7.2.

Trigonometric Integrals Case 2:
sin  cos

 , where either  or  is a positive
Case 1:
sin   or
cos
 , where  is a positive odd integer.
odd integer and so   1 is even. We factor: When  is odd:

 sin    sin  sin     sin  cos

   sin  cos
  cos   


 sin    sin     sin  cos     cos   



 1  cos     sin     sin  1  sin    cos   

When  is odd:
 cos     cos   cos   
  sin  cos
   sin  cos
 sin   
 cos     cos   

  sin    cos
 sin   
  1  sin    cos   

 1  cos     cos
 sin   

Or use reduction formulas:

1 1
 sin     sin  cos    sin  
 
1 1
 cos     cos   sin    cos   
 
Case 3a:
sin  ,
cos   ,
sin  cos
 , Case 4:
tan   or
cot   , where  is a positive
where  and  are positive even integers. We factor: integer. We factor:

 1  cos 2   tan     tan  tan  
 sin    sin        
2
  tan  sec    1
 1  cos 2 
 cos     cos          
2
 cot      cot   cot   


 sin  cos    sin    cos     



 cot   csc    1



1  cos 2  1  cos 2 
      Case 5:
sec    or
csc   , where  is a positive
2 2
even integer. We factor:
Case 3b:
sin  sin  ,
cos  cos  ,

sin  cos  . Use the following identities:  sec      sec   sec   
1 
sin  sin   cos    cos    sec     sec   
2

1  tan   1  sec   
cos  cos   cos    cos  
2
1  csc      csc "  csc   
sin  cos   sin    sin  
2

 csc     csc   


 cot    1  csc   
Case 6:
tan  sec
  or
cot   csc
 , where 
 cot   csc
 
is a positive even integer. We factor:
 cot   csc
  csc  cot  
 tan  sec    tan  sec



 sec  



  cot     csc
  csc  cot  
 tan  sec     sec   


  csc    1  csc
  csc  cot  
 tan  tan   1  sec   
Case 8:
sec    or
csc   , where  is a positive odd
 cot   csc
   cot   csc
  csc    integer. We apply integration by parts:


For
sec   , let   sec   and #  sec   .
 cot   csc     csc   

 For
csc   , let   csc   and #  csc   .
 cot   cot    1  csc   
Or use reduction formulas:
Case 7:
tan  sec
  or
cot   csc
 , where  1 2
 sec     sec   tan    sec   
is a positive odd integer. We factor: 1 1
1 2
 tan  sec
   csc     csc   cot    csc   
1 1
 tan  sec
  sec  tan  

 tan    sec
  sec  tan  


 sec    1  sec
  sec  tan  
Case 7:
tan  sec
  or
cot   csc
 , where  7.3. Integration of Algebraic Functions by Trigonometric
is a positive even integer and  is a positive odd integer. Substitution
We factor then follow Case 8: Case 1: The integrand contains an expression of the form

 tan  sec
   tan    sec
  √    , where  / 0.
 We let    sin 1,
 sec    1  sec
  3 3
where 0 2 1 2 if  4 0 and  2 1 2 0 if  2 0.
 

 cot   csc
   cot     csc
  Then √      cos 1 and    cos 1 1.

 csc    1  csc
  Case 2: The integrand contains an expression of the form
√    , where  / 0.
Wallis’ Formula:
We let    tan 1,
2 · 2 · 4 · 4 · … · 2 · 2 -
lim   where 0 2 1 2
3 3
if  4 0 and  2 1 2 0 if  2 0.
&' 1 · 1 · 3 · 3 · 5 · 5 · … · 2  1 · 2  1 2  

Then √      sec 1 and    sec  1 1.

Case 3: The integrand contains an expression of the form
√    , where  / 0.
We let    sec 1,
3 53
where 0 2 1 2 if  4  and - 2 1 2 if  2 .
 

Then √      tan 1 and    sec 1 tan 1 1.

7.4. Integration of Rational Functions
Partial Fractions P/D:
1. If deg84deg :, divide to get quotient ; and
remainder <. Focus on R/D.
2. Factor D into powers of distinct linear and irreducible
quadratic factors.
3. For each   
we get the terms
= = =

  > 
        

4. For each      ? we get

=   @ =   @ =   @
  > 
     ?      ?       ? 
Plan: For distinct factors, use the method of undetermined
coefficients: multiply by D to get a polynomial identity and
substitute the roots. Compare coefficients of the highest
power to get another equation if needed.
For repeated factors, just divide repeatedly: the quotient is
over a lower power, the remainder is the original power.
When powers are negative, arrange in increasing order.