Ride Handling and Braking

BAJA SAE-INDIA 2011 Workshop

SPCOE, Bhavan Campus, Mumbai, 23
rd
- 24
th
July 2010
Manish Jaiswal, PhD
John Deere Technology Center India (JDTCI, Pune)
Terminology
Handling - more of a human judgment, based on the response or
feel of the vehicle over a range of driving conditions.
Stability - ability of a vehicle to perform in a manner consistent
with driver inputs or against disturbances over a wide range of
driving conditions. A directionally stable vehicle returns to a steady
state condition within a finite time, following a disturbance.
Braking - to convert the kinetic energy possessed by the vehicle at
any one time into heat energy by means of friction. Apart from
braking efficiency, stability induced by braking has become an
important parameter, determining the safety of a vehicle.
Ride - tactile and visual vibrations in low frequency domain,
experienced by passengers. Being subjective in nature its an
important performance parameter, determining the way ride quality
is perceived by the passengers.
Handling
Vehicle Axis System - SAE
Fig source - 8
Bounce - the vertical displacement
Pitch - rotation about the Y axis
Roll - rotation about the X axis
Warp - combined rotation about the Y and X axis
Yaw - rotation about the Z axis
Steady-State Cornering
Steady-state cornering is concerned with the directional
behaviour of a vehicle under time invariant conditions.
The vehicle, in this case, will have two simultaneous motions
rotation about its own CG and revolution around the centre of
turn, both at a constant angular velocity.
Main factors controlling the steady-state handling of a vehicle
are the weight distribution (including load transfer) and the
cornering stiffness of the tyres.
The steady-state cornering is mostly related with small values
of lateral acceleration.
Slip Angle and Cornering Force
The relationship between lateral force or cornering force and
slip angle (at low slip) is linear and can be expressed
y
F C

=
The slip angle in a tire is primarily
because of its lateral deformation at the
contact patch. The tire moves along a
path at an angle with the wheel plane.
The coefficient C

is known as the cornering stiffness and

represents the slope of the lateral force and slip angle curve
at =0. The cornering stiffness of a tire is primarily dependent
on the load and inflation pressure.
Fig Source - 11
Steer angle depends on the wheel base,
turning radius, forward speed, and the
under-steer coefficient.
( )( )
( )( )
2
f f f
2
r r r
W C U gR
W C U gR

=
=
f f r w
- L R + =
( )
2
w us f
L R K U gR = +
Under-Steer Coefficient
Neutral steer - K
us
= 0
Under-steer - K
us
>0
Over-steer - K
us
<0
Fig Source - 3
( )
us f f r r
K W C - W C

=
Under-Steer Coefficient (Cont..)
Fig Source - 1
Fig Source - 1
w crit us
U 57.3L g K =
Critical Speed
Characteristic Speed
w char us
U 57.3L g K =
Yaw Velocity Gain
( )
w
2
us w
U L r

1 K U 57.3L g +
=
Force and Moment during Cornering
t
rf
t
rf

Fz
R

Fy
R
Fy
L

h
f

O
h
1

Fz
L

Fy
( ) ( )
L R
z y y
r r
1 h
F K C p - F F
2t 2t

= + +
Load transfer can be found by equating the suspension roll moment with
moments generated by the vertical and lateral tyre forces.
During cornering, weight
transfer happens from inside
to outside tires
During braking, weight
transfer happens from rear to
front tires, while during
acceleration, weight is
transferred from front to rear.
Fig Source - 3
Roll Center Height
Roll center can be determined by the intersection of the centerline with the
line joining the contact patch center to the instantaneous center.
The roll moment is determined by the roll center to CG height.
With suspension travel, the roll center is displaced or migrated.
Low roll center height leads to reduction in jacking forces.
Vehicle Roll Anti Roll Bar
f f
1
f f
2
roll wheel
roll
rf
roll wheel
roll
rf
K
F -
t
K
F
t


+
=
+
=
( )
( )
The anti-roll bar forces at the front
wheels can be expressed as
Fig Source - 3
Vehicle Rollover
Stages of Rollover
Pre-rollover from the start of the
control loss to lift off
Lift off - airborne phase starting from
the wheel lift off to the body contacting
the ground
Roll phase - from the ground contact to
vehicle coming to rest
Static Stability Factor (SSF = T/2H) is used to determine rollover propensity
Rollover is predicted if for sustained period of time, F>W* (T/2H)
or if lateral acceleration /g > T/2H
or if coefficient of friction > T/2H
Critical Sliding Velocity (CSV) is another estimate for rollover propensity,
which determines the minimum sideways velocity required for a vehicle to
just barely tip over
Fig Source - 7
Steering Kinematics
Camber Angle
Lateral
Inclination
Angle

Caster
Angle
Kingpin Axis
Scrub radius
Fig Source - 3
Steering Kinematics (Cont..)
Camber Results in lateral force development at the contact patch
Lesser force in comparison to the force generated by slip angle
Caster Allows the wheels to self-center by generating a self-centering force
Positive when steering axis is ahead of the contact patch center
Steering Axis Inclination Like caster, provides directional stability
Reduces steering effort by reducing scrub radius
Scrub Radius Distance between the steering axis and
the center of the contact patch
Negative scrub radius helps in reducing
steering sensitivity to braking inputs
Toe Compensates for the turning behaviour of a
cambered wheel
Easy to adjust as compared to caster or camber
a
1
b
trr
2
trr
2
2
trf
2
trf
2
Lw
1
0
2
D
1
2
3
4
Ackerman Steering Geometry
1 0 0
w
trf 2
(1 )
L
-
2 0 0
w
trf 2
(1 )
L
+
( )
1 0 0
w
Pa trf 2
(1 )
L

-
( )
2 0 0
w
Pa trf 2
(1 )
L

+
If Pa is the proportion of Ackerman,
then
1
and
2
become:
The steer angle at the front wheels can be expressed in terms of the central
vehicle axis and its distance from the centre of turn.
Fig Source - 3
Braking
Brake Force
Apart from braking force developed at the friction element, the vehicle
experiences the retarding forces from the rolling resistance of tires,
aerodynamic and transmission resistance, and grade resistance at slope.
Fxtyre
Mb
VXw
d
Fz
FR
ro

Td
rw
Ktyre
Road
Surface
Fzo
d x R w
b
wheel
T (F F ) r
M
I

=

- -

Fig Source - 3
Conventional Braking System
The pressurized fluid is forced out of the master cylinder and into the wheel
cylinders, through the brake lines.
The flow into the rear brake cylinders is passed through proportioning valves.
The hydraulic pressure at the wheel cylinder is translated into the friction
pads, which eventually applies the brake torque at the disk / drum.
Driver presses the brake pedal.
The force from the pedal after being
multiplied by the pedal/lever ratio
reaches the brake booster.
The hydraulic or pneumatic brake
booster further amplifies it by a gain.
The booster exerts a force against
the piston in the master cylinder,
thus pressurizing the brake fluid.
Braking System - Vacuum Booster
Apply Chamber
Vacuum Chamber
Diaphragm
Power Pist on
Pushrod
Return Spring
Master Cyli nder
Valve Spri ngs
Check Valve
Firewall
Seal
React ion Washer
Fig Source - 5
The vacuum booster located on the vehicles firewall acts like a force amplifier,
enhancing the force applied by the driver pedal by exploiting the pressure
differential between the atmosphere and the engine manifold vacuum.
Fout
Primary Piston
Pmcp
Master Cylinder
Secondary Piston
Brake Lines
Brake Disk
Wheel Cylinder
Prr Plr
Prf
Pmcs
Seal
Plf
Master Cylinder
Master Cylinder and Friction Element
Fig Source - 3
Fig Source - 9
Fig Source - 10
Split Circuit Braking System required for safety
reasons so that if one circuits fails the other can function.
Front/Rear Split circuit is divided between front and rear axle, where the
primary piston connects the front and the secondary piston connects the rear.
Diagonal Split the right front and left rear are connected by one piston while
the left front and the right rear are connected by the second piston.
Brake Force Distribution
Proportioning Valve reduces the pressure in the rear brakes so as to
prevent the rear brakes from locking before the front ones, during high level of
deceleration. The front brakes receives higher proportion than the rear ones.
Metering Valve required when the vehicle has both drum and disk brakes.
As the disk brakes engage quicker than the drum brakes, the metering valve
does not allow the disk brakes to engage before the drum brakes.
Brake Force Distribution to achieve optimum braking according to the
dynamic weight distribution. During high deceleration, If the front brake torque
exceeds the dynamic front weight, then it may lead to front wheels locking
before the rear. The opposite happens (rear locking before the front), if the
rear brake torque exceeds the dynamic rear weight.
Over the years, the advances in brake technology has led to development of
various active safety systems such as Electronic Brake force Distribution
system (EBD), Anti-lock Braking System (ABS), Brake Assist System (BAS),
Electronic Stability Control (ESC) and many more..
Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS)
-slip curve as a function of slip angle Typical ABS braking cycle
Fig Source - 4 Fig Source - 6
An ABS system would detect incipient locking at one or more wheels in time,
and react by modulating the brake pressure on individual wheels, so as to
prevent it from locking and keep the tyre slip within a desired range.
Ride
Quarter Vehicle Model
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
z
wheel body wheel body tyre wheel 0 tyre wheel 0 wheel wheel
F
-K z - z - C z - z -K z - z - C z - z - M z 0 =

body wheel body wheel sprung body

- K [z - z ] - C [W - z ] - M z 0 =
Equation for sprung mass can be
obtained by balancing the suspension
and the inertia forces
The unsprung mass forces include suspension forces, inertia forces of
wheel and tyre vertical load (after road excitation)
Fig Source - 3
Z
0
Quarter Vehicle Model (Cont..)
For undamped system, equation of motion for free vibration can be reduced to
body wheel sprung body
- K [z - z ] - M z 0 =
( )
( )
wheel body tyre wheel 0 wheel wheel
-K z - z - K z - z - M z 0 =
The undamped natural frequencies of the sprung and unsprung mass can be
expressed as:
tyre tyre tyre
sprung tyre
tyre
wheel
K K (K K ) K K
1
, where represents the ride rate
2 M (K K )
K K
1
2 M
sprung
unsprung
f
f

+
=
+
+
=
Overall, the quarter vehicle model can be used to a good effect for studying
the initial estimate of vehicle vibration in relation with the mass, stiffness and
damping characteristics, along with the realistic road inputs.
2-DOF Model for Bounce and Pitch
Fig Source - 2
The equation of motion for free
vibration for bounce is
sprung f 1 r 2
- M z - K [z - ]- K [z ] 0 + =
The equation of motion for pitch is
y f 1 1 r 2 2
I - K [z - ] K [z ] 0 + + =

In comparison to the quarter vehicle model, this slightly detailed pitch plane
dynamics model could be used to a good effect for studying vehicle vibration
during coupled bounce and pitch motions.
Human Response to Vibration
Limits of whole-body vibration for fatigue or decreased proficiency in
vertical direction (foot-to-head), ISO 2631-1:1997
Fig Source - 2
Human Response to Vibration (Cont..)
Limits of whole-body vibration for fatigue or decreased proficiency in
transverse direction (back to chest or side to side), ISO 2631-1:1997
Fig Source - 2
References
1. Gillespie, T.D. , Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, SAE, Warrendale, 1999
2. Wong, J .Y., Theory of Ground Vehicles, J ohn Wiley & Sons, New J ersey, 2008
3. J aiswal, M., PhD Thesis, The Interaction of Tyre and Anti-lock Braking in Vehicle Transient
Dynamics, School of Mechanical Engineering, Loughborough Univeristy, 2009
4. Bauer, H. Driving-safety systems, 1999 (Robert Bosch GmbH, Stuttgart).
5. Gerdes, J . C. and Hedrick, J . K., Brake System Modeling for Simulation and Control,
J ournal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement and Control, Transactions of the ASME, Vol.
121, 1999
6. Austin, L. and Morrey, D., Recent advances in antilock braking systems and traction
control systems, IMechE, Part D, J ournal of Automobile Engineering, Vol- 214, No-6, 2000
7. Transportation Research Board, NHTSAs Rating System for Rollover Resistance, An
Assessment, Special Report No 265, 2001.
8. http://www.carsim.com/applications/education.php
9. http://www.familycar.com/Classroom/Images/Brake_Disk_Brake.gif
10. http://www.familycar.com/classroom/Images/Brake_Drum_Brake.gif
11. http://features.evolutionm.net/imageview.php?image=1537
Thanks