Chemistry A Final Study Guide

Chapter 8 Chemical Equations and Reactions

types of reactions
o synthesis
A + X AX
reactions of elements with O and S
two reactants, one product
metals with halogens
oxides of active metals react with water to form hydroxides
oxides of nonmetals react with water to form oxyacids
o decomposition
AX A + X
electrolysis decomposition of a substance by an electric current
decomp of metal carbonate products of metal oxide and CO2
decomp of metal hydroxide products of metal oxides and water
decomp of metal chlorate products of metal chloride and oxygen
decomp of acid products of nonmetal oxides and water
o single displacement
A + BY AY + B
displacement of a metal in a compound by another metal
displacement of hydrogen in water by a metal
displacement of hydrogen in an acid by a metal
displacement of halogens reactivity of halogens decreases down the group,
therefore any halogen can replace any element below it
o double displacement
AX + BY AY + BX
formation of a precipitate
formation of a gas
formation of water
o combustion
a reaction in which a substance combines with oxygen releasing a large amount of
energy in the form of heat and light
burning of hydrocarbons
writing chemical equations in word and chemical formulas
o identify elements in equation
o write formula using compound names
o balance equation
activity series and single displacement reactions
o a list of elements arranged by the ease with which the elements undergo certain chemical
reactions
o usually determined in single displacement reactions
o most active element placed at top and can replace any element below it but not above it
o
trend in activity of halogens
o reactivity of halogens decreases down the group, therefore any halogen can replace any
element below it
o they undergo synthesis reactions with many metals
o form ionic compounds with group 1 and group 2 metals

Chapter 9 Stoichiometry
solving stoichiometry problems
set up below
mole ratio 2 2 1
balanced equation 2HgO 2Hg + O2
moles
mass 95.2 g
check








percent yield actual yield / theoretical yield
o theoretical yield max amount of product that can be produced from a given amount of
reactant
o actual yield measured amount of a product obtained from a reaction

Chapter 10 States of Matter
kinetic molecular theory for
o solids
strong intermolecular forces hold particles in relatively fixed positions with only
vibrational motion
definite melting point kinetic energy of particles overcomes the attractive forces
between them
high density
low incompressibility
low rate of diffusion
o liquids
relative high density
relative incompressibility transmits pressure equally in all directions
particles close together and attractive forces between particles can slow diffusion
surface tension force that tends to pull adjacent parts of a liquids surface together,
decreasing surface area to the smallest possible size
capillary action the attraction of the surface of a liquid to the surface of a
solid
o gases
large particles that are far apart relative to their size
collisions between gas particles and between particles and containers are elastic
elastic collisions no net loss of kinetic energy
particles are in continuous, random, rapid motion
there are no forces of attraction between gas particles
the temperature of the gas depends on the average kinetic energy of the particles of
gas
ideal gas hypothetical gas that perfectly fits all of the assumptions of the kinetic molecular
theory of gas
o most gases exhibit ideal gas behavior when at high temperature and low pressure
o noble gases and nonpolar diatomic molrcules show essentially ideal behavior
o polar molecules deviate from ideal behavior
intermolecular forces in liquids
o dipole-dipole
o London dispersion forces
o Hydrogen bonding
properties of
o solids
definite shape and volume
crystalline solids crystals where particles are arranged in ordered geometric
patterns
ionic crystals positive and negative ions; electrostatic charge
covalent network crystals each atom covalently bonded to its neighbor; in
diamonds and oxides of transition metals
metallic crystals metal cations surrounded by a sea of electrons; cause of
high conductivity in metals
covalent molecular crystals covalently bonded molecules held together by
intermolecular forces
o non polar weak London dispersion forces
o polar dispersion forces, dipole-dipole, and hydrogen bonding
amorphous solids particles randomly arranged; without shape
o liquids
definite volume
takes the shape of its container
attraction between particles are caused by intermolecular forces
stronger intermolecular forces and lower mobility than gases
not bound in fixed positions particles have mobility/fluidity
o gases
expansion due to assumption of continuous, random, rapid motion and no forces
of attraction between particles
fluidity ability of gas particles to glide past each other; due to assumption that
there are no forces of attraction between particles
low density - due to assumption that particles are tiny and far apart
compressibility - due to assumption that particles are tiny and far apart
diffusion spontaneous mixing of two substances due to their random motion; due
to assumption that particles are in continuous, random, rapid motion
effusion process by which gases pass through a tiny opening; due to assumption
that particles are in continuous, random, rapid motion
liquid vapor equilibrium pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with its corresponding
liquid at a given temperature
o smell indicator of vapor pressure; higher vapor pressure, the stronger the smell
o particles above average kinetic energy vaporized, they lose kinetic energy and go back into
liquid
o volatile liquid evaporates readily, weak intermolecular forces
o non volatile molten ionic compounds
vapor pressure curves



Chapter 11 Gases
Daltons law of partial pressure total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the
partial pressures of the component gases
gas laws
o Boyles PV=k
P1V1=P2V2
constant T, n
o Charles V=kT
V1/T1 = V2/T2
constant P, n
o Gay Lussac P=kT
P1/T1 = P2/T2
constant V, n
o Avogadros V=kn
Avogadros number = 6.022 x 10
23
molecules, atoms, ions/mol
o combined gas law P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2
calculating molar mass of a gas
o standard molar volume of a gas at STP, one mole of gas occupies 22.4 L
o multiply using 22.4 L/1 mol as the conversion
ideal gas law PV=nRT
o R = 0.08206 L x atm / mol x K
o used to calculate when there is no change

Chapter 14 Acids
electrolytes all aqueous acids are electrolytes
naming acids
o ate ic
o ite - ous
acid-base theories
o Arrhenius
acid increases concentration of hydrogen ions (H
+
)
strong acid releases lots of H
+
; completely ionize in aqueous solution
weak acid releases few H
+
in aqueous solution
base increases concentration of hydroxide ions (OH
-
)
strong bases dissociate in water
strong bases are strong electrolytes
o Bronsted-Lowry
acid molecule or ion that is a proton donor
base molecule or ion that is a proton acceptor
Bronsted-Lowry acid-base reaction protons are transferred from one reactant (the
acid) to another (the base)
o Lewis
acid atom, ion, or molecule that accepts an electron pair to form a covalent bond
any compound where the central atom has three valence electrons can react
as a Lewis acid
base atom, ion, or molecule that donates an electron pair to form a covalent bond
Lewis acid-base reaction formation of one or more covalent bonds between an
electron pair donor and electron pair receiver
conjugate acid-base pairs
o conjugate base of an acid the species that remains after a Bronsted-Lowry acid has given
up a proton
o conjugate acid of a base the species that remains after a Bronsted-Lowry base has gained
a proton
o conjugate acid-base pairs in equilibrium both the forward and reverse reactions occur
o strong acid weak base
o weak acid strong base
amphoteric can act as either acid or base

Chapter 15 Acid Base Titration
calculating pH
o pH = -log [H30
+
]
o [H30
+
] = 10
-pH

titration calculation
o MA VA = MB VB

Chapter 16 Reaction Energy
temperature the measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a sample of matter
heat energy transferred between samples of matter because of a difference in temperatures
specific heat the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance
by 1 degree C or 1 K
o Cp = q / m x T
o specific heat = heat transferred / mass x T
H enthalpy change amount of energy absorbed or released by a system as heat during a
process at constant pressure
o H = Hproducts Hreactants
o enthalpy change depends on number of moles
Hesss Law the overall change in enthalpy change in a reaction is equal to the sum of enthalpy
changes for the individual steps in the process
o Hesss Law problem
write steps of equation with H
balance equations to cancel out
**if multiply equation, make sure you multiply H
what cant cancel should be final equation
add H to find total H
entropy measure of the randomness of the particles in a system
o represented by S
o measured in kJ / (mol x K)
o positive S system increases more random
o negative S system decreases more ordered
o solid particles in fixed positions low entropy
o liquid particles close together a bit higher in entropy
o gas particles far apart and in random, rapid motion high entropy
spontaneous reactions
H S G Is this reaction spontaneous?
negative positive negative yes, at all temperatures
negative negative positive or negative only if T < H / S
positive positive positive or negative only if T > H / S
positive negative positive never
o reaction spontaneous if G < 0
Gibbs free energy enthalpy-entropy function at a particular temperature and constant pressure
that assesses the tendency of a reaction to proceed in a particular direction
o G = H TS *at a constant temperature and pressure

Chapter 17 Reaction Kinetics
reaction mechanism step by step sequence of reactions by which overall chemical changes occur
intermediates species that appear in some steps but not in the net equation
homogeneous reaction reactants and products exist in a single case
collision theory set of assumptions regarding collisions and reactions
activation energy minimum energy required to transform reactants into an activated complex
o required to merge valence electrons and to loosen bonds sufficiently for molecules to react
o has to overcome repulsive forces between molecules
activated complex transitional structure that results from an effective collision; it persists while
old bonds are breaking and new bonds are forming
o not an intermediate
factors affecting reaction rate
o nature of reactants reaction rate depends on particular reactants and bonds involved
o surface area
heterogeneous reactions involve reactants in two different phases; reactions can
only occur when surfaces are in contact
increase in surface area increases rate of heterogeneous reactions
o temperature an increase in temperature increases average kinetic energy of particles and
can result in a greater number of effective collisions
energy of collisions must be equal to or greater than activation energy
o concentration in homogeneous reactions, reaction rates depend on concentration of the
reactants
depends in slowest step in reaction mechanism
o presence of catalysts
catalysts substance that changes the rate of a reaction without itself being permanently
consumed; does not appear as a product
o provides alternate pathway of lower energy where the potential energy is lowered and may
help to form an activated complex that requires lower activation energy
rate limiting step if the reaction proceeds in a series of steps, the slowest-rate step is the rate
limiting step
writing a rate law
o rate law an equation that relates reaction rate and concentrations of reactants
o determined by how concentration affects the reaction rate
o R = k [A]
n
[B]
m

o k = specific rate constant
o [A] and [B] molar concentrations

Chapter 18 Chemical Equilibrium
reversible reactions a reaction in which the products can react to reform the reactants
equilibrium conditions pressure, concentration, temperature
equilibrium constant K = [C]
c
[D]
d
/ [A]
a
[B]
b

o independent of initial concentrations
o dependent on temperature
Le Chtliers principle a system subjected to stress will shift in the direction that tends to relieve
the stress
reactions running to completion when ions are removed from the reaction either as a gas or
precipitate causing the reaction to cease