EM Motion Fundamentals 2

Actuators & Sensors in Mechatronics
Electromechanical Motion Fundamentals

Kevin Craig
87
Principles of Electromechanical Energy
Conversion
Why do we study this?
Electromechanical energy conversion theory is the
cornerstone for the analysis of electromechanical motion
devices.
The theory allows us to express the electromagnetic force
or torque in terms of the device variables such as the
currents and the displacement of the mechanical system.
Since numerous types of electromechanical devices are
used in motion systems, it is desirable to establish methods
of analysis which may be applied to a variety of
electromechanical devices rather than just electric
machines.
Kevin Craig
88
Plan
Establish analytically the relationships which can be used
to express the electromagnetic force or torque.
Develop a general set of formulas which are applicable to
all electromechanical systems with a single mechanical
input.
Detailed analysis of:
Elementary electromagnet
Elementary single-phase reluctance machine
Windings in relative motion
Kevin Craig
89
Lumped Parameters vs. Distributed Parameters
If the physical size of a device is small compared to
the wavelength associated with the signal
propagation, the device may be considered lumped
and a lumped (network) model employed.
Consider the electrical portion of an audio system:
20 to 20,000 Hz is the audio range
v
f

= wavelength (distance/cycle)
v = velocity of wave propagation (distance/second)
f = signal frequency (Hz)
186,000 miles/second
9.3 miles/cycle
20,000 cycles/second

Kevin Craig
90
Conservative Force Field
A force field acting on an object is called
conservative if the work done in moving the object
from one point to another is independent of the path
joining the two points.
1 2 3

F Fi F j F k + +
r
C
F dr is independent of path if and only if F 0 or F
uur r
r r
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 2 3
x ,y ,z x ,y ,z
2 2 2 1 1 1
x ,y ,z x ,y ,z
F dr is an exact differential
Fdx F dy Fdz d where (x, y,z)
F dr d x , y , z x , y , z
+ +

uur
r
uur r
Kevin Craig
91
Energy Balance Relationships
Electromechanical System
Comprises
Electric system
Mechanical system
Means whereby the electric and mechanical systems can interact
Interactions can take place through any and all
electromagnetic and electrostatic fields which are common
to both systems, and energy is transferred as a result of this
interaction.
Both electrostatic and electromagnetic coupling fields may
exist simultaneously and the system may have any number
of electric and mechanical subsystems.
Kevin Craig
92
Electromechanical System in Simplified Form:
Neglect electromagnetic radiation
Assume that the electric system operates at a frequency
sufficiently low so that the electric system may be
considered as a lumped-parameter system
Energy Distribution
W
E
= total energy supplied by the electric source (+)
W
M
= total energy supplied by the mechanical source (+)
Mechanical
System
Electric
System
Coupling
Field
E e eL eS
M m mL mS
W W W W
W W W W
+ +
+ +
Kevin Craig
93
W
eS
= energy stored in the electric or magnetic fields which
are not coupled with the mechanical system
W
eL
= heat loss associated with the electric system,
excluding the coupling field losses, which occurs due to:
the resistance of the current-carrying conductors
the energy dissipated in the form of heat owing to hysteresis, eddy
currents, and dielectric losses external to the coupling field
W
e
= energy transferred to the coupling field by the electric
system
W
mS
= energy stored in the moving member and the
compliances of the mechanical system
W
mL
= energy loss of the mechanical system in the form of
heat due to friction
W
m
= energy transferred to the coupling field by the
mechanical system
Kevin Craig
94
W
F
= W
f
+ W
fL
= total energy transferred to the
coupling field
W
f
= energy stored in the coupling field
W
fL
= energy dissipated in the form of heat due to losses
within the coupling field (eddy current, hysteresis, or
dielectric losses)
Conservation of Energy
( )
( )
f fL E eL eS
M mL mS
f fL e m
W W W W W
W W W
W W W W
+ +

+ +
Kevin Craig
95
The actual process of converting electric energy to
mechanical energy (or vice versa) is independent of:
The loss of energy in either the electric or the mechanical
systems (W
eL
and W
mL
)
The energies stored in the electric or magnetic fields which
are not in common to both systems (W
eS
)
The energies stored in the mechanical system (W
mS
)
If the losses of the coupling field are neglected, then
the field is conservative and W
f
= W
e
+ W
m
.
Consider two examples of elementary
electromechanical systems
Magnetic coupling field
Electric field as a means of transferring energy
Kevin Craig
96
v = voltage of electric source
f = externally-applied mechanical
force
f
e
= electromagnetic or
electrostatic force
r = resistance of the current-
carrying conductor
= inductance of a linear
(conservative)
electromagnetic system
which does not couple
the mechanical system
M = mass of moveable member
K = spring constant
D = damping coefficient
x
0
= zero force or equilibrium
position of the mechanical
system (f
e
= 0, f = 0)
l
Electromechanical System with Magnetic Field
Electromechanical System with Electric Field
Kevin Craig
97
f
di
v ri e
dt
+ + l
voltage equation that describes the
electric systems; e
f
is the voltage drop
due to the coupling field
( )
2
0 e
2
d x dx
f M D K x x f
dt dt
+ +
Newtons Law of Motion
( )
( )
E
M
W vi dt
dx
W f dx f dt
dt
_

,

Since power is the time rate of
energy transfer, this is the total
energy supplied by the electric
and mechanical sources
f
di
v ri e
dt
+ + l
( )
E
W vi dt
( )
( )
2
E f
eL eS e
di
W r i dt i dt e i dt
dt
W W W
_
+ +

,
+ +

l
Kevin Craig
98
( )
2
0 e
2
d x dx
f M D K x x f
dt dt
+ +
( )
M
dx
W f dx f dt
dt
_

,

( ) ( )
2
2
M 0 e
2
d x dx
W M dx D dt K x x dx f dx
dt dt
_
_
+ +

,
,

W
mS
W
mL
W
m
( ) ( )
f e m f e
W W W e i dt f dx +

total energy transferred to
the coupling field

Kevin Craig
99
These equations may be readily extended to include
an electromechanical system with any number of
electrical and mechanical inputs and any number of
coupling fields.
We will consider devices with only one mechanical
input, but with possibly multiple electric inputs. In all
cases, however, the multiple electric inputs have a
common coupling field.
Kevin Craig
100
J K
f ej mk
j 1 k 1
W W W

+

J J
ej fj j
j 1 j 1
W e i dt

K K
mk ek k
k 1 k 1
W f dx

Total energy supplied to the

coupling field
Total energy supplied to
the coupling field from the
electric inputs
Total energy supplied to
the coupling field from the
mechanical inputs
J
f fj j e
j 1
J
f fj j e
j 1
W e i dt f dx
dW e i dt f dx
With one mechanical input

and multiple electric inputs,
the energy supplied to the
coupling field, in both
integral and differential form
Kevin Craig
101
Energy in Coupling Field
We need to derive an expression for the energy stored
in the coupling field before we can solve for the
electromagnetic force f
e
.
We will neglect all losses associated with the electric
or magnetic coupling field, whereupon the field is
assumed to be conservative and the energy stored
therein is a function of the state of the electrical and
mechanical variables and not the manner in which the
variables reached that state.
This assumption is not as restrictive as it might first
appear.
Kevin Craig
102
The ferromagnetic material is selected and arranged in
laminations so as to minimize the hysteresis and eddy
current losses.
Nearly all of the energy stored in the coupling field is
stored in the air gap of the electromechanical device. Air is
a conservative medium and all of the energy stored therein
can be returned to the electric or mechanical systems.
We will take advantage of the conservative field
assumption in developing a mathematical expression
for the field energy. We will fix mathematically the
position of the mechanical system associated with the
coupling field and then excite the electric system with
the displacement of the mechanical system held fixed.
Kevin Craig
103
During the excitation of the electric inputs, dx = 0,
hence, W
m
is zero even though electromagnetic and
electrostatic forces occur.
Therefore, with the displacement held fixed, the
energy stored in the coupling field during the
excitation of the electric inputs is equal to the energy
supplied to the coupling field by the electric inputs.
With dx = 0, the energy supplied from the electric
system is:
J
f fj j
j 1
W e i dt
J
f fj j e
j 1
W e i dt f dx

0
Kevin Craig
104
For a singly excited electromagnetic system:
( )
f
f
d
e
dt
W i d with dx 0
( )
f
W i d
Graph
Stored energy and coenergy in
a magnetic field of a singly
excited electromagnetic
device
Area represents energy stored
in the field at the instant
when =
a
and i = i
a
.
( )
c
W di
Area is called
coenergy
c f
i W W +
For a linear magnetic system:
Curve is a straight line and
f c
1
W W i
2

Kevin Craig
105
The i relationship need not be linear, it need only be
single-valued, a property which is characteristic to a
conservative or lossless field.
Also, since the coupling field is conservative, the
energy stored in the field with =
a
and i = i
a
is
independent of the excursion of the electrical and
mechanical variables before reaching this state.
The displacement x defines completely the influence
of the mechanical system upon the coupling field;
however, since and i are related, only one is needed
in addition to x in order to describe the state of the
electromechanical system.
Kevin Craig
106
If i and x are selected as the independent variables, it
is convenient to express the field energy and the flux
linkages as
( )
( )
f f
W W i , x
i, x

( ) ( )
( )
i, x i , x
d di dx
i x
i, x
d di with dx = 0
i

+

( )
( ) ( )
i
f
0
i, x , x
W i d i di d
i

Energy stored
in the field of a
singly excited
system
Kevin Craig
107
The coenergy in terms of i and x may be evaluated as
For a linear electromagnetic system, the i plots are
straightline relationships. Thus, for the singly excited
magnetically linear system, , where
L(x) is the inductance.
Lets evaluate W
f
(i,x).
( ) ( ) ( )
i
c
0
W i, x i, x di , x d

( ) ( )
i, x L x i
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
i
2
f
0
i, x
d di with dx = 0
i
d =L x di
1
W i,x L x d L x i
2

Kevin Craig
108
The field energy is a state function and the expression
describing the field energy in terms of the state
variables is valid regardless of the variations in the
system variables.
W
f
expresses the field energy regardless of the
variations in L(x) and i. The fixing of the mechanical
system so as to obtain an expression for the field
energy is a mathematical convenience and not a
restriction upon the result.
( ) ( ) ( )
i
2
f
0
1
W i,x L x d L x i
2


Kevin Craig
109
In the case of a multiexcited electromagnetic system,
an expression for the field energy may be obtained by
evaluating the following relation with dx = 0:
Since the coupling field is considered conservative,
this expression may be evaluated independent of the
order in which the flux linkages or currents are
brought to their final values.
Lets consider a doubly excited electric system with
one mechanical input.
J
f j j
j 1
W i d
( ) ( ) ( )
f 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2
W i , i , x i d i , i , x i d i , i , x with dx 0 1 +
]
Kevin Craig
110
The result is:
The first integral results from the first step of the
evaluation with i
1
as the variable of integration and
with i
2
= 0 and di
2
= 0. The second integral comes
from the second step of the evaluation with i
1
equal to
its final value (di
1
= 0) and i
2
as the variable of
integration. The order of allowing the currents to
reach their final state is irrelevant.
( )
( )
( ) ( )
1
2
i
1
f 1 2
0
i
1 1 2 1
1
0
, 0, x
W i , i , x d
i , , x i , , x
i d

+
1
+
1

]

Kevin Craig
111
Lets now evaluate the energy stored in a
magnetically linear electromechanical system with
two electrical inputs and one mechanical input.
The self-inductances L
11
(x) and L
22
(x) include the
leakage inductances.
With the mechanical displacement held constant (dx
= 0):
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 2 11 1 12 2
2 1 2 21 1 22 2
i , i , x L x i L x i
i , i , x L x i L x i
+
+
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 2 11 1 12 2
2 1 2 21 1 22 2
d i , i , x L x di L x di
d i , i , x L x di L x di
+
+
Kevin Craig
112
Substitution into:
Yields:
( )
( )
( ) ( )
1
2
i
1
f 1 2
0
i
1 1 2 1
1
0
, 0, x
W i , i , x d
i , , x i , , x
i d

+
1
+
1

]
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
i i
f 1 2 11 1 12 22
0 0
2 2
11 1 12 1 2 22 2
W i , i , x L x d i L x L x d
1 1
L x i L x i i L x i
2 2
1 + +
]
+ +

Kevin Craig
113
It follows that the total field energy of a linear
electromagnetic system with J electric inputs may be
expressed as:
( )
J J
f 1 j pq p q
p 1 q 1
1
W i , , i , x L i i
2

K
Kevin Craig
114
Electromagnetic and Electrostatic Forces
Energy Balance Equation:
To obtain an expression for f
e
, it is first necessary to
express W
f
and then take its total derivative. The total
differential of the field energy is required here.
J
f fj j e
j 1
J
f fj j e
j 1
J
e fj j f
j 1
W e i dt f dx
dW e i dt f dx
f dx e i dt dW

Kevin Craig
115
The force or torque in any electromechanical system
may be evaluated by employing:
We will derive the force equations for electro-
mechanical systems with one mechanical input and J
electrical inputs.
For an electromagnetic system:
Select i
j
and x as independent variables:
f e m
dW dW dW +
J
e j j f
j 1
f dx i d dW
( )
( )
f f
j j
W W i , x
i , x

r
r
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
J
f f
f j
j 1
j
J
j j
j n
n 1
n
W i , x W i , x
dW di dx
i x
i , x i , x
d di dx
i x
1

1
+

1
]
1

1
+

1
]
r r
r r
Kevin Craig
116
The summation index n is used so as to avoid
confusion with the subscript j since each d
j
must be
evaluated for changes in all currents to account for
mutual coupling between electric systems.
Substitution:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
J
f f
f j
j 1
j
J
j j
j n
n 1
n
W i , x W i , x
dW di dx
i x
i , x i , x
d di dx
i x
1

1
+

1
]
1

1
+

1
]
r r
r r
J
e j j f
j 1
f dx i d dW
into
Kevin Craig
117
Result:
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
J J
j
e j n
j 1 n 1
n
J
f f
j
j 1
j
j i , x i , x
f i , x dx i di dx
i x
W i , x W i , x
di dx
i x

1

1
+
' )

1

]

1

1
+

1
]

r r
r
r r
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
J
j f
e j
j 1
J J
j f
j n j
j 1 n 1
n j
i , x W i , x
f i , x dx i dx
x x
i , x W i , x
i di di
i i

1

1

' )

1

]

1

1
+
' )

1

]

r r
r
r r
Kevin Craig
118
This equation is satisfied provided that:
The first equation can be used to evaluate the force on
the mechanical system with i and x selected as
independent variables.
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
J
j f
e j
j 1
J J
j f
j n j
j 1 n 1
n j
i , x W i , x
f i , x i
x x
i , x W i , x
0 i di di
i i

1

1

1
]

1

1

' )

1

]

r r
r
r r
Kevin Craig
119
We can incorporate an expression for coenergy and
obtain a second force equation:
Since i and x are independent variables, the partial
derivative with respect to x is:
Substitution:
J
c j j f
j 1
W i W
( ) ( ) ( )
J
c j f
j
j 1
W i , x i , x W i , x
i
x x x
1

1

1
]
r r r
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
J
j f c
e j
j 1
i , x W i , x W i , x
f i , x i
x x x
1

1

1
]
r r r
r
Kevin Craig
120
Note:
Positive f
e
and positive dx are in the same direction
If the magnetic system is linear, W
c
= W
f
.
Summary:
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
J
j f
e j
j 1
c
e
i , x W i , x
f i , x i
x x
W i , x
f i , x
x
1

1

1
]
r r
r
r
r
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
J
j f
e j
j 1
c
e
i , W i ,
T i , i
W i ,
T i ,
1

1

1
]

r r
r
r
r
f
e
T
e
x
Kevin Craig
121
By a similar procedure, force equations may be derived
with flux linkages
1
, ,
j
of the J windings and x as
independent variables. The relations, given without
proof, are:
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
J
j c
e j
j 1
f
e
i , x W , x
f , x
x x
W , x
f , x
x
1

1
+
1
]

r r
r
r
r
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
J
j c
e j
j 1
f
e
i , W ,
T ,
W ,
T ,
1

1
+
1
]

r r
r
r
r
Kevin Craig
122
One may prefer to determine the electromagnetic
force or torque by starting with the relationship
rather than by selecting a formula.
Example:
Given:
Find f
e
(i,x)
f e m
dW dW dW +
( )
2
1 a x i 1 +
]
Kevin Craig
123
Elementary Electromagnet
The system consists of:
stationary core with a winding of N turns
block of magnetic material is free to slide relative to the
stationary member
x = x(t)
Kevin Craig
124
d
v ri
dt
+ voltage equation that describes the electric system

m
m
N
leakage flux
magnetizing flux

+

l
l
(the magnetizing flux is common to
both stationary and rotating members)
flux linkages
m
m
Ni
Ni

l
l
If the magnetic system is considered to be
linear (saturation neglected), then, as in the
case of stationary coupled circuits, we can
express the fluxes in terms of reluctances.
Kevin Craig
125
( )
2 2
m
m
N N
i
L L i
_
+

,
+
l
l
flux linkages
m
L leakage inductance
L magnetizing inductance
l
m i g
2 + reluctance of the magnetizing path
total reluctance of the magnetic material
of the stationary and movable members
reluctance of one of the air gaps
i
i
i
ri 0 i
g
0 g
A
x
A

l
Assume that the cross-sectional areas of
the stationary and movable members are
equal and of the same material
Kevin Craig
126
g i
A A
This may be somewhat of an oversimplification,
but it is sufficient for our purposes.
m i g
i
0 i ri
2
1
2x
A
+
_
+

,
l
2
m
i
0 i ri
N
L
1
2x
A
_
+

,
l
Assume that the leakage inductance
is constant.
The magnetizing inductance is
clearly a function of displacement.
x = x(t) and L
m
= L
m
(x)
When dealing with linear magnetic circuits wherein mechanical
motion is not present, as in the case of a transformer, the change
of flux linkages with respect to time was simply L(di/dt). This is
not the case here.
Kevin Craig
127
[ ]
m
(i,x) L(x)i L L (x) i
d (i, x) di dx
dt i dt x dt
+

+

l
The inductance is a
function of x(t).
[ ]
m
m
di dL (x) dx
v ri L L (x) i
dt dx dt
+ + +
l
The voltage equation is
a nonlinear differential
equation.
( )
2
m
i
0 i ri
N
L x
1
2x
A
_
+

,
l
Lets look at the magnetizing
inductance again.
2
0 i
i
0
ri
N A
k
2
k
2
l
m
0
k
L (x)
k x
+
2
0 ri i
m
0 i
m
N A k
L (0)
k
k
L (x) for x > 0
x

l
Kevin Craig
128
Electromagnet
Detailed diagram of electromagnet
for further analysis
Kevin Craig
129
( ) ( )
m
m
k
L (x) for x 0
x
k
L x L L x L for x 0
x
>
+ + >
l l
[ ]
m
(i,x) L(x)i L L (x) i +
l
The system is magnetically linear:
( ) ( ) ( )
2
f c
1
W i,x W i, x L x i
2

( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
J
j f
e j
j 1
c
e
i , x W i , x
f i , x i
x x
W i , x
f i , x
x
1

1

1
]
r r
r
r
r
( )
( )
2
e
2
2
L x
1
f i, x i
2 x
ki
2x

Use this approximation
Kevin Craig
130
The force f
e
is always negative; it pulls the moving
member to the stationary member. In other words, an
electromagnetic force is set up so as to minimize the
reluctance (maximize the inductance) of the magnetic
system.
Equations of motion:
f
di
v ri e
dt
+ + l
( )
2
0 e
2
d x dx
f M D K x x f
dt dt
+ +
v ri
( )
0 e
f K x x f
Steady-State Operation
(if v and f are constant)
Kevin Craig
131
Steady-State Operation
of an
Electromagnet
( )
( )
( )
0 e
e 0
2
0
2
f K x x f
f f K x x
ki
f K x x
2x

_

,
Parameters:
r = 10
K = 2667 N/m
x
0
= 3 mm
k = 6.283E-5 H m
v = 5 V
i = 0.5 A
Stable Operation: points 1 and 2
Unstable Operation: points 1 and 2
(f = 0)
(f = 4 N)
Kevin Craig
132
Single-Phase Reluctance Machine
The machine consists of:
stationary core with a
winding of N turns
moveable member which
rotates
( ) ( )
r
r
t
r r r
0
angular displacement
angular velocity
d 0

+

Kevin Craig
133
d
v ri
dt
+
m
m
leakage flux
magnetizing flux
+

l
l
voltage equation
( )
m
L L i +
l
It is convenient to express the flux
linkages as the product of the sum of the
leakage inductance and the magnetizing
inductance and the current in the winding.
r
m r
L constant (independent of )
L periodic function of

l
Kevin Craig
134
( )
( )
m m r
2
m
m
2
m
m
L L
N
L (0)
0
N
L
2
2

_
,

,
m
m
is maximum
L is minimum
m
m
is minimum
L is maximum
The magnetizing inductance varies between maximum and

minimum positive values twice per revolution of the rotating
member.
Kevin Craig
135
Assume that this variation may
be adequately approximated
by a sinusoidal function.
( ) ( )
m r A B r
L L L cos 2
( )
m A B
m A B
A B
A
L 0 L L
L L L
2
L L
L average value

_
+

,
>
( ) ( )
( )
r m r
A B r
L L L
L L L cos 2
+
+
l
l
[ ]
m r r
m r
r
di dL ( ) d
v ri L L ( ) i
dt d dt

+ + +
l
voltage equation
Kevin Craig
136
This elementary two-pole single-phase reluctance
machine is shown in a slightly different form.
Winding 1 is now winding as and the stator has been
changed to depict more accurately the configuration
common for this device.
( )
( ) ( )
as
as s as
as asas as
asas s A B r
t
r r r
0
d
v r i
dt
L i
L L L L cos 2
d 0
+

+
+
l
r
s
= resistance of as winding
L
asas
= self-inductance of as winding s
L leakage inductance
l
Kevin Craig
137
Electromagnetic torque:
Magnetic system is linear, hence W
f
= W
c
.
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
J
j f
e j
j 1
c
e
i , W i ,
T i , i
W i ,
T i ,
1

1

1
]

r r
r
r
r
( ) ( )
( )
2
c as r s A B r as
1
W i , L L L cos 2 i
2
+
l
( ) ( )
2
e as r B as r
T i , L i sin 2
Valid for both transient and steady-state operation
Kevin Craig
138
Consider steady-state operation: i
as
is constant
Electromagnetic torque versus angular displacement of a
single-phase reluctance machine with constant stator current
( )
e r
2
B as
T Ksin 2
K L i

stable operating point unstable operating point

Kevin Craig
139
Although the operation of a single-phase reluctance
machine with a constant current is impracticable, it
provides a basic understanding of reluctance torque,
which is the operating principle of variable-reluctance
stepper motors.
In its simplest form, a variable-reluctance stepper
motor consists of three cascaded, single-phase
reluctance motors with rotors on a common shaft and
arranged so that their minimum reluctance paths are
displaced from each other.
Kevin Craig
140
Windings in Relative Motion
The rotational device shown will be used to illustrate
windings in relative motion.
Winding 1: N
1
turns on stator
Winding 2: N
2
turns on rotor
end view cross-sectional view
Assume that the turns are
concentrated in one position.
Air-gap size is
exaggerated.
Kevin Craig
141
1
1 1 1
2
2 2 2
d
v r i
dt
d
v r i
dt
+
voltage equations
1 11 i 12 2
2 21 i 22 2
L i L i
L i L i
+
+
The magnetic system is assumed linear.
11 1 m1
2 2
1 1
1 m
22 2 m2
2 2
2 2
2 m
L L L
N N
L L L
N N
+
+

+
+

l
l
l
l
The self-inductances L
11
and L
22
are
constants and may be expressed in
terms of leakage and magnetizing
inductances.
is the reluctance of the complete
magnetic path of
m1
and
m2
, which
is through the rotor and stator iron and
twice across the air gap.
m

Kevin Craig
142
Lets now consider L
12
.
( ) ( )
r
r
t
r r r
0
angular displacement
angular velocity
d 0

+
When
r
is zero, then the coupling between
windings 1 and 2 is maximum. The magnetic
system of winding 1 aids that of winding 2
with positive currents assumed. Hence the
mutual inductance is positive.
( )
1 2
12
m
N N
L 0
When
r
is /2, the windings are orthogonal.
The mutual coupling is zero.
12
L 0
2

,
Kevin Craig
143
Assume that the mutual
inductance may be adequately
predicted by:
( ) ( )
12 r sr r
1 2
sr
m
L L cos
N N
L

L
sr
is the amplitude of the
sinusoidal mutual inductance
between the stator and rotor
windings.
1
1 1 1
2
2 2 2
d
v r i
dt
d
v r i
dt
+
In writing the voltage equations, the
total derivative of the flux linkages is
required.
( )
( )
1 11 1 sr r 2
2 22 2 sr r 1
L i L cos i
L i L cos i
+
+
1 2
1 1 1 11 sr r 2 r sr r
2 1
2 2 2 22 sr r 1 r sr r
di di
v r i L L cos i L sin
dt dt
di di
v r i L L cos i L sin
dt dt
+ +
+ +
Kevin Craig
144
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
1 m1 sr r as 1
sr r 2 m2 bs 2
v r 0 i
d
v 0 r i dt
L L L cos i
L cos L L i
1 1 1 1
+
1 1 1 1
] ] ] ]
+
1 1 1
1 1 1
+
] ] ]
l
l
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
J
j f
e j
j 1
c
e
i , W i ,
T i , i
W i ,
T i ,
1

1

1
]

r r
r
r
r
( ) ( )
2 2
f 1 2 r 11 1 12 1 2 22 2 c 1 2 r
1 1
W i , i , L i L i i L i W i , i ,
2 2
+ +
Since the magnetic system is assumed to be linear:
( )
e 1 2 r 1 2 sr r
T i , i , i i L sin
Kevin Craig
145
Consider the case where i
1
and i
2
are both positive
and constant:
e r
1 2 sr
T Ksin
K i i L

Electromagnetic torque versus angular displacement with constant winding currents

stable operation
unstable operation
Kevin Craig
146
Although operation with constant winding currents is
somewhat impracticable, it does illustrate the
principle of positioning of stepper motors with a
permanent-magnet rotor which, in many respects, is
analogous to holding i
2
constant on the elementary
device considered here.

EM Motion Fundamentals 2

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Actuators & Sensors in Mechatronics

Electromechanical Motion Fundamentals

Actuators & Sensors in Mechatronics

Total energy supplied to the

With one mechanical input

Actuators & Sensors in Mechatronics

Actuators & Sensors in Mechatronics

Actuators & Sensors in Mechatronics

Actuators & Sensors in Mechatronics

+ voltage equation that describes the electric system

Actuators & Sensors in Mechatronics

The magnetizing inductance varies between maximum and

stable operating point unstable operating point

Actuators & Sensors in Mechatronics

Electromagnetic torque versus angular displacement with constant winding currents

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