INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN

MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Anatomy deals with the structure and relationships
among structures in human body (shape, arrangements,
positions)
Physiology deals with the functions of body parts,
how they work.
Histology (microscopic anatomy) deals with the
microscopic structure of tissues (optical, electron
microscopy)
Anatomical positions
object stands erect (upright positions)
facing the observer
arms placed at the sides
palms of the hands turned forward
Planes and sections
midsagittal plane is a vertical plane that divides the body or
an organ into equal left and right side
parasagittal plane is vertical plane parallel to sagittal and it
divides the body or an organ into unequal left and right side
frontal plane divides the body or organ into anterior (front)
and posterior (back) parts
transverse (cross-sectional) plane divides the body or organ
into superior (top) and inferior (bottom) parts
Directional terms
superior (cephalic, cranial):
toward the head or the upper part of the structure (the
heart is superior to the liver)
inferior (caudal):
away from head or toward the lower part of the
structure (the stomach is inferior to the lungs)
Directional terms
anterior (ventral):
at the front of the body (sternum is anterior to the heart)
posterior (dorsal):
at the back of the body (the esophagus is posterior to
trachea)
Directional terms
medial:
nearer or at the midline of the body
lateral:
farther from midline
Directional terms
proximal:
nearer to the attachment of extremity to the trunk
distal:
farther to the attachment of extremity to the trunk
Directional terms
parietal:
pertaining to or forming outer wall of body cavity
visceral:
pertaining to the covering of an organ within the body
cavity
Levels of structural organization of human body
atoms, molecules
cells
tissues
organs
systems
organism
Types of tissues
epithelial tissue covers body surface, lines organs,
body cavities, and ducts, and forms glands
connective tissue protects and support body and
its organs, binds organs together, stores energy and
provides immunology
muscle tissue movement and regeneration of force
nervous tissue initiates and transmittes nerve
impulses, coordinates whole organism
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
epithelial tissue is consisting of one or more layers of
cells that form continuous sheets with minimal
extracellular matrix
covers body surface, lines organs, body cavities, and
ducts, and forms glands
General features of epithelia
epithelial cells have apical surface (free) exposed to a body
cavity
basal surface is attached to basal membrane
epithelial cells are attached to each other by various cell
junctions
epithelia are avascular (diffusion via basal membrane)
epithelia have a nerve supply
Main functions of epithelia
protection (vessel, esophagus)
filtration (regulatory barrier)
secretion (thyroid gland)
digestion (pancreas)
absorption (small intestine)
sensory reception
Basal (basement) membrane
thin extracellular layer formed by two layers, basal
lamina and reticular lamina
basal lamina is consist of proteins, glycoproteins e.g.
collagen IV, laminin
structural support for epithelial cells
main regulatory barrier between epithelium and
surrounding tissue
Membrane specializations of epithelia:
intercellular junctions
tight junctions
seal the intercellular spaces protection against penetration from
luminal contents (bloodbrain barrier, testicular barrier)
located beneath the apical surface of cells
adhering junctions (zonula adherens, desmosomes, hemidesmosomes)
bind epithelial cells (not so tight), anchor epithelium to the cytoskeleton
located beneath tight junctions
Membrane specializations of epithelia:
intercellular junctions
gap junctions (communicating junctions)
form hexamers with hydrophilic pore
participate in passage of small molecules between cells
Luminal surfaces
Cilia
long motile structures
easily visible by light microscope
e.g. columnar pseudostratified epithelium in trachea
Microvilli
short often extremely numerous projections of plasma membrane
visible only in electron microscope
located in simple columnar epithelium in small intestine
Stereocilia
extremely long microvilli
visible in the light microscope
not motile
located in reproductive tract in epididymis
Classification of epithelia
number of cell layers
simple epithelia
stratified epithelia
shape of epithelial cells (shape of nucleus)
squamous
cuboidal
columnar
presence of surface specializations
cilia
microvili
stereocilia
Simple squamous epithelium
composed of flattened irregularly shaped cells forming a
continuous surface which may be referred to as
pavemented epithelium
Function
participate in passive and active transport of either fluids or
gases
Located
in either blood and lymphatic vessels (endothelium), lining the
cavities (pleural, pericardial)
Simple squamous epithelium (endothelium)
Simple squamous epithelium (endothelium)
nuclei of endothelial cells
Simple cuboidal epithelium
intermediate form between squamous and columnar
epithelium
nucleus is located in the center of the cell
Function: covering, secretion
lining small ducts in pancreas, lining follicles in thyroid
gland, etc.
Simple cuboidal epithelium (thyroid gland)
Simple columnar epithelium
cells are taller, nuclei are elongated and located toward
basement membrane
Function:
protective, secretion, absorption
Located
in stomach, small intestine
Simple columnar epithelium (small intestine)
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
cells are in one layer (all cells rest on basement membrane),
different heights of cell and thus positions of nuclei creating
illusion of stratification
Function:
protection, secretion,
Located in
respiratory systemwith cilia (trachea, bronchus) etc. or reproductive
system (epididymis)
Microscopic preparation
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium(trachea)
cilia
Basal
membrane
Transitional epithelium
special form of stratified epithelium, columnar or cuboidal
cells near the basement membrane, large surface cells often
with two nuclei
Function
protection against mechanical stretch and toxic wastes in urinary
tract
Location
urinary tract (urinary bladder)
Transitional epithelium
Microscopic preparation
Transitional epithelium(urinary bladder)
Microscopic preparation
Transitional epithelium(urinary bladder)
Stratified squamous epithelium
consist of variable number of cells layers, columnar or
cuboidal cells near the basement membrane (basal layers)
and flattened cells in surface regions
Function: mechanical protection, preserve leakage of
water from tissue (dehydration)
Location:
stratified squamous epitheliumin digestive system(lining
oral cavity, esophagus)
stratified squamous epithelium with keratin
(accumulation of keratin in cells during maturation) constitute
epithelial surface of skin
Stratified squamous epithelium (esophagus)
Stratified squamous epithelium with keratin (skin)
Glandular epithelium
consist of specialized type of epithelial cells that are
capable to form secretions
exocrine glands:
secrete proteins (pancreas), lipids (sebaceous gland), carbohydrates
(salivary gland), wax, either directly or via ducts onto free tissue
surface
endocrine glands:
secrete hormones (chemical messengers) directly into extracellular
fluid and than into the systemic circulation
ductless glands
Morphology of glands
simple glands: single unbranched duct
compound glands: branched duct system
tubular glands: tubular secretory portions
acinar glands: acinar secretory portions
Exocrine glands
Merocrine secretion (eccrine):
secretory product is formed and then discharge by exocytosis
(generally proteins)
no changes in cell shape
most common form of secretion in exocrine glands
Location:
salivary gland, pancreas
Merocrine secretion (pancreas)
Exocrine glands
apocrine secretion:
secretory product is accumulated at apical (free) surface of cells
enlargement of the cells
pinch off the portion of cell discharge of secretory product
(generally lipids) in the vesicle diminishing of the cells
myoepithelial cells participate on discharging of secretory product
Location:
sweat glands, mammary glands
Apocrine secretion (sweat gland)
Myoepithelial cells
Exocrine glands
Holocrine secretion:
involves discharge of whole secretory cells with subsequent
disintegration of the cell to release the secretory product
location: sebaceous gland
Holocrine secretion (sebaceous gland)
Holocrine secretion (sebaceous gland)
Holocrine secretion (sebaceous gland)
Holocrine secretion (sebaceous gland)
Endocrine glands
secrete hormones (chemical messengers) directly into
extracellular fluid and than into the systemic circulation
no ducts
Endocrine gland (Langerhans islet in pancreas)
CONNECTIVE (SUPPORTING)
AND MUSCLE TISSUE
Main characteristics of the connective tissue
Composed of cells and extracellular matrix (ground substance and fibers)
Provides structural and metabolic support for other tissues and organs
Strenghten other body tissues
Protects and insulate body organs
Participate in the immunity reactions in human body
Highly vascular and nervous tissue the exchange of metabolities,
nutrients and waste between the tissues and the circulatory system
Connective tissue cells
Fibroblasts (osteoblasts, chondroblasts, odontoblasts)
Large, flat, spindle-shaped cells
They secrete connective fibers and ground substance
Fibroblasts participate in the wound healing (the retraction of
damaged tissue)
Macrophages
Derived from the monocytes
Participate on phagocytosis and thus provide vital defense for
the body (immunity)
Connective tissue cells
Mast cells
Abundant alongside blood vessels
Produce histamine and other chemicals that participate on the inflammatory
reactions (dilatation of blood vessels, increasing of permeability of vessels)
Produce heparin anticoagulant activity
Adipocytes (fat cells)
Form the adipose tissue
Responsible for the storage and metabolismof fat (energy)
Good insulator prevent against the heat loss
Important for prductions of cytokines and inflammation
Connective tissue matrix - fibers
Collagen
Main fibre and the most abundant in the human
body
Collagen is polymerized from the tropocollagen and
forms collagen bundles
Participate on the tensile strength of tissues
Atherosclerotic lesion collagen
Connective tissue matrix - fibers
Elastin
Structural protein that forms fibres and sheets
Abundant in the skin, lungs, and blood vessels
Provides elastic properties of the tissues (stretch x
retract)
Atherosclerotic aorta elastin
Connective tissue matrix - fibers
Reticular fibres
Form lattice or reticulum
They are common in the lymphatic glands,
hematopoietic organs and form meshlike center
called the stroma
Kidney reticular fibres
Connective tissue matrix ground
substance
Amorphous (no shape) transparent material formed
predominantly by polysaccharides (glycosaminglycans,
proteoglycans)
These polysaccharides molecules form flexible gel
through which metabolites may diffuse
Classification of connective tissue
Loose connective tissue
characterized by the small amount of fibers, the main
components are cells and ground substance
Packing and binding tissue that surrounds muscles,
nerves and vessels
Areolar connective tissue
Strengthen epithelial tissue
Surrounds vessels and muscles (fascia)
Form subcutaneous layer (attach the skin to surrounding tissue)
Classification of connective tissue
Loose connective tissue
Adipose tissue
Responsible for the storage and metabolismof fat (energy)
Good insulator prevent against the heat loss
It is present wherever areolar tissue is presented
White adipose tissue comprises up to 20-25% of total body
weight in adults
Brown adipose tissue is found in newborn mammals and
hibernating animals
where is important in the temperature regulation
protect against obesity (burning off excess of energy)
Classification of connective tissue
Loose connective tissue
Reticular connective tissue
It forms the fibre skeleton (network) of haemapoietic
organs (bone marrow, liver, spleen, lymphatic glands)
Classification of connective tissue
Dense connective tissue
is formed predominantly by numerous and thick fibres with a
few cells
Dense regular or irregular connective tissue (according
to the orientation of collagen bundles)
Provides great strength of the tissues e.g. tendon (ligament)
which bind muscles to bones
Located in the skin, GI tract
Elastic connective tissue
Provides elastic (stretch and retract) properties of tissue e.g.
aorta, portions of the larynx, epiglotis..
Hyaline cartilage (gristle)
Most abundant cartilage in the human body, e.g. trachea
(tracheal rings)
Participate in the forming of the embryonal skeleton
Amorphous glass-like ground substance that overlapping
collagen bundles (thus not visible)
Small aggregations of chondrocytes embedded in the
lacunae
Hyaline cartilage (gristle)
Hyaline cartilage -trachea
perichondrium
Hyaline cartilage -trachea
chondrocytes
perichondrium
Elastic cartilage
Occurs in the external ear and epiglottis
The presence of the visible numerous and branching
elastic fibres rounded the chondrocytes
Elastic cartilage
Fibrocartilage
Intermediate between dense connective (fibrous)
tissue and cartilage
Occurs in intervertebral disc
The bone tissue
The bone is composed of the cells and extracellular
matrix
(predominantly collagen) called osteoid, which becomes
mineralized by the depositions of calcium
hydroxyapatite rigidity and strength
Bone tissue functions
The support and the protection of soft tissues and
organs (brain)
Participate on the movement
Bone marrow the hematopoiesis
The source and the storage of calcium and phosphor
The cells of bone
Osteoblasts
synthesize osteoid and participate in the mineralization
They line osteoid
Osteocytes
derived from the osteoblasts
Entrapped inside the osteoid participate on the nutrition
Osteoclasts
Capable of phagocytosis, cells that participate in the eroding of the
bone and thus together with osteoblasts necessary for the constant
turnover and remodeling of the bone and the formation of
medullary cavity during ossification
The structure of the bone
Diaphysis the main portion of the bone
Epiphysis the ends of the bone
Periosteum
surface fibrous membrane that covers the bone
composed of two layers that contains fibres (Sharpeys
fibers)
contains blood vessels and nerves that penetrate through
the Volkmanns canal into the bone tissue (nutrition)
Bone tissue
Structure of bone
Endosteum
Inner fibrous layer that is between bone tissue and marrow
cavity
Marrow cavity
Contains bone marrow
Red bone marrow
Occurs in the whole bone (epiphysis, diaphysis) in prenatal
period - hematopoiesis
Occurs only in the epiphysis in adults
Yellow bone marrow
Occurs in diaphysis in adults
Hematopoietic tissue is replaced by fat tissue
1. Endosteum
2. Periosteum
3. Vessel in Haversian canal
coming from periost
through the Volkmanns
canal
4. Sharpeys fibers
5. Vessel from periosteum
Spongy (cancellous) bone
Occurs in the epiphysis and in the inner portion of
the bone
Irregular arrangement of lamellae forms thin
plates called trabeculae
Does not contain true osteons like in
Compact (dense) bone
Occurs in diaphysis and in the outer portion of the bone
Typical structure Haversian system (osteon)
Composed of the Haversian canal located in the center (vessels and
nerves inside)
Concentric, hard, calcified lamellae surrounding the canal
Osteocytes located in small spaces between lamellae called lacunae
(lacuna=little lake)
Radiating in all directions from the lacunae the elongation of osteocytes
in the canals (called canaliculi - nutrition, metabolites, waste)
Interstitial lamellae - areas between osteons
Microscopic preparation Bone
Haversian system
Haversian canal
Concentric lamellae
Osteocytes in lacunae
Microscopic preparation Bone
Microscopic preparation Bone
osteocyte
Osteocytes
processes
Ossification Bone formation
The process comprising the formation of bone e.g. during
embryonal period, during reparation of bone in adults.
Intramembranous ossification
Formation of bone on or in fibrous connective tissue
Typical for some skull bones
The principle:
Osteoblast secrete organic matrix the calcification the
formation of trabeculea the formation of periosteum
spongy bone
Endochondral ossification
Formation of the bone directly from the hyaline cartilage
Typical for some long bones
The principle:
Hyaline cartilage is replaced by the bone tissue
Formation of the periosteal bone collar (calcification of periosteum)
formation of the primary ossification center longitudinal ossification
(delivery of nutritions, precursors of osteoblasts into cartilage through the
vessel)
Hypertrophy of chondrocytes calcification of cartilage matrix + break
down of chondrocytes the formation of spongy bone by osteoblasts
calcification of spongy bone ossification center enlarges toward the ends
of the bone osteoclasts break down newly formed spongy bone
formation of marrow cavity
Secondary ossification center ossification in radial directions
Muscle tissue
1) Skeletal muscle tissue
Attached primarily to the bones and responsible for
the movement
Also called striated because of alternating dark and
light band (striations)
Voluntary muscle tissue because it is controlled by
your own consciousness
Skeletal muscle composition characterization
Basic unit muscle fibers (composed of myofibrils that
contains contractile myofilaments actin and myosin) are
grouped together into the fascicles with delicate supporting
tissue called endomysiumthat occupying spaces between
individual muscle fibers
Each fascicle (bundle) is surrounded by loose connective
tissue called perimysium
Each muscle is composed by many fascicules (bundles)
that are surrounded by dense collagenous sheath called
epimysium
Skeletal muscle composition characterization
Endomysium, perimysium, epimysium form the tendons
(dense connective tissue) that attach muscle to the
periosteum of the bone.
Large vessel and nerves enter the epimysium and form
dense network that surrounds muscular fibers and
participate on nutrition (capillary) and innervation.
Skeletal contraction is usually very fast and under the
control of motor neurons that activate neuromuscular
spindles.
Microscopic preparation skeletal muscle
Skeletal muscle fibers with numerous nuclei located at
the periphery
Cross-striation of the fibers (alternating of light and
dark bands)
Microscopic preparation skeletal muscle
Microscopic preparation skeletal muscle
Smooth muscle
Specialized for the long termcontractions
Contraction and relaxation is independent on the
consciousness
Contraction and relaxation is often rhythmic of wave-like
fashion (distal movement of the food in the intestine)
Smooth muscles are under the control of autonomic
nervous system
Structure of smooth muscles differs from an organ to organ
according to the functional requirements.
Microscopic preparation smooth muscle
Long elongated spindle-shaped cells
Elongated nuclei
No striation contractile proteins are not arranged into
myofibrils
Microscopic preparation smooth muscle
Smooth muscle cell
Cardiac muscle
Many structural similarities between skeletal and smooth
muscles
Presence of the striation similar to the skeletal muscles
Under control of autonomic nervous system (similar to
the smooth muscle) thus, cannot be controlled voluntarily
Cardiac muscle cells has shape like letter Y
One or two nuclei are located centrally
The presence of intercalated disks that occurs between
two adjacent cells and participate on rapid spread of
contractile stimuli
Microscopic preparation cardiac muscle
Cardiac muscle cells has shape like letter Y
Centrally located nucleus or nuclei
The presence of intercalated disks
Microscopic preparation cardiac muscle
Intercalated disc
Microscopic preparation cardiac muscle
Cigar-like nucleus of cardiomyocyte