TAS 2010

Biology Field Trip Report

Date: 24th April, 2009

Location: Ting Kok, Tai Po

2
 Content
Content Page
1) Introduction p. 2 - 3
- Aim, The Site, Different aspects studied in field work
-Site Map
-What is Mangrove and its characteristics

2) Investigation Methodology p. 4 - 7
-Transect line
-Quadrat
-List of Apparatus

3) Field Data: Slope Profile p. 8

4) Field Data: Physical Factors of the 5 quadrats along Transect line p. 9 - 11

5) Field Data: Vegetation along the transect line p. 12

6) Field Data: Distribution of plant species along the transect line p. 13 - 14

7) Field Data: Distribution of organism species along the transect line p. 15 - 16

8) Error Analysis p. 17 - 18

9) Physical factors affecting Mangrove communities p. 19 - 21

10) Biotic Factors affecting Mangrove communities p. 22 - 23

-Different symbiotic relationships
-Vegetation analysis
-Animal Sampling

11) Adaptation of Plant species in mangrove p. 24 - 26

12) Adaptation of Animal species in mangrove p. 27 - 30

13) Importance (value) of Mangroves p. 31

14) Human Impacts on Mangroves p. 32 - 35

15) Conservation of mangroves in Hong Kong p. 36 - 37

16) Conclusion p. 38

17) Students Name List p. 39

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 1) Introduction

 Aim

To investigate the distribution patterns of mangrove organisms by conducting transect

and quadrat analysis, collecting species distribution data and plotting these results.

 The Site
Ting Kok mudflat in Tai Po

 Different aspects studied in field work

We carried out transect analysis to determine the distribution of organisms along a

selected area. The gradient of this selected area was measured as the distribution of
organisms may be influenced by various factors related to gradient height. Quadrat
analysis was carried out to estimate the population sizes of organisms in a confined
area and random sampling along the transect.

4
 What is Mangrove and its characteristics

A mangrove is a woody plant or plant community which lives between the sea
and the land in areas which are inundated by tides. Mangrove is also referred to a
habitat of enclosed intertidal mud flats where wave action is greatly reduced and
which receive an influx of freshwater.

Major mangrove habitats in Hong Kong are located along Deep Bay (e.g. Pak
Nai and Tsim Bei Tsui, where salinity is very low under the influence of freshwater
from the Pearl River) and along some mud flats where salinity is lowered by
surrounding streams (e.g. Three Fathoms Cove and Ting Kok).

Trees living in this habitat are referred to mangrove trees. During high tides,
parts of the trunks of these trees are immersed whilst they are completely exposed
during low tides. Plants living in mangroves will face difficulties in gaining strong
anchorage in the soft substratum, obtaining enough oxygen from the anoxic mud and
also need to tolerate fluctuating salinity and desiccation during low tides.

In addition, organisms living in this habitat have adaptive features enabling

them to survive in such a stressful environment.

5
 2) Investigation Methodology

 Transect Line

Transect is a line which organisms are

counted and measured. It is set up across the
areas where there are transitions in
populations and abiotic gradients.

There are two types of transect: line

transect involves the selection of a straight
line along the ground in the area of study,
sampling is strictly confined to species
actually touching the line; belt transect
involves the selection of a strip of terrain
with a fixed width along the habitat, it is
done by setting up two straight lines parallel
to each other. In our field study, belt transect
is used and set up from landward to the
seaward region of the mangrove. In this
field trip, line transect was used.

The line should be laid perpendicular to the sea line. Each of the ends is tied on
different trees.

 Ranging Pole and Spirit Level

The gradient between two points on a slope can be measured by using two
ranging poles, a long straight stick, and a spirit level.

From the diagram, the poles are

held upright at two points Y’ and Y” on
the slope. The stick is attached at points
X’ and X” respectively on the two
poles. The positions of X’ and X” are
adjusted until the stick is found to be
horizontal by using the spirit level.

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 The distances X’Y’, X”Y”, and X’X” are then measured, and the gradient
between Y’ and Y” can be calculated by formula (X”Y”-X’Y’) / X’X”. It is used to
construct a profile to relate the distribution of organisms with the height in a defined
area. The differences in height between successive points on the shore can be found
from the values of X”Y”- X’Y’. The horizontal distances of X’X” also have to be
worked out. A slope profile can then be constructed.

 Quadrat

Quadrat is a wooden or metal square (or rectangle) used in ecological sampling.

It is used to estimate the population size of organisms in a confined area by random
sampling.

In our field study, five quadrats was set up along the transect line, each of them
has dimensions of 0.5m x 0.5m and is separated from each other by 3m. The area
enclosed by quagrats was under investigation by animal sampling.

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 Apparatus and Materials

Label Apparatus for the field trip

1 Hand lens

2 Sieve

3 Plastic vials

4 Windmeter

5 Plastic tray

6 Dry and wet bulb psychrometer

(measure the humidity)

7 Forceps

8 Aquarium net

9 Thermometer
(measure soil temperature)

10 Quadrat
(limit the investigation area)

11 Spade

12 pH paper (measure soil pH)

13 Environmental comparator
(measure light intensity)

14 Meter Rule
(measure gradient)

8
13

14

9
  List of Apparatus
Each student Each group (2 students in one group) Each class
Recording 1 Quadrat 1 Transect line 1
package
Hand lens 2 Light sensitive probe 1
(including
pencil, maker, Forceps 2 Meter rule 2
manual, data
recording Sieves 1
sheet, backing Aquarium net 2
file)
Plastic vials 4
Labels 20
pH paper 1 pack
Compass 1
Windmeter 1
Thermometer 1
Dry and wet bulb psychrometer 1
Spades 2
Plastic tray 2

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 3) Field Data: Slope Profile

Distance 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
from
upper
shore/ M
Difference 0 -2.1 -2 2 -2.5 0 -3 0 0 0 -1.5 -1.5 -0.5 0 -1.5 0 -1.5 -2.5 -1.3 -2 -1.4
between 2
values of
meter rule
Actual 0 -2.1 -4.1 -2.1 -4.6 -4.6 -7.6 -7.6 -7.6 -7.6 -9.1 -11 -11 -11 -13 -13 -14 -17 -18 -20 -21
depth of
slope/ cm

Slope along the transect line

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
Actual depth of slope (cm)

0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
Distance from the upper shore (m)

11
4) Field Data: Physical Factors of 5 quadrats along Transect line

 Temperature
Factors Quadrant number
1 2 3 4 5
Air Temperature(°C) 25 25 24 25 25

Water Temperature(°C ) 23 23 23 24.5 23.3

Temperature

25.5
25
Temperature of Air (°C)
24.5
Temperature (°C) 24
23.5 Temperature of Water (°C)
23
22.5
22
1 2 3 4 5
Quadrant number

The temperature is changing slightly along the transect line. The fluctuations of
temperature are affected by various factors, including the distance away from the sea,
the coverage of vegetations in the regions and the air movement at particular point of
time.

12
  Soil pH

Factors Quadrant number

1 2 3 4 5
Soil pH (pH) 7 7 7 7 7

soilpH
pH value along the
transect line is remaining
8 at pH 7 because of the
SoilpH(pH)

6
neutralization of pH in
4 soilpH
the mangrove by the
2
seawater during high
0
1 2 3 4 5 tide. The rainwater may
Quadrant number
also affect the pH value
of soil due to
neutralization.

 Wind Speed

Factors Quadrant number

1 2 3 4 5
Wind speed (MPH) 4.25 4 3 7 5

The wind speed is depending

wind speed
on both prevailing wind and
onshore wind from the sea. 8
Wind speed (MPH)

6
There are great fluctuations
in Wind speed because the 4 wind speed
wind direction and wind 2
speed was always alternating.
0
Different quadrats measure
1 2 3 4 5
the wind speed at different
Quadrant number
point of time, resulting in
different wind speed
measured.

13
  Relative Humidity
Factors Quadrant number
1 2 3 4 5
Relative humidity (%) 86 85 84 84 84

relativehumidity
That day was a
cloudy day and
87
Relativehumidity(%)

the sun was not

86
strong enough to
85 relativehumidity
evaporate the
84 water. Quadrat 1
83 has the highest
1 2 3 4 5 humidity as it is
Quadrant number the closest to the
sea.

 Light Intensity
Factors Quadrant number
1 2 3 4 5
Light intensity (uA) 76 76 73 72 76

There is slight
light intensity
fluctuation in light
intensity. In quadrat 77
3 and 4, there are
Light intensity (uA)

76
75
vegetations near the
74
areas and therefore light intensity
73
have a relative 72
lower light 71
70
intensity. Since that
1 2 3 4 5
day was not sunny,
Quadrant number
the general light
intensity was not
very high.

14
 5) Field Data: Vegetation along the transect line

Vegetation Species:
Kandelia candel

Height (m)

Substratum
(the slope)

Distance (m)

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 6) Field Data: Distribution of plant species along transect line

Name of Plant Distance (m) Adaptive Features *

Ac/Ae/Av
/E/K/L/P P U L H 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

K 1 0.86 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
K 10 0.96 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
K 11 1.2 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
K 12 1.5 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
K 9 0.35 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
K 9 0.9 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
K 16.5 0.83 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
K 17 0.85 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
K 18 0.79 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
K 19.3 0.7 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
K 20 0.6 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

AC = Acanthus Ae = Aegiceras Av = Avicennia

E = Excoecaria K = Kandelia L = Lumnitzera
P = Position (in metres) of main stem of plant on the transect line
U&L = Upper and lower limit of the canopy
H = Height of plant

* Adaptive Features :

1. Knee joint
2. Buttress root
3. Cable root
4. Pneumatophore
5. Salt crystals on leaf surface
6. Old leaves are more fleshy than young leaves
7. Salt gland
8. Sunken stomata
9. Hairy leaves
10. Thick cuticle
11. Spongy mesophyll with few stoma
12. Lower epidermis
13. With palisade and spongy mesophyll
14. Succulent leaf

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Distance (m) 4 8 12 16 20
Number of Kandelia 1 0 4 0 5
plants candel

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 7) Field Data: Distribution of organisms along the transect line

QUADRANT NO.

ORGANISMS/ No. 1 2 3 4 5
1. Molluscs—Bivalves 0 2 33 5 1
2. Gastropods—Periwinkles 27 18 10 14 57
3. Gastropods—Nerite 5 0 6 0 1
4. Crustaceans—Fiddler Crabs 4 1 10 3 3
5. Crustaceans—Snapping Shrimps 0 0 0 1 1
6. Plant—Droppers 2 1 3 0 1
7. Plant—Kandelia candel 0 0 1 0 0

Distribution of organisms in the 5 quadrats along the transect line

60
Number of individuals

50
Quadrat 1
40
Quadrat 2
30 Quadrat 3
Quadrat 4
20
Quadrat 5
10

0
Bivalves Periwinkles Nerite Fiddler Snapping Droppers Kandelia
Crabs Shrimps candel
Name of organisms

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 Organisms found in quadrats and their appearances

Molluscs—Bivalves Crustaceans—Snapping Shrimps

Gastropods—Periwinkles
Crustaceans—Fiddler Crabs

Plant—Kandelia candel
Gastropods—Nerite

Plant—Droppers
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 8) Error Analysis

The errors occurred during our investigation of the mangrove are analyzed as follows:

 Instrumental Limitations
All measuring instruments have their limitations, which cannot be reduced by
repeating the measurement. Some of them may have inaccurate scales and others are
not precise enough for measurement we wish to take. For instance, we have to use
meter rules instead of centimeter rules when measuring the gradient which is in fact
expressed in centimeters.

In fact, for an apparatus with a scale and a pointer, the reading accuracy will
mainly be determined by the fitness of the scale divisions.

 Systematic Errors
Systematic errors cause all measurements to shift systematically in one
direction- either larger or smaller than it should be. This cannot be reduced by
repeated measurements.

For instance:
- A zero error on any scale
- A calibration error in psychrometers
- An error in meter rules as there are expansion and contraction due to fluctuations in
the surrounding temperature

 Random Errors
Random errors result from unknown and unpredicted variations in experimental
situations. They may due to:

1. Random variations in quantity actually being measured, for example

- Organisms such as crabs and shrimps always move in and out of the quadrat, they
may escape and are hard to be caught, so the number counted in animal sampling
may not be accurate

2. Unintended slight changes in the conditions of the surroundings, for example

- Unpredicted fluctuation in air temperature, wind speed, humidity and light intensity

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3. Random variations in the way that measuring apparatus are set up, for examples
- Transect line may not be placed exactly perpendicular to the sea line
- Spirit level may not be placed exactly horizontal with the sea level
Therefore the relevant height measured in the slope profile is just a reference.

4. Other random errors include,

- Parallax in reading a scale by bare eyes of individuals
- Different observers may have different criterion, the data is not standardized
- Soil in quadrats is not evenly dig up
- In daytime, nocturnal and crepuscular animals do not appear, they are not considered
in our animal sampling
- The area of investigation is limited, only the area along the transect line is
investigated, results obtained may not reflect the whole situation of the mangrove

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 9) Physical factors affecting Mangrove communities

 Characteristics of mangrove
Substratum
Mangrove plants establish only in areas with no or slow significant wave action. The
slow water movement allows fine sediment to settle and form mud. Therefore the
substratum on which mangrove grow is a very soft and unstable. Abilities to anchor in
such kind of substratum are crucial to survive in mangroves.

Salinity
Plants in mangrove must possess adaptive features to survive in a substratum of high
salinity. Also, there’s a wide range of salinity fluctuation during low tides and high
tides, organisms must be adapted to this wider range of salinity fluctuation.

Tidal movement
Ebb and flow twice a day results in unstable of substratum. Under tidal influence, the
salinity gradient is created. But there are some advantages towards mangroves
communities. High tides bring nutrients and salt up the estuaries which helps
mangroves to extend into inland areas. On the other hand, low tides allow freshwater
from rivers or steams to remove salt of the substratum, and this prevents
accumulations of salts.

Oxygen
As soil particles are fine and the activities of the bacteria are high, so substratum is
waterlogged, thus oxygen content is low. During high tides, the whole habitat is
submerged and soil becomes less aerated. There are problems of gas exchange in the
roots of plants.

Temperatures
As temperature fluctuates with the tidal movement, organisms should able to adapt to
such temperature changes. At low tides, temperature of mudflat is high due to direct
exposure to sunshine. Whereas the forest canopy shades the mangroves floor, keeping
it cool.

Water
During Low tides, organisms living on the surface of the mud or attaching to the plant
roots face problems of dehydration under intense expose to the sun.

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 Apparatus to measure physical factor

Physical factor Instrument Method

Air and soil Thermometer Use the thermometer to record the
temperature temperature in the air and under the canopy
of plants
Light intensity Environmental Record the light intensity by means of an
comparator with environmental comparator with light probe
light probe
Relative Dry and wet bulb Record the relative humidity by the dry and
humidity psychrometer wet bulb psychrometer
Wind speed Windmeter and Record the speed of wind by holding the
compass hand-held wind meter against the wind. Also
note the direction of the wind with the help
of compass
Soil pH pH paper Record the soil pH by usind the pH paper

Dry and wet bulb psychrometer

measuring relative humidity

20
Environmental comparator Thermometer
measuring light intensity measuring soil temperature

Windmeter pH paper
measuring wind speed measuring soil pH

21
 10) Biotic factors affecting Mangrove communities

The interactions between organisms are extremely important in order to maintenance

a balanced ecosystem. The population size of different species can be influenced by
many biotic factors. Some main factors are as follow:

 Competition
Competition is an interaction between two types of organism competing for the
same resources in the environment, e.g. food, for survival. The two types of organism
would greatly affect each other.

There are 2 types of competition: intraspecific competition and interspecific

competition. Intraspecific competition refers to the competition between the
individuals of the same species, which is extremely intense. This is because their
ecological niches are the same so they need and fight for the same resources, such as
food, space and water.

Interspecific competition is the competition between individuals of different

species for the same resources. For example, in mangrove, different species of
molluscs may compete for the same kind of food or substratum. The intensity of the
competition would vary according to their similarity in ecological niches. If two
species are at the same trophic level, interspecific competition would be more likely
to occur.

 Predation
Predation refers to an interspecific association in which one species (predator)
kills and devours another species (prey) for food. As the prey number increases, the
predator number would also increase because the food supply is more. However,
when predators increase in number, the number of preys would drop again because
they have been eaten by the predators. This cycle would continue and it is the cyclic
oscillation.

 Human influence
Human influence the distribution of other organisms as well because our
activities alter the natural habitat of mangrove. (Refer to 14. Human Impacts on
mangroves on p.32 - 35)

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 Vegetation Analysis
To measure the biotic factors,
Vegetation analysis is important in the field
study of mangrove in order to characterize
and identify the status of a plant community.
It is also important for us to practice animal
sampling as we would like to know the
relationships among the animals.

In this field trip, the line transect was practiced. Transect is a line along which
all plants, animals and physical factors are counted and measured. A typical stretch of
areas of interest in the mangrove was selected. The heights, adaptive features and the
positions along transect line of plant species were measured and recorded. As a result,
the distribution of plants along the transect line is obtained.

 Animal Sampling

5 quadrats were placed regularly along one side of the transect line.

A quadrat is in a regular shape, usually a square (0.5M x 0.5M) or a rectangular,

of known size. The number of organisms inside the quadrat (including animals and
plants) is counted and identified.

Within the quadrat, the organisms are identified and counted. Then, search for
animals on the surface of mud and under stones. They are then put on a plastic tray.
The animals are identified and the number of animals was counted. The data was
recorded on the data sheet.

23
24
 11) Adaptation of Plant species in mangrove

 Adaptation to Unstable Substratum

Plants develop branched, looping aerial roots that arose from trunk or lower
branch. This can trap the mud during tidal movement and increase the amount of soil.
Some of them have prop roots to supply air to underlying roots and provide stability
for plant by broadening the base. Buttress roots are also developed: it is the aerial
branch roots that provide support. They are thickened unevenly and have flattened
blade-like structures. They possess cable roots that spread horizontally and laterally
just below the soil surface.
Some research pictures:

Aerial roots Prop roots Buttress roots Cable roots

Pneumatophores found in
our field trip
 Adaptation to
Anaerobic Condition

Plants have pneumatophores

which are erected aerial roots that
extend upward into air at intervals
from cable roots. They facilitate gas
exchange between submerged roots
and the atmosphere. The more the
lenticels on the root surface the higher
the efficiency of gas exchange. The
knee joints are arches of prop roots
and they grow above the soil surface
for gas exchange.

25
 Adaptation to High Salinity

Plants have halophytic

Salt crystal was found deposited
on leaves in our trip.
properties: they accumulate low
molecular carbohydrates and keep
the water potential of root cells
smaller than the surrounding
water so as to overcome the
difficulty of water absorption and
draw water in. They store excess
salts in leaves and the leaves
shed when they are old so that the
salt content in plants can be
reduced. There are salt glands in
leaves that secrete excess salts.
There is also an active pump
mechanism that prevents salts
from entering the root xylem.

 Adaptation to Reproduction

Plants develop droppers for reproduction. The seeds will germinate

inside this fruit. When droppers detach from plants, the roots are
already in the early stage of development. They can then establish
rapidly in substratum. They are elongated and heavier at lower tip so
that they can stick to the substratum in an upright position. The
hypocotyls of droppers help them to float and disperse in water until
reaching a region that water is shallow enough to contact substratum.
Plants produce a large amount of seeds to enhance the reproductive
success and the spongy outer layers on seeds are for floating and
dispersal.

 Adaptation to Dehydration
A dropper
Plant leaves have thick cuticle epidermal hairs and sunken found in our
stomata to reduce transpiration and reduce the water loss. Plants also trip
store water in special multilayered water storage tissues.

26
 An example of mangrove plant species that we
found

Kandelia candel
In our field trip, the most dominant plant species that we could find in the mangrove
area is Kandelia candel and its adaptive features are as follow:

It is found at the inner

fringe of mangroves. They
have prop roots to supply
air to the underlying roots
so as to provide stability
for the plant by broadening
the base.

They also have knee joints

which grow above the soil
surface for gas exchange,
as well as
pneumatophores that
extend upward into air to
facilitate gas exchange
between submerged roots
and atmosphere. They have
large lenticels to increase
the efficiency of gas
exchange.

They possess salt glands

to secrete excessive salt to
withstand high salinity in
mangrove. Their thick Kandelia that was
found along our
cuticle, epidermal hairs
transect line.
and sunken stomata help
reduce their transpiration.
Also, they have droppers to produce seeds that germinate inside.

27
 12) Adaptation of Animal species in mangrove
 General Facts about Adaptations of mangrove animals
 Invertebrates
Dominant species: crustaceans, molluscs (gastropods/ bivalves)

- Ground-dwellers: (crustaceans/ gastropods)

└ capable of boring/ digging up holes in mud
└ feed on detritus found in mud

- Gastropods
└ attach to roots/ trunks of mangrove trees

- Oysters (bivalve)
└ attach/ encrust to mangroves roots/ stones

- Crustaceans (fiddler crab/ snapping shrimp)

└ hollow out the mud
└ live in large open burrows among mangrove roots
└ react rapidly to changes in temperature and salinity during high/ low tides
└ holes/ channels: allow O2 enter more deeply into substratum
└ provide refuges from predation/ as breeding places

 Vertebrates

- Bony fish: Mudskipper

└ well adapted to varying degrees of tidal levels
(from exposure to air to complete submersion)
└ powerful pectoral fins: walk/ hop swiftly on mud
└ hold up body on mud: tail fin dips in water→ act as gills for gas exchange

- Reptiles/ Amphibians (snake/ lizard/ frog)

└ unlikely to be seen in daytime
└ move away when they sense people
└ if disturbed: strike/ bite people

- Mammals (rats/ Civet cat)

└ nocturnal
└ live in thick scrub/ densely wooded area

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- Birds
└ over 400 species recorded in past 50 years
└ Mangrove: suitable habitat for nest-breeding and migrating birds
└ nest in colonies on trees
└ obtain food from gei wai and mudflats

29
  Details about animals which were found in our field trip
 Oyster
Description:
They are groups of bivalve mollusks. They live in
marine habitats or brackish water. And their shells
consist of two highly calcified valves which
surround a soft body. Their gills can filter plankton
from the water and they have strong adductor
muscles.

Adaptation:
Their mantle is lined with many small, thin-walled blood vessels which extract
oxygen from the water and expel carbon dioxide. They have a small, three-chambered
heart, pumps colorless blood, with its supply of oxygen, to all parts of the body. Also,
they have two kidneys located on the underside of the muscle purify the blood of any
waste products they have collected. They draw water in over their gills through the
beating of cilia. The also have hard shell for protection.

 Fiddler Crab
Description:
They are family of crustaceans. They have a
very short projecting "tail" and their reduced
abdomen is entirely hidden under the thorax.
They are covered with a thick exoskeleton and
armed with a single pair of chelae. They are
found mostly in oceans, freshwater and land.

Adaptation:
They have carapace which is hard shells for protection of the crab's internal
organs and their eyes can see front, back and sides thus help catch prey and defend
themselves from enemies.
Also, they have pincer for feeding, defense against enemies and display to
attract female. Their antenna can sense vibration and smell or taste chemicals in the
water, thus help detect prey or predators. They hollow out the mud and live in large
open burrows among the roots of mangroves. These allow them to react rapidly to
changes in temperature and salinity during high tides and low tides. The holes or
channels allow oxygen to enter more deeply into the substratum, and provide refuges

30
from predation and breeding places.

31
 Snapping Shrimp
Description: They are swimming,
decapods crustaceans. They are
found widely around the world in
both fresh and salt water. Adult
shrimps are filter feeding benthic
animals living close to the bottom.
They have a high resistance to toxins
in polluted areas, and may contribute
to high toxin levels in their
predators.

Adaptation: They hollow out the mud and live in large open burrows among the
roots of mangroves. These allow them to react rapidly to changes in temperature and
salinity during high tides and low tides. The holes or channels allow oxygen to enter
more deeply into the substratum, and provide refuges from predation and breeding
places.

 Periwinkle
Description: They are family of gastropod and
molluscs have dark grey or black conical shell.
They also have a smooth surface with age and
flattened tentacles bear obvious black bands.

Adaptation: They have light colored shell to

reflect the light from sun so their bodies keep in the same temperature. They have a
shell to protect their body from being eaten by predators. They are small in size so its
body (shell) can fit in rock platform fissure and they lives in rock platforms, far from
the beach to avoid waves.

 Nerite
Description: They are family of gastropod and molluscs. Their shell is ovoid and
only about 11 mm (less than half an inch) in maximum dimension. The shell surface is
whitish with fine, rather variable, darker markings.

Adaptation: They are usually inactive during the day, and often stay

32
above the water during high tide in crevices, this is an adaptation against predation by
crabs and possibly, fish. They also have a hard, calcareous shell which is another
defense strategy.

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 Clam
Description:
Clam is a bivalve mollusk. A clam's
shell consists of two (usually equal)
valves, which are connected by a hinge
joint and a ligament which can be external
or internal.

In most clams, two adductor muscles contract to close the shells. The clam has
no head, and usually has no eyes, (scallops are a notable exception), but a clam does
have kidneys, a heart, a mouth, and an anus.

Clams, like most mollusks, also have open circulatory systems, which means
that their organs are surrounded by watery blood that contains nutrients and oxygen.
Clams eat plankton by filter feeding, and they themselves are eaten by small sharks
and squid.

Adaptation:
Clams have developed strong adductor muscles to keep out predators. They
have hard calcareous shells which prevent them from attack of predator. They draw
water in over their gills through the beating of cilia so that they can take in food and
nutrients in the water. The also have hard shell for protection.

 Pigeon
Description:
We can find pigeon in our field trip because
Mangrove is a suitable habitat for nest-
breeding and migrating birds, so birds are
also common to be found.

Adaptation:
They inhabit in colonies of mangrove trees,
and they can obtain food from gei wai or
mudflat.

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 13) Importance (value) of Mangroves

Although the mangrove environment is harsh, yet, still numerous species lived
there. Mangroves play an important role in ecology.

First, mangroves maintain biodiversity. The luxuriant alluvium introduces

favour for the growth of mangrove plants. Their fallen leaves and dead tree trunk
form detritus, which provide food to support biodiversity of mangrove animals.
Mangroves also act as refuge and nursery grounds for young fishes, crabs, shrimps,
mollusks. So, wetlands of high productivity are formed, as nesting and migratory sites
for birds.

In addition, mangroves play an important role in materials cycling. They enable

nutrients enter food chain again, to support the food chain and nutrient cycle. Stability
and ecological balance for coastal and marine ecosystem are maintained.

At the same time, mangroves act as a water purifying centre. Mangrove plants
absorb and retain nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, heavy metal from
sewage, so to recycle them. Here mangrove plants act as a natural waste water
treatment centre.

On the other hand, mangroves create recreational land, and offer human food
production zone, such as Gei Wai Shrimp cultivation.

Last but not least, mangrove plants also act as land-builders. There are various
roots of mangrove. For example, Root knees, help trap sediments, and so help build
up and extend mangrove habitats. They help reduce erosion of shorelines due to

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current, wave, wind or storm, thereby protecting our coastal line.

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 14) Human Impact on Mangrove

Total area of tropical rain forests in the world is said about 19.3 x 106 km2 (13
% of total land surface), and total area of mangrove forests in the world is said 0.17 x
106 km2 (0.9 % of total tropical rain forests).

Mangroves throughout the world suffer from high levels of human impact. Such
small areas of mangrove forests have lost 70% of their cover in the last 70 years.
Mangroves will be lost by 2030 (PEMESA 2003).

Habitat loss through human encroachment is the primary cause for mangrove
deforestation. A number of mangrove and mangrove-associated species are at risk.

Human Impacts on Mangroves include:

 Dredging and Mining

Dredging Dredge spoil dump

Research photo Research photo

Dredging and filling activities have caused flooding of mangrove habitat.

Standing water covers the aerial roots, making it impossible for oxygen to reach these
specialized roots as well as the underground root systems. Eventually this leads to the
deaths of mangrove trees.

 Over-Fishing Exploitation

Over fishing will lead to a drop in population of fish. Disturbance of food web
will upset the balance in ecosystem of mangroves. Therefore, a healthy fishing
community is sorely needed.

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  Water Pollution

If oil spills, heavy metals and industrial chemicals these types of pollutant enter
the soil or water supply within mangrove forests, the results may include death in
plant species, change in normal development, reduced functional ability and mortality
in birds that use mangrove habitats for feeding and breeding grounds.

Mangroves are very susceptible to herbicides as demonstrated in South Vietnam

by the U.S. military by the defoliation and destruction of over 250,000 acres (1,012
square kilometers) of mangroves.

Oil Surrounding Mangroves Worker cleaning Oil off Mangroves

Research photo Research photo

 Coastal Development

One of the leading threats to mangroves is coastal development and channel

construction. In Florida, a residential project eliminated approximately 24% of
mangrove cover (Twilley 1998). In Ecuador, along the El Oro River, approximately
45-63% of mangrove habitat was lost due to mariculture pond construction (Twilley
1989).

Also associated with such development is the diversion of freshwater with the
use of dams to control river flows. If mangrove communities do not receive
freshwater inflow, the salinity levels in the water may increase significantly
decreasing mangrove productivity.

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 Timber Extraction
Research photo

Community houses in Indonesia using wood of mangrove

Deforestation of mangroves for cultural purpose is also a concern. For many

years, mangrove harvesting practices have been sustained, but over time, increasing
human populations along the coast have led to unsustainable practices.

In some countries such as Africa, Sundarbans (India, Bangladesh), Indonesia,

Peninsular Malaysia, and Thailand, red mangroves are considered a valuable
commodity and are a primary source of firewood and charcoal sold locally and
commercially. Mangrove wood is also relied on as fuel wood for cooking and heating;
used to construct houses, furniture, and small boats to perform local fishing, and
create pulp to produce paper and paper products. Mangroves may also be used in
agriculture and as pastures for livestock.

 Reclamation for Urban and Industrial areas

Research photo

Urban Encroachment

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 Responsible for total loss of mangrove habitat in some locations, urban
development includes the construction of buildings, river-bank levees and road
construction as well as the consumption of water by a growing human population.
Human activity upland from mangroves may also impact water quality and runoff.
These land and coastal activities result in increased erosion as well as the reduction of
nursery areas supporting commercial and game fisheries.

 Shrimp Farming and Agriculture

Shrimp farming and aquaculture practices that use ponds also threaten mangrove
communities by polluting waters or by removal of mangroves in order to create areas
suitable for shrimp farming and aquaculture. This farming practice is excavated
notably in Mangroves areas in South-East and South America.

Polluted sludge waste discharged from shrimp pond

next to mangroves - southwest coast of Thailand

Research photo

Shrimp farming leads to deterioration of soil (acid sulphate soils), erosion, loss
of mangrove productivity and pollution (picture above).

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 15) Conservation of Mangroves in Hong Kong
Mangroves in Hong Kong have been destroyed over the past decades, mostly
due to over exploitation, industrialization, urbanization and reclamation. The two
most seriously destroyed mangroves in Hong Kong are Deep Bay and Tolo Harbour,
which have 85% and 42% respectively of original mangrove cover. Moreover, the
construction of the new airport at Chek Lap Kok on Lantau Island on year 1998, leads
to an additional 7 ha of mangroves on Lantau Island being destroyed. This indicates
that the conservation of mangroves in Hong Kong is sorely needed.

Recently, there is an increasing awareness that mangrove ecosystems should be

conserved. Indeed, the Hong Kong Government has established policy to protect the
total of 44 mangroves in Hong Kong. These mangroves are legally protected under
Marine Park Ordinance and Country Park Ordinance and they are divided into 5
categories according to their relative values of conservation. They are:
1. Extremely important and must be conserved immediately
2. Very important and should be conserved
3. Important and worth to conserve
4. Can be conserved
5. Relatively low priority for conservation

In addition, the values of conservation are ranked according to the species

diversity, rarity, representativeness, scientific values, educational values, geographical
values and so on. For instance, the Ting Kok Mangrove is considered to be an
extremely important mangrove stand that must be conserved immediately (category
1), which cover a total area of about 7 ha and has a high scientific value.

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 Apart from protection of mangrove stands in restricted area, marine Park or
marine reserve, the Hong Kong Government has also carry out methods to protect
mangroves in Hong Kong. For example, the Hong Kong Agricultural, Fisheries and
Conservation Department (AFCD) are responsible for the conservation work of
mangroves in Hong Kong. Their work includes the designation of important
mangrove stands as Sites of Special Scientific Interest (e.g. the Ting Kok Mangrove
Stand), minimization of impact of urbanization through land use planning and
environmental assessment process, promotion of public awareness on the
conservation of mangroves (e.g. develop educational programmes, encourage
scientific research and study tours, etc.) and mangrove planting.

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 The AFCD also cooperate with volunteer cooperation, such as the Friends of
Earth (FOE) and work together on conservation of mangroves, for example, they plant
and replant the mangroves in Hong Kong.

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 16) Conclusion

This field trip was beneficial and we learnt a lot in various aspects:

We gained valuable practical experiences and useful skills by doing all kinds of
field works, which are related to scientific studies of a community. Co-operation and
division of labor were achieved in collecting, analyzing data and completing this field
report.

Besides, we learnt to observe and appreciate natural habitats, such as

mangroves, by first-hand experiences. We saw a diversity of organisms and were
amazed by their ways of adaptation to live under extreme physical conditions in a
mangrove. In addition, this field trip also enabled us to gain deeper insights into the
symbiotic relationships of different organisms living in the same community.

On the other hand, we found that the mangrove we visited has been slightly
polluted mainly by human littering. This raised our concern on mangrove
conservations and environmental protections.

In a word, this field trip was really educational and we hope that everybody can
play a part in conserving mangroves or other natural habitats in Hong Kong.

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 17) Student Name List

TAS 2010 (Teacher: Ms Wong)

6B Biology Group:
Bio No. Student Name
1 CHAN KA MAN, IRENE
2 CHAN ON HAN, PHOEBE
3 CHAN WAI HUNG, CONNIE
4 CHAN YAT KAK, PHOEBE
5 CHAN YI PUI, CHERRY
6 CHEUNG TIN WAI, JOANNE
7 HO LAI PING, ANNIE
8 KWAN SIN LUEN, CRYSTAL
9 MAK YUEN LING, SHIRLEY
10 NG HOI LING, HIDY
11 NG YIM MEI, SHIRLEY
12 TSE HAU YIN, JOYCE
13 TSOI YING, SANDY
14 YUEN LOK YEE, JOYCE

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