Analogy similarity

Various ways of increasing concentration of carrier

- Doping
- Illumination
- Temperature
Metal has only electron as carrier where semiconductor have both electron and hole.
In semiconductor current due to electron and hole(drift and diffusion both) where in metal only due
drift current is significant.
Concentration of carrier can vary in wide range in semiconductor so diffusion is possible.
Carrier transport-1- drit due to potential gradient
2- diffusion due to concentration gradient
3- thermoelectric current due temperature gradient
2 &3 are not significant in the metal but possible in the semiconductor that is unquness of
semiconductor.
Drift current velocity varies electric field curve velocity vary linearily with electric field then
saturation of velocity occure(or vary sublinearly) in metal or in some semiconductor but in some
compounded semiconductor after reaching the hight point dirft velocity (or drift current )decease
so the negative resistence region arise ,after that current become saturated.


Interaction with electromagnetic field
Photoconductivity or photovoltic (as electron and hole can give to the voltage at the end of the
terminal of the device).used in photodector,in photovoltaic cells
Reverse phenonmen also on recombination of e and hole gives rise to photon this is called
electrolimunisences(in put is electrical output is photon)
Thied phenomenon is photolumniscence means input light and output is also light.
Stringent-requiring strict attention



Evolution and uniqueness of the semiconductor
Vacuum tube 1 size large
2 fragile as cover with glass
3 heat dissipation is required

Single crystal required lot of money to develop

Passivation layer made of silicon dioxide
Main advantage of planer process we can integrate many circuit on planer surface.(circuit density
increase),where in MESA process circuit density is small.
industries
BEL,banglore
Cdil,new delhi
Scl,chandigrad
Iti(indian telephone industries),banglore
Research laboratories
Sspl, new delhi
Ceeri, pilani ,rajsthAN



Equilibrium and carrier concentration
Carrier concentration is the function of temperature with temperature general increase in the
concentration.
In of case extrinsic both hole and e(majority and minority ) concentration have to be considered but
In intrinsic semiconductor either can check as both are the equal.
We talk only about bulk not interface.
Type of semiconductor
1- Simple or elemental(si,ge)
2- Compound(gaas,inp,)
or
1- Pure (no defects or impurities)
2- Intrinsic(small amount of impurities present)
3- Extrinsic
Thermal equilibrium
Principal of detail balance
For every process there is reverse process
Semiconductor is in thermal equilibrium if
1- No external excitation other than thermal equilibrium
2- No net motion of charge or energy.
Even under thermal equilibrium inside p-n diode large current density( of the order 1000 ampere per
meter square) but current density one direction cancel out the other one in other direction so, it
dynamic equilibrium .
Steady state and equilibrium-
Steady state- all process are constant as a function of time and there is no necessary reverse
process like in equilibrium.
If semiconductor is in steady state need not be in equilibrium but if it is in the equilibrium it is
definitely in the steady state.
So many process not in steady state can be treated in equilibrium(small deviation from the steady
state by introducing the term quasi steady state or qusi static condition).

Vibrating electron produce the travelling wave or elastic wave(phono are emitted).
Energy momentum conservation in photon are electron collision.

Bond model for intrinsic semiconductor we assume the intrinsic semiconductor pure semiconductor
without any defect or impurities.
Eletron in the crystal gives rise to em waves.relative displacement of the e and hole cloud(or
vibrating atom at teompearte greater than zero) create oscillatory dipole, this oscillatory dipole is
source em waves.so vibrating atom is the source of both travelling wave and em waves or phono
and photons.
Free electron can be claimed by any atom so can move with the boundary of the atom.
So, for temperature graeater than zero there with in semiconductor four type of particle
phonos(elastic wave generated from atom), photons(em waves generated from atom), free
electron(can also treated as de-grablie wave), hole
If the large number of phonos and photon converge over the bond having energy greater than
energy of bond then free electron generated.

Photogeneratioin is thermal equilibrium with radiative recombination (reverse process
photogeneration)
Photogeneration is also called ionisation
Impact ionization reverse process is augur recombination.
Phonos generation is the reverse process of phonos recombination.

Non radiative process are augur recombination ,phonos recombination(nearby electron remved with
energetic electron)
Scattering and recombination both collision ,in recomb. Electron and hole collide both are
annihaliatedd but in scattering e and hole come near but never meet only path changes
Force on electron and hole have the same force as equal to the charge product of electric field but
effective force but rate movement is different due effective so, e faster than hole .
Bond energy si-si covalent bond
LECTURE no. 6
Energy band model (or band model)
Gives e population in term of energy possed by the electron at given temperature
1- only certain energy state Allowed.
2- Electron occupy lowed energy available energy state.
3- No two electron have same energy in a system (pauli-exclusive principle).
Distribution allowed state over energy N(E)-(density of allowed function)
At given temperature only fraction energy level are occupied.
Only conduction band and valance band are of our interest as they decide many properties of the
matter.
Vacuum energy level is the energy level of the isolated atoms.
Electron affinity is the difference between vacuum level and conduction level.
If the electron moving up in the conduction band , it will gain the kinetic energy and or if the hole
moving down the valance band ,it will gain kinetic energy.
Electron moving from valance band to vacuum level , means electron move to surface

Lector 7
Fermi dirac gives fraction of available energy state occupied at the given temperature and energy
under equilibrium.
Density of state
Fermi dirac curve says that -1- at higher temperature electron move from lower energy state to
higher energy state.
2
Physical significance of Fermi energy is that energy level below which all the level are occupied at
zero temperature. Or above which all the energy level are unoccupied at zero kelvin temperature
and at temperature greater than zero exactly half of the energy level are occupied.
Boltzman approximation of Fermi deriac function it valid for power of exponential term should
greater than 3 or less than minus 3.physical significance of the boltzaman approximation (boltman
assumed that any energy level can be occupied by the more than one electron )

Energy state occupied in conduction band in silicon more than that of in valance band where in GaAs
it reverse because effective mass of electron is greater than that of the hole in silicon where as it is
reverse in GaAs
There are two type of effective mass conductivity effective mass(used for resistivity and mobility)
and density state effective mass
Nc- number available state at Ec
Nv- number available state at Ev
F(E,T)-fraction energy level available are occupied by electron at E with in De interval,T temperature
1-F(E,T)-fraction energy level available are occupied by hole at E with in De interval,T temperature.
(1/(1+x)) can approximated as 1-x for x<<1.

Lecture 9
Uniform doping-
Force in the siicon atom is inversely proportional to permittivity
But energy(energy for ionisation ) is inversely square permivitivity
Lecture 10
Bond model has disadvantage- accurate concentration of majority and minority can be calculated
Diluted approximation impurity concentration very less than silicon semiconductor.
1-impurity concentration dont affect crystal structure.
3- One impurity does not affect other impurities
So, that energy gap is remain as that intrinsic semiconductor and no energy band crossponding to
impurities but a single level for n-type below 0.045ev the conduction level,this basically impurity
ionisation(0.045ev).so, electron are majority carrier as they contributed thermal generation and
impurity ioninsation ,whereas hole only due to thermal generation similarily , in p type hole are
majority carrier.
Source of the carrier in the extrinsic semiconductor
1- Impurity ionisation- due to doped atom(either e or hole ) dominated at lower temperature
2- Due to thermal generation or silicon ionisation ( EHP genetion)

At higher temperature , thermal generation and impurity ionisation are comparable.
Nd- concentration of the donor impurity
Ndplus - concentration of the donor impurity that is ionisied
At complete ionisation or extrinsic range or middle range of the temperature then, Nd=Ndplus

Density of state function in extrinsic semiconductor
Fermi level is slightly modeified , by with introduction degeneration factor but we ignore this factor
and continuously use that early Fermi dirac function.
Here we get same e and hole concentration but Fermi level change here to that case intrinsic
semiconductor.
Mass action law very important relation
It tell under thermal equilibrium, the product of e concentration and hole concentration in any
semiconductor is equal to the square of intrinsic semicomductor.it tell if concentration decease
other incease.this valid undder boltzamann constant or under moderate concentration it hold or
under dilution approximation it hold.
Concentration of majority carrier in the extrinsic semiconductor can be divided
Into three region
1- Patially ionised range (in this range the extrinsic semiconductor concentration is given by
same intrinsic semiconductor but Nc is replaced by Nd as transition occure from Ed to Ec and
again energy band gap is replace by the ionisation energy)
2- Completely ionised range(extrinsic range , it the interested range at which device work)
3- Intrinsic range(very temperature extrinsic concentration given by the same as that of the
intrinsic semiconductor)
Intrinsic temperature- border between intrinsic and extrinsic range.
It is proportional to the band gap so high for GaAs then silicon so, for oprating the device at higher
temperature band gap should be high,that in the GaAs. This is the importance of the intrinsic
semiconductor
At very temperature the majority carrier and minority concentration are similar then it is given by
intrinsic concentration

Heavy doping condition when dilution approximation not valid- then energy level become decrease
and impuirties start interact so ipurity level start splitting into band or we can say band narrowing
,these are two effect of heavy doping effect.
So to avoid this only ,moderate concentration is assumed.

Fermi level versus temperature , carrier concentration
With increase(electron concentration) concentration Fermi level move toward conduction band.

The variation in the Fermi level in the intrinsic semiconductor with temperature and available state
at Ec and Ev can be neglected ,it is more or less it is in the middle of the Ec and Ev.but in actually
femi level will down with incease in the tempearature.

Lecture 11
With temperature energy gap decrease
Compensated semiconductor here transition from acceptor to donor level or vise versa is
convinent to transition carrier to conduction or valance band
If p-type doping is greater than n-type doping then semiconductor is p-type
Otherwise n-type
Other type of impurities
Shallow impurities- crossponding impurities lies near to the band(conduction or valance band).
Deep impurities-crossponding impurities lies away from the band(conduction or valance band).they
can change the transite response.
Amphoteric impurities- that behave like both donor and acceptor impurity.like gold



Carrier transport
Lecture 12
Carrier transport mechanism can
1- Drift
2- Diffusion
3- Themoelectric current
4- Tunnelling
1,2 & 3 can said as semi -classical as they required only classical method after some simplification to
eplain where in the tunnelling quantum mechanism required.
So we studied how we decide carrier concentration in semiconductor
Now we studied how carrier moves or transported
Mobility decrease as total concentration with concentration where as carrier concentration depend
upon net doping
With temperature mobility first increase up to peak then decrease with increase in the temperature
.

.
Einstein relation tell about diffusivity mobility(with thermal voltage)
Resistivity decrease with doping concentration
Conductity increase then decease with increase temperature , crossponding to the three range
partial ionisation , extrinsic range and intrinsic range.
Scattering with phonos is lattice scattering
With hole and electron is called carrier carrier scattering
Properties of random motion
1- No net motion.
Two ways of calculating mean velocity esemble velocity
Time Average velocity-


For small electric field velocity of the carrier is linear but the saturate (flux saturated)
Extra energy given at high electric field incease random component not directed component but at
low electric field direct component inease.(here velocity have direct component and random
component random component do not give rise to the any current).

Quasi equilibrium transzport-
1 net flux is much less than individual component.
2- Quantity like mean time , mean path , thermal velocity do change in equlibrium.

Effect doping concentration and temperature on the mobility.-
1- Ionised impurity scattering
2- Lattice
3- carrier scattering
With incease velocity and temperature , scattering is the less
Mean free path , mean free time , random velocity (basically it is the rms velocity)given by ratio of
mean free path and mean free time (between generation and recombination)
Ionised Means free time must decrease with total concentration incease as ionisaed impurity
scattering is more and when temperature incease .
Lattice Means free time falls as temperature increase
Carrier carrier Means free time(scattering with same polarity or with the opposite polarity) does
important for the same polarity but the e can if in majority amount then they effect the hole
concentration
Carrier carrier of same charge due not affect the direct but affect by difffrent type of charge like e
and hole scattering
1- Ensemble average or no net motion- at any instant ,sum of the velocities of the large
number of the atom divided by the number of atom
2- Time average in that we follow the particle for the large time and take the different
velocity of the single particle and take there average
3- Average flux is zero-
Lecture 14
the total scattering event is equal to scattering event due to the ionised scattering and scattering
event due to due to lattice scattering and lower impurity will dominant the overall mobility.
scattering event is given by the reciprocal of the mean free path and mobitlity is the proportional to
the mean free path as seen from the mobility formula.
ionised impurity concentration increase with temperature increase( but also strongly depend
upon the doping concentration which decrease with temperature ) where as lattice impurities
decrease .
after 300 k(room tempearature) lattice scattering dominant .
for silicon , e max. mobility 1330 and for hole 495(cm*cm/V-s) at 300 k where is for GaAs electron
mobility 8500 and hole mobility is 450(cm*cm/V-s)at 300 k and concentration 10^(14), so devices
are made up of the GaAs are more faster than si provided they are mainly made up of the electron
impurities like the device made up of the NPN, N- channeljFET(remember mosfet is difficult to made
with the GaAs) .
after energy gap mobility is the next parameter in the seniconductor
low hole mobility of GaAs create problem when we required the devices or circuit with required
both n type and p-type impurities like in the CMOS as the size of the p-type device is much much
larger than n-type device to carry the same current as n-type for achieve the performance.so this
way mobility affect the application .
Resistivity
Depend upon the carrier concentration and mobility so,in turn the resistivity depend upon the
concentration and temperature.
Conductivity increase from zero in the partial ionisation then decrease in the extrinsic range then
again incease in the intrinsic range this can obtain if we multiple the mobility and carrier
concentration we get this type curve.
In the intrinsic semiconductor carrier concentration rise very ripidly(exponential dependend) with
temperature in comparision to the e and hole mobility. So in the intrinsic semiconductor
conductivity depend upon cerrier c
oncentration instead of the mobility and carrier concentration

built in potential mostly due to the lightly doped conc.,this potential dont result in the charge
flow,then how can be the potential variation in the device, if join with metal no current will flow as
between dissimiliar contact there is built in potential as like in the metal and semiconductor
built in potential equal to the area under the electric field
lecture 22
applied potential totally across the depletion region
diffusion current (158A/M^2)is large than drift current(58A/M^2) in the equilibrium
in forward bias ,drift current again decrease current.
In the forward bias ,overall current density is zero,and the hole current density equal to the electron
current density (transport equation),diffusion approximation for the minority carrier for quasi
equilibrium region
Continuity equation ,low injection in quasi equilibrium region diffusion continuity for minority in th
space charge layer region , no recombination occure()

With temperature increase the vbr (voltage break down voltage ) decrease
Lecture 26 BJT

h- parameter derived from the DC common emitter model so, used for the low frequency
Hybrid pi model work for low and high frequency both
Current is due to the diffusion
Doping profile is highly non linear
Collector doping is even less than base doping ???
Effect of reverse saturation current
1- Reverse saturation current double for every 10 degree rise in the temperature for silicon
trnssistor so, quisent point will change,so that swing affect .
Maximum voltage amplification is the difference between the Vcc and Vout, that decrease with the
increase in the Ic
2- Base width modulation- it can decrease the modulation , when Ib change Ic change then
difference between Vcc and Vout change ,
How can the power amplification when the conservation energy is there ?
Actually there is amplification of the AC power,(so active device)
Ampififier is regarded as the transconductance amplifier( common base )
In the common emmiter we can get the power(voltage and current gain)
Sensitivity decrease by connecting the Re resisteance then instead of keep the Voltage Vbe constant
we keep the collrctor current constant (then the change in the the voltage is less) by connecting the
RE due this the current remain almost constant and to get good gain Re is bypassed with help of
capacitor .
Vbe is .625v
CE most used
DC characteristic of CE
In the active region , rise in the collector current is due to the base width modulation due to rise in
the revevse current, or we can say it , beta is more for the less depletion width which is due to rise in
the reverse bias voltage Vce . the slope of the rise in that collector current in the active region,slope
increase in the with Ib
Lecture 31
For reducing the base width modulation , doping should be high.
Breakdown after active region,impact ionisation , charge multiplication occure in the depletion
region.
Breakdown in the CE transistor can be seen as the positive feedback mechanism.
Where the M-multiplication factor is the forward gain and M*alpha is the closed loop gain.
Collector current , tend to the infinity when the M*alpha=1,or the break down occure
Until we assumed that beta is not the function of the collector current but in the practical case beta
depend upon the collector current.
Variation of the Vbr with collector current.explanation of the Beta or the alpha variation with Ic
Variation in beta is continuous whereas alpha is constant in the large region
For very Ic we dont know the DC characteriscs
Vceo Vbr when the Base open , is less than Vcbo(when the emitter is open) explanation
Vcbo break down can think as the Break down of the down then for the impact ionisation the higher
voltage is required.
Input characteristics CE moves toward right when we increase the Vce voltage due to base with
modulation(construction of the modern transistor that we cannt see this type of the )


H parameter-
Lecture 32 22:00 minute
Lecture 33
MOS junction
Used capacitor
Characteristics C-V curve
Phase difference between the applied voltage and current is 90 degree.
Capacitance is constant over the some range , in this range capacitance indepent of the frequency
this region is called flat band voltage , then decrease upto threshold voltage ,then again increase
Normalised capacitance maximum capacitance value
There is no DC I-V characteristics of the MOS junction as the insulator prevent to flow DC current but
when AC voltage is applied there is the AC current in MOS

On the silicon substrate very thin oxide layer of good quality(dielectric constant is high) is developed
by heating silicon substrate at 1100-1200 k in the ultra pure silicon for couple of hour , thickness
100-1000 anstrong, then metal layer is grown, it general of the AL,or heavily doped polysilicon (act
as metal ,it can of the n doped or p doped ) upper metal layer is called the gate


Polysilicon generally doped with the different impurities than substrate
When the metal is gate contact potential is work function of metal
Interface between si and sio2 have interface charge these are neglected for simplicity
Device with no interface charges and contact potential is called ideal MOS capacitance.

Ideal MOS
1- Metal work function diffence between metal and semiconductor is ZERO
2- Interface trap charge, oxidie trap charge ,fixed charge, mobile charge in the oxide all are zero