and hence exhaust /entilation is necessar&. 8s#iration of 9i containing dust can "e carcinogenic. 9i can also cause contact der!atitis and hence is contraindicated in 9i+ sensiti/e #atients. Etc'ing $!se met!% !%%o&s Mar&land "ridge utiliDes !icro!echanical retention of etched+!etal resin+"onded retainers. The etching of !etal surface can "e done either electrol&ticall& or using che!ical etchants. 10 ,ec&c%ing of no$%e met!% c!sting !%%o&s 9o"le !etal allo&s are significantl& sta"le to react two or three ti!es. The non+/olatile "ase !etals li.e En, 'n, *n and 0e !a& "e lost during re!elting and this loss can "e co!#ensated "& adding equal a!ounts of fresh allo& to the scra# "efore !elting. -ent!% Cer!mics 1ental #orcelains are used to !a.e denture teeth, single unit crowns, fixed #artial dentures and la"ial /eneers. *ingle unit crown !a& "e #orcelain -ac.et crown (PJ2), a !etal cera!ic crown or #orcelain+fused to !etal restoration (P0M), or the newer glass+cera!ic crown. ener!% Consider!tions 'om#osition i. *ilica (*i> ; ) the cr&stalline for! or quartD is used. ii. *odiu!, #otassiu! or calciu! car"onate increases the fluidit& and decreases the softening te!#erature. These glass !odifiers are added in /ar&ing a!ounts to #roduce three t&#es of #orcelains "ased on their firing te!#erature. .igh fusing : ;?$0 to ;$00G0 (1;90 to 1?70G2) Medium fusing : ;000 to ;?00G0 (109$ to 1;50G2) +o( fusing : 1500 to 19$0G0 (@70 to 105$G2) 11 iii. /elds#ar : a natural !ineral containing #otash (K ; >), alu!ina (8l ; > ? ), and silica (*i> ; ). 0leds#ar when fired at high te!#eratures can for! a glass #hase that softens and flows slightl& at #orcelain firing te!#eratures. This softened #hase allows the #orcelain #articles to coalesce togather at high te!#erature without co!#lete !elting : a #rocess referred to as sintering. 0elds#ar when heated "etween 11$0G2 and 1$?0G2 undergoes incongruent !elting to for! the cr&stalling !ineral leucite, which is #otassiu!+alu!iniu!+silicate !ineral with a large coefficient of ther!al ex#ansion. This #ro#ert& is utiliDed in the !anufacturer of #orcelains for fusing to !etal. i/. 0ther additions : <oric oxide (< ; > ? ) is added in s!all a!ounts to act as a glass !odifier to decrease the /iscosit& and lower the softening te!#erature. 't also for!s its own glass networ.. Pig!enting oxides are added to o"tain /arious shades to si!ulate natural teeth. These #ig!ents are #roduced "& fusing !etallic oxides together with fine glass and felds#ar and then regrinding to a #owder. These #owders are "lended with un#ig!ented #owdered frit to #ro/ide #ro#er hue and shade. <rown : 0e or 9i oxides 3reen : 2u oxide Lellowish "rown : Ti oxide Aa/ender : Mn oxide <lue : 2o oxide >#acit& is achie/ed "& adding Eirconiu!, Titaniu!, Tin oxides. 1; Mec'!nic!% $e'!+iour !nd p'&sic!% properties Materials fail to exhi"it the strengths that we ex#ect fro! interato!ic "onds. This is "ecause of the !inute scratches and other defects #resent on their surface. The defects ha/e shar# notches whose ti#s are as narrow as the s#acing "etween the ato!s. 1ue to stress concentration at the ti#s of the notches the "onds at the notch ti# "rea. leading to crac. #ro#agation. 8s the "rittle cera!ic ha/e no !echanis! for &ielding to stress without fracture as do !etals, crac.s #ro#agate at low stress le/els. *o their tensile strengths are !uch lower than their co!#ressi/e strengths. Met'ods of strengt'ening porce%!in *!oothen and reduction of surface flow is one of the reasons for glaDing dental #orcelain, which #roduces a /er& large increase in their strength. *trengthening of "rittle !aterials can "e done either "& the introduction of residual co!#ressi/e stresses into the surface of the !aterial or "& the interru#tion of crac. #ro#agation through the !aterial. .) Introduction of residu!% compressi+e stresses *trengthening is gained "& /irtue of the fact that there residual stresses !ust first "e negated "& the a##lied force "efore an& tensile stresses can "e created in the o"-ect. Residual co!#ressi/e stresses can "e introduced "& the following techniques. 1? a) %on exchange (chemical tem#ering) 8 sodiu! containing glass article is #laced in a "ath of !olten #otassiu! nitrate, when so!e K ion in the "ath exchange #laces with 9a ions on the glass surface. The larger K ions squeeDe into the sa!e s#ace occu#ied "& the 9a ions leading to a /er& large increase in residual co!#ressi/e stress in the glass surface. b) *hermal tem#ering =ere the o"-ect is ra#idl& cooled (quenched) while it is in the soft (!olten) state. 8s the solidif&ing !olten cone tries to shrin. or #ull the rigid solidified outer s.in, residual co!#ressi/e stresses are created in the outer s.in. c) *hermal ex#ansion coefficient mismatch =ere a !etal housing slightl& larger coefficient of ther!al ex#ansion is used. 1uring cooling fro! the firing te!#erature, the !etal contracts slightl& !ore than the #orcelain. This !is!atch lea/es the #orcelain in residual co!#ression. /) Interruption of cr!c) prop!g!tion a) 1is#ersion of a crystalline #hase. 8 tough cr&stalline !aterial such as alu!ina (8l ; > ? ) is added to glass in a #articulate for!. The glass is toughened and strengthened "ecause the crac. cannot #enetrate the alu!ina #articles easil&. This technique has "een utiliDed 17 in the de/elo#!ent of alu!ina #articles easil&. This technique has "een utiliDed in the de/elo#!ent of alu!inous #orcelains. This technique is also used in the cast glass crown 1icor where the glass crown is su"-ected to a heat treat!ent that causes !icrosco#ic !ica cr&stals to grow in the glass, these cr&stals interru#t crac. #ro#agation. 0or !axi!u! reinforcing effect, the dis#ersed #hase should ha/e a !ini!u! difference in ther!al ex#ansion with the glass. b) *ransformation toughening This in/ol/es incor#oration of a cr&stalline !aterial that is ca#a"le of undergoing a change in cr&stal structure when #laced under stress, a"sor"ing the energ& fro! the crac.. Partiall& sta"iliDed Dirconia (P*E) is the usuall& used cr&stalline !aterial. The disad/antage is that it can #roduce an o#acif&ing effect. -esign of cer!mic restor!tions The design should a/oid su"-ecting the #orcelain to high tensile stresses. *o PJ2s are contraindicted for restoring #osterior teeth. H/en on anterior teeth with dee# /ertical o/erla# and !oderate horiDontal o/erla# P0M restoration is to "e #referred o/er PJ2. To #re/ent stress concentration shar# line angles on the #re#aration and sudden changes in #orcelain thic.ness should "e a/oided. The co#ing surface in P0M should also not ha/e shar# line angles. 1$ Co%our of porce%!in Porcelain is an esthetic restorati/e !aterial ca#a"le of !atching the ad-acent tooth in translucence, colour and intensit&. 2o!#lete colour !atching is difficult. The sa!e o"-ect !a& show slight /ariation in colour when /iewed under different t&#es of light sources this is the #heno!enon of !eta!eris!. 8 shade guide is used to !atch the colour. 'deall& colour !atching is done under the illu!ination of northern light fro! a "lue s.& as this light contains the !ost e/en "alance of light wa/elengths. 'f this light source cannot "e o"tained, colour !atching should "e done under two or !ore different light sources. The o#acit&, of the ce!enting !ediu! also affects the esthetic qualities of a PJ2. Einc #hos#hate ce!ent is o#aque whereas silico#hos#hate and glass iono!er ce!ents are !ore translucent. Man& ce!ents are s#ecificall& tinted for colour !atching. F!$ric!tion of ! cer!mic restor!tions Condens!tion 0 Porcelain is su##lied as a fine #owder that is !ixed with distilled water or another /ehicle and condensed into the desired for!. Particles of different siDes allow dense #ac.ing. 1ense #ac.ing has the "enefits of lower firing and less #orosit& in the fired #orcelain. 2ondensation is achie/ed "& /i"ration, s#atulation and "rush techniques. Chen !ild /i"rations used for #ac.ing, the excess water is "lotted awa& with a clean tissue. 'n the second !ethod, a s!all s#atula is used to a##l& and s!ooth the wet #orcelain. The s!oothen action "rings excess water to the surface, where it is re!o/ed. 'n the "rush technique, dr& #owder is #laced with a "rush to the side o##osite fro! an incre!ent of wet #orcelain. 8s the water is 15 drawn toward the dr& #owder, the wet #articles are #ulled together ("& ca#illar& action). The #orcelain !ust ne/er "e allowed to dr& out "efore condensation is co!#lete. Firing procedures 8fter condensation, the restoration is #laced on a fire+cla& sla" or tra& and inserted in the !uffle of a #orcelain furnace. Porcelain should not contact the !uffle walls or floor. Porcelain can e!"rittle the heating ele!ent if the latter is contracted. 1uring firing the #owder #articles fuse together. The condensed #orcelain is first #laced in front of the !uffle of a #reheated furnace (a##roxi!atel& 5$0G2) for $ !inutes to #er!it the water /a#our to dissi#ate, "efore the firing. 1uring firing, the #orcelain #articles unite at their #oints of contact and then the fused glass graduall& flows to fill u# the air s#aces. =owe/er, the !ass is too /iscous to allow the esca#e of air. Porosit& can "e reduced "& /acuu! offset firing. %!1ing *tains and glaDes #ro/ide a !ore life+li.e a##earance. Hxternal staining is su"-ect to che!ical dura"ilit&, #ro"le!s. 'nternal staining is #er!anent and life+li.e, #articularl& when si!ulated craDe lines are "uilt into it. 'nternal staining and characteriDation ha/e the disad/antage that the #orcelain !ust "e co!#letel& stri##ed if staining is unsuita"le. 3laDed #orcelain is !uch stronger and #re/ents crac. #ro#agation then ad-ust the occlusion, the trans/erse strength is hal/ed. 17 Coo%ing 0 sudden cooling fro! the firing te!#erature can fracture the glass. 2ooling a !etal cera!ic restoration too slowl& can cause the coefficient of ther!al ex#ansion of #orcelain to increase and can actuall& !a.e it !ore li.el& to crac. or craDe. Met!% cer!mic cro#n Chen #orcelain is "onded to an inner s.in of !etal, crac.s can de/elo# onl& when the !etal is defor!ed or "ro.en. Hstheticall&, the P0M restorations are slightl& inferior to the PJ2. P0M utiliDes cast or non cast !etal co#ings. C!st coping To "e fused to !etal, the #orcelains ha/e to "e low fusing and ha/e a coefficient of ther!al ex#ansion considera"l& higher than ordinar& #orcelains. The allo&s used should ha/e higher !elting ranges to #re/ent sag, cree# or !elting during firing. 3old allo&s used for cast co#ing contain a"out 16 of "ase !etals such as 0e, 'n and *n which for! a surface oxide la&er during degassing and this la&er is res#onsi"le for de/elo#!ent of a "ond with #orcelain. The #orcelain : !etal "ond is #ri!aril& che!ical in nature and is ca#a"le of for!ing e/en when the !etal surface is s!ooth i.e. when there is no o##ortunit& for !echanical interloc.ing. <oth !etal and cera!ic !ust ha/e closel& !atched coefficients of ther!al ex#ansion, to !ini!iDe residual ther!al stresses in the latter. 1@ 'n P0M fa"rication, the cera!ic should contain greater a!ounts of soda and #otash to increase the ther!al ex#ansion to a le/el co!#ati"le with the !etal. >#aque #orcelains contain large a!ounts of !etallic oxide o#acifiers to conceal the underl&ing !etal and to !ini!iDe the thic.ness of the o#aque la&er. The !etal and #orcelain should #refera"l& ha/e co!#ati"le ther!al conducti/it& to resist ther!al shoc.. <ecause of the high !elting te!#erature of the allo&s, g&#su! in/est!ents can not "e used, a #hos#hate "onded or silica "onded in/est!ent is used. Ther!al ex#ansion is utiliDed to co!#ensate casting shrin.age. The casting should "e carefull& cleaned to ensure a strong "ond to #orcelain. 1egassing also "urns off surface i!#urities. >il fro! fingers can "e a conta!inant. 2era!ic "onded stones !a& "e used for cleaning the surface. 0inal texturing with an ;$ alu!ina air a"rasi/e !a.es #orcelain "ond to !echanicall& rece#ti/e surface. >#aque #orcelain is condensed to a thic.ness of 0.;!! and fired to its !aturing te!#erature. This is followed "& translucent #orcelain and finall& the glaDe. Mnli.e acr&lic resin /eneered structures there is al!ost no wear "& a"rasion or change in colour "ecause of !icrolea.age "etween #orcelain /eneer and !etal P0M requires re!o/al of !ore tooth structure than for PJ2. Bonded p%!tinum foi% coping =ere tin oxide coating on #latinu! foil is utiliDed for #orcelain "onding. =ere the thic.er !etal co#ing is re#laced "& a thin #latinu! foil, gi/ing !ore roo! for #orcelain. 8lu!inous #orcelain is used. 19 S#!ged go%d !%%o& foi% coping Renaissance is a la!inated gold allo& foil ha/ing a fluted sha#ed which is swaged on to the die and fla!e :sintered to for! a co#ing. 8n interfacial allo&, #owder is a##lied and fired, and the co#ing is then /eneered with #orcelain. Porce%!in2met!% $ond 2he!ical and !echanical "onds exist. 8llo&s that for! adherent oxides during degassing for! good che!ical "ond with #orcelain, whereas those allo&s with #oorl& adherent oxides for! #oor "onds. Minor ele!ents li.e *n or 'n are "elie/ed to !igrate to the interface where the& oxidiDe and for! co/alent or ionic "onds across the interface. *o!e Pd+8g allo&s for! no external oxide at all, "ut rather oxidiDe internall&, these allo&s need !echanical "onding. *hear tests show that "ond failure can "e cohesi/e through the #orcelain, !etal+oxide or !etal, or adhesi/e at the !etal+#orcelain, !etal oxide+#orcelain or !etal oxide+!etal interfaces, or a !ixture of cohesi/e and adhesi/e shear strength and tensile strength of #orcelain are when fired in ox&gen than when /acuu! fired. Bonding using e%ectrode position Hlectrode+#osition of a la&er #ure gold onto the cast !etal, followed "& a short flashing de#osition of tin, has "een shown to i!#ro/e the wetting of #orcelain onto the !etal and to reduce #orosit& at the #orcelain !etal interface. The electrode#osited la&er also inhi"its ion #enetration fro! the !etal, and acts as a "uffer Done to a"sor" stresses caused "& differentials in the coefficients of ;0 ther!al ex#ansion "etween the !etal casting and the #orcelain during cooling. The gold colour of the oxide fil! enhances the /italit& of the #orcelain when co!#ared with the nor!al dar. oxides that require hea/& o#aque la&ers. C!st!$%e %!ss cer!mic cro#n The casta"le glass cera!ic, or 1icor was introduced to dentistr& in 19@7. 3lass cera!ics are co!#osite !aterials of a glass& !atrix #hase and a cr&stal #hase. 1icor is co!#rised of *i> ; , K ; >, Mg>, Mg0 ; , s!all a!ounts of 8l ; > ? and Er> ; and a fluoresing agent. 't is technicall& descri"ed as Tetrasilicic fluoro!ica glass+cera!ic. 't is for!ed into full crown restorations "& a lost wax casting #rocess. 8fter the trans#arent glass casting is reco/ered, it is su"-ected to a heat treat!ent to induce #artial de/itrification (i.e. loss of glass structure "& cr&stalliDation), a #rocess called cera!!ing. 2era!!ing causes !icrosco#ic #late+ li.e #articles of cr&stalline !aterial (!ica) to grow within the glass !atrix. 8fter cera!!ing, it is coated with a thin la&er of #orcelain to #ro/ide esthetics. The final colour of the restoration is due, in #art fro! the colour #ic.ed u# fro! the ad-acent teeth (che!eleon effect) and in #art fro! the tinted ce!ents used in luting. 0laws (3riffith%s flaws) de/elo#ing on the surface of glass are #re/ented fro! #ro#agating, "& the !ica cr&stals. The !arginal ada#tation or fit of 1icor is "etter than gold crowns. The "ioco!#ati"ilit& of glass cera!ics is excellent. The soft tissue res#onse of glass cera!ic restoration is si!ilar to that of unrestored control teeth "ecause: a. The !arginal ada#tation is exce#tional ;1 ". The fluoride content of the !aterial inhi"its "acterial coloniDation and c. The surface of the restoration is s!ooth and non #orous. 1icor has a low wear #otential and low ther!al conducti/it& that insulates the underl&ing tooth fro! changes in te!#erature. The fa"rication of 1icor is si!#le, as the lost wax technique is used. 2asta"le cera!ics #ro/ide life li.e /italit&. 1icor can "e used for single restoration li.e full /eneer restorations on anterior and #osterior teeth, inla&s, onla&s, three+quarter crowns, #artial /eneers and recentl& la!inate /eneers. 't is contraindicated on teeth with short clinical crowns. 8nother casta"le glass cera!ic de/elo#ed in Ja#an #roduces h&drox&a#atite cr&stals in the glass !atrix instead of !ica cr&stals, on cera!!ing. In3ection mo%ded g%!ss cer!mic cro#n This is a shrin. free cera!ic crown, !ar.eted originall& under the na!e 2erestore. 2on/entional cera!ics shrin. 10 to ;06 during firing. The #ri!ar& constituents in 2erestore are Mg>, 8l ; > ? , glass frit, silicone resin and .aolin. These non shrin. cera!ics ha/e good flexural strength. The technique in/ol/es construction of a s#ecial non shrin.ing e#ox& die of the #re#ared tooth. 8 wax #attern of the co#ing is found on this die. The die and #attern are in/ested in a g&#su! "onded in/est!ent and the wax re!o/ed with "oiling water. The in/est!ent !old is then heated to 1@0G2. the cera!ic !aterial su##lied as dense #ellets is heated to until the silicone reti! carrier in the cera!ic is flowa"le and then in-ection !olded "& #ressure into ;; the heated !old. The green state co#ing is retrie/ed, s#rue re!o/ed and an& ad-ust!ents !ade. 't is then su"-ected to a /er& high te!#erature, firing c&cle to for! a true glass cera!ic core or co#ing. >/er this co#ing low fusing dentin and ena!el #orcelains are a##lied to de/elo# the external sha#e and esthetics. The equi#!ent required is s#ecialiDed and ex#ensi/e. The technique is ti!e consu!ing and calls for extra attention to detail. Porce%!in +eneers, in%!&s !nd on%!&s =ere the tooth ena!el or !etal is etched and resin ce!ent is used as the ce!enting agent for the #orcelain la!inates. 2era!ic /eneers can "e used on stained h&#o#lastic teeth, and #ro/ide excellent esthetics. 2ost and wear of o##osing natural teeth are the draw"ac.s. C'emic!% st!$i%it& To#ical fluorides such as 8P0 and stannous fluoride, used for caries control, #roduce h&drofluoric acid which etches glass and leads to surface roughness of cera!ic restorations. =ence, 8P0 gels should not "e used when glaDed #orcelain restorations are #resent. 'f such a gel is used, the surface of the restoration should "e #rotected with aseline, cocoa "utter or wax. ,esins Resins !a& "e indicated for an indi/idual restoration or as a /eneer o/er a casting. ;? Ad+!nt!ges Hsthetics Aow cost 2on/enient re#air, e/en intra orall& Hase of fa"rication 9o a"rasion of o##osing teeth -is!d+!nt!ges Aow #ro#ortional li!it and #ronounced #lastic defor!ation distortion on occlusal loading, hence resin should "e #rotected with !etal occlusal surface. Microlea.age and staining under /eneers 1i!ensional change during ther!al c&cling and water sor#tion *urface staining and intrinsic discolouration. Tooth "rush wear Resin /eneered !etal restoration unsuita"le for RP1 clas#ing. T&pes of s&nt'etic resins T&#e ' (acr&lic) T&#e '' (di!ethacr&late) T&#e ''' (co!#osite) 8cr&lic resins are #owder liquid s&ste!s "ased on !eth&l !ethacr&late and si!ilar to self cured acr&lic resins. 1i!ethacr&late resins are cured at higher te!#eratures and &ield cross lin.ed wear resistant resins. Microfilled ;7 co!#osite resins use <'*+3M8, Mrethane di!ethacr&late, or 7, @ di(!ethacr&lox& !eth&lene)+tric&clo+($.;.1.0;.5) decane resin !atrixes. These new resins are #ol&!eriDed using light, or heat and #ressure. Microfilled resins ha/e su#erior #h&sical #ro#erties including "etter wear resistance than the original unfilled resin. Harlier resins had low strength and hardness, and high water sor#tion. The accelerated loss of !aterial ex#osed the !etal fra!ewor., which required re#air with a direct filling resin. The dis#arit& in ther!al ex#ansion and lac. of adhesion "etween resin and !etal lead to #ercolation of fluids at the resin+!etal interface contri"uting to discolouration of the resin and corrosion of non+no"le allo&s. Rigidit& of !etal fra!e wor. is needed to #re/ent #lastic defor!ation. Processing #orosit& also leads to wea.ness of resin, o#aque a##earance, #otential for incu"ating !icro+organis!s and tissue irritation due to roughness. Porcelains ha/e largel& re#laced resins. Resins are indicated where #orcelains cause undue wear of o##osing teeth and restorations. The de/elo#!ent of wear resistant, esthetic resin !aterial is warranted to !eet clinical de!ands. 8n acr&lic resin called P&ro#last is still used for esthetic /eneering of castings. The #ol&!er is !ixed with !ono!er and a##lied in s!all incre!ents to the casting. 't is cured in a s#ecial curing o/er at ;7$G0 for @ !inutes. Then the gingi/al and incisal colours are a##lied and "lended, curing follows each la!ination. 8fter #rocessing the /eneer is finished and #olished. ;$ Composite ,esins 'sosit, was the first che!icall& acti/ated co!#osite resin used for 0P1 wor.. 't is cured using #ressure and te!#erature. The !a-orit& of co!#osite resin !aterial, use /isi"le light for #ol&!eriDation. 8 single #aste is used. >ne s&ste! utiliDes a di.etone, ca!#horoquinone, and a reducing agent 9,9+di!eth&l a!inoeth&l+ !ethacr&late. ,esin ,etention Mechanical retention or an inter!ediar& cou#ling agent is used in "onding, resin to !etals fra!ewor.. Retenti/e "eads, loo#s or ladders ha/e "een suggested. >#aque la&er does not o"struct the retenti/e #atterns co!#letel&, the resin is also loc.ed in. 8dhesi/e cou#ling agents are a recent introduction one s&ste! utiliDes fla!ing silica onto the !etal. 8nother s&ste! of resin retention in/ol/es electrol&ticall& etching a !icroretenti/e surface, high "ond strengths are acco!#lished. These new techniques allow a !ore conser/ati/e #re#aration, reduced cost and i!#ro/ed esthetics. 8 disad/antage is the difficult& in clinical re#airs of fractured /eneers. C%inic!% !pp%ic!tions 'n resin /eneer areas, tooth structure is to "e reduced "& 1.$ to ;!! de#th. 8 "e/eled solder is #re#ared on the la"ial surfaces into the inter#roxi!al ;5 surfaces. 't "lends into a 2ha!fer finish line in /eneer areas. The occlusal surface of the restoration should "e in !etal. 2o!#lete crowns in resin are onl& interi! restorations. 'n !andi"ular central and lateral incisors extensi/e tooth reduction can "e a/oided using resin o/er !ini!u! !etallic fra!ewor.. 1 to 1.$!! reduction is enough. The #ontic of an acid etched, resin "onded retainer Mar&land "ridge is usuall& fa"ricated with dental #orcelain and render itself to electrol&tic etching. 8 heat cured co!#osite !aterial for #ontic is a reasona"le solution, which is costless. The tissue surface of #ontic can "e allo&, which #roduces a fa/oura"le tissue res#onse. Custom %!min!te +eneers =ere the teeth are !ini!all& #re#ared to recei/e resin /eneers 0.$ to 1!! reduction gi/es attracti/e results. The fa"ricated heat cured la!inates are "onded to the etched ena!el surface using a co!#osite resin. Addition!% !pp%ic!tions Recentl& co!#osite resin /eneering !aterials ha/e "een considered for use as i!#lant !aterials and also for custo! occlusal s#lint thera#&. So%ders *oldering is the -oining together of !etal #arts "& !elting a filler "etween the! at a te!#erature "elow the solidus te!#erature of the !etal "eing -oined and "elow 7$0G2. ;7 2elen,o classifies solders as) 3rou# ' : traditional gold containing solders 3rou# '' : others (s#ecial solders) Pre cera!ic soldering refers to soldering "efore #orcelain a##lication and #ost cera!ic soldering after #orcelain a##lication. Pre+cera!ic solders are high fusing, fusing onl& slightl& "eneath the softening #oint of the #arent allo&. The& should flow well a"o/e the fusion te!#erature of the su"sequentl& a##lied #orcelain. Post cera!ic solders !ust flow well "elow the #&ro#lastic range of #orcelain. 1ental gold solders are gi/en a fineness nu!"er to indicate the #ro#ortion of #ure gold contained in 1000 #arts of allo&. 8 $@$ fine solder contains $@.$6 8u, 176 8g, 196 2u, ?.$06 *n and 7.$6 En, and has a flow te!#erature of 7@0G2. The !ain require!ent of solder is that it fuses safel& "elow the sag or cree# te!#erature of the casting to "e soldered. Pre+cera!ic soldering is relati/el& difficult and structurall& haDardous due to /olatiliDation of "ase !etal solder constituents due to o/erheating. olatiliDation causes #itting or !icro#orosit&. Porcelain does not che!icall& "ond equall& well to all solders. *olders should also resist tarnish and corrosion, should flow easil&, !atch the colour of the units "eing -oined and "e strong. ;@ The no"le !etal content and 8g: 2u ratio deter!ine the solder%s tarnish resistance. 'f the co!#osition of solder and the #arent !etal differ gal/anic corrosion results. The surfaces to "e soldered should "e s!oothed with a"rasi/e dis.s and not with ru""er wheels or #olishing co!#ounds. The solder !ust wet or flow freel& o/er the !etal surface. 8g increases and 2u decreases the flow Aow fineness gold solders are often !ore fluid. Proxi!al contacts are added, if needed with a higher fineness solder since it flows less. The strength of !ost solders is greater than the #arent !etal. <rittleness is often seen with gold "ased 2u containing solders, on cooling to roo! te!#erature. 0P1s fa"ricated fro! t&#e ''' gold allo&s are -oined with gold "ased solders and usuall& water quenched 7 to $ !inutes after soldering. Nuenching i!!ediatel& after soldering causes war#ing of the 0P1F not quenching lea/es a -oint with little or no ductilit&. 8 "rittle -oint !a& easil& fracture. Thus a disad/antage of #ost+cera!ic soldering is the loss of -oint ductilit&. *ince the co!#onents are #artiall& #orcelain, quenching is not #ossi"le "ecause #orcelain fracture will occur. Conc%usion The de/elo#!ent of newer allo&s and #orcelains with "etter wor.ing #ro#erties are #rogressing in an encouraging !anner. Researchers are ho#eful in their endea/our to !ini!iDe or totall& eli!inate the draw"ac.s that are associated with these !aterials. ;9 ,eferences 1. *.inner%s *cience of 1ental Materials, 9 th Hd : Ral#h C. Philli#s ;. 2onte!#orar& fixed Prosthodontics, 1 st Hd : *te#hen 0. Rosenstiel, et al ?. T&l!an%s Theor& and Practice of fixed Prosthodontics, @ th Hd : C.0.P. Malone et al. ?0