December 2006

, published 15 , doi: 10.1098/rsta.2006.1891 364 2006 Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A

David McGloin

Optical tweezers: 20 years on

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Optical tweezers: 20 years on
BY DAVID MCGLOIN*
School of Physics and Astronomy, University of St Andrews North Haugh,
St Andrews KY16 9SS, UK
In 1986, Arthur Ashkin and colleagues published a seminal paper in Optics Letters,
Observation of a single-beam gradient force optical trap for dielectric particles which
outlined a technique for trapping micrometre-sized dielectric particles using a focused laser
beam, a technology which is now termed optical tweezers. This paper will provide a
background in optical manipulation technologies and an overview of the applications of
optical tweezers. It contains some recent work on the optical manipulation of aerosols and
concludes witha critical discussionof where the future might leadthis maturing technology.
Keywords: optical tweezers; optical manipulation; colloids; aerosols; light beams
1. Introduction
The idea that light can trap and manipulate particles is what sold me on a
career in research. It is one of those counterintuitive ideas that just seems
wrong at some level, but when it is explained it makes perfect sense. The idea
that light can exert forces on particles so as to push them (rather than trap
them) is not so strange if we consider light as photons which possess
momentum. If light can be reected from a surface or scatter in some way
then we must allow for the fact that its momentum has been changed and there
must be, from Newtons second law, a force (force is proportional to the rate of
change of momentum) associated with this change. This is how radiation
pressure can be described. The concept of radiation pressure was considered by
James Clerk Maxwell (1873) as he probed the consequences of his description of
electromagnetic radiation.
In a medium in which the waves are propagated there is a pressure in the direction normal
to the wave, and numerically equal to the energy contained in unit volume.
(Maxwell 1873)
When we consider radiation pressure today, we tend to make use of lasers with
their associated high intensity, and so it seems remarkable that P. N. Lebedev
demonstrated the existence of radiation pressure using no more than a focused
arc lamp (Lebedev 1901). Moreover, he did this in 1901, pioneering an area that
would not see real resurgence until the early 1970s. This work would lead to two
Nobel prizes (to date) allowing the laser cooling of atoms (e.g. Chu 1998) and the
creation of BoseEinstein condensates in cold atomic gases (e.g. Ketterle 2002).
Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A (2006) 364, 35213537
doi:10.1098/rsta.2006.1891
Published online 18 October 2006
One contribution of 23 to a Triennial Issue Mathematics and physics.
*dm11@st-and.ac.uk
3521 q 2006 The Royal Society
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The second type of force that light can exert can again be described by
Newtons laws (although this explanation is only strictly valid in the case where
the wavelength of the light is much smaller than the size of the particle involved)
by considering what happens to the light as it traverses a dielectric particle.
First, one notices that the light is refracted through the object, and as the lights
direction is changed so must its momentum: thus a force must be acting on the
particle (gure 1). To understand the direction of the force, we must consider the
fact that the experiments that will be discussed in this paper make use of lasers.
The typical prole of a laser beam is Gaussian, with the most intense part of the
beam lying in the centre.
Thus, if the refractive index of the particle is greater than that of the
surrounding medium, then the particle is attracted to the centre of the beam; if it
is less than that of the surrounding medium, then the particle is repelled from the
beam. Since the force is dependent on the intensity gradient of the beam, this type
of force is called the gradient force (also called the dipole force). The assumption in
this paper is that the relative refractive index (the ratio of the particle to medium
refractive index) is greater than 1 and that we are working in the attractive force
regime. From gure 1 we can see that particles should be relatively easy to conne
in the transverse direction of the beam, but what about in the direction of beam
propagation? Although it may be slightly counterintuitive when considered in
light of radiation pressure we can also observe trapping in this axial direction,
whereby the particle is conned very close to the beam focus, provided the
gradient force is larger than the radiation pressure force. This z-trapping condition
is achieved practically using high numerical aperture optics (the majority of
experiments make use of oil immersion microscope objectives with NAsO1). The
technique developed by Ashkin et al. (1986) in which a particle is conned in this
manner, by a single laser beam, is known as optical tweezers and celebrates its
twentieth birthday in 2006. The background, state of the art and future outlook in
the general area of optical manipulation are the subject of this review.
laser
(a) (b)
laser
trapping
plane
resulting force
Figure 1. (a) The basic optical tweezers principle: take a laser source and focus it through a high
numerical aperture microscope objective. (b) The beam paths through a dielectric sphere. The
thicker line indicates a higher incident beam intensity. The imbalance in intensity between the
inside and the outside of the beam means that the applied force on the bead must act towards
the higher intensity part of the beam. This illustrates howa particle is conned in the transverse plane
of the beam. z-trapping is not shown but works in a similar manner to the transverse trapping.
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2. A brief history of optical forces
After the very early pioneering work, interest in optical forces would largely die
away until the development of the laser during the 1960s. Arthur Ashkin,
working at Bell Labs, pioneered study in this area and produced a stream of
remarkable work that laid the foundations for the eld. Indeed, one could argue
that the majority of work in many areas of optical manipulation is really only
incremental in terms of the work carried out by Ashkin and colleagues. He
initially focused on the radiation pressure of light. He demonstrated the ability of
light to guide particles (Ashkin 1970), to levitate particles (radiation
pressuregravity traps; Ashkin & Dziedzic 1971), to conne particles in dual-
beam radiation pressure traps (Ashkin & Dziedzic 1985), the levitation of
airborne droplets (Ashkin & Dziedzic 1975), connement in vacuum (Ashkin &
Dziedzic 1976) and precision trapping via feedback (Ashkin & Dziedzic 1977a).
Many of these techniques fell away from what the mainstream optical trapping
community were actively working on but are now seeing a resurgence in interest.
My own group, for example, works on optical levitation and guiding and is
implementing dual-beam trapping methods, all primarily to trap airborne
particles (which will be discussed below). Other notable work making use of
radiation included the observation of whispering gallery modes in levitated
droplets by Ashkin & Dzeidzic (1977b); such cavity resonance (the droplet acts
as a microscopic optical cavity) can be used to experimentally verify Mie theory
and size droplets very accurately.
Up until the demonstration of the single-beam trap, much of the work on
optical forces had been pushing the drive towards laser cooling of atoms (e.g. Chu
et al. 1985) and Ashkins work tted in as physics of the highest rankhe
achieved just about everything one could imagine doing with radiation pressure
over the course of a decade, but without a denitive focus. Also the availability of
laser sources at the time may have limited work in this area by the wider
community. In contrast, the optical tweezers technique would open up new areas
of study in a short period of time.
The paper Observation of a single-beam gradient force optical trap for
dielectric particles (Ashkin et al. 1986) is a classic. Not only does it discuss a
wholly new technique, but also it outlines exactly how the eld would pan out
over the next two decades.
They also open a new size regime to optical trapping encompassing macromolecules,
colloids, small aerosols, and possibly biological particles. The results are of relevance to
proposals for the trapping and cooling of atoms by resonance radiation pressure.
(Ashkin et al. 1986)
And this is exactly what people would continue to work on. The paper also
holds a few surprises. Not only are large Mie particles trapped (10 mm diameter)
but also small Rayleigh particles, indeed evidence is presented demonstrating
the trapping of 25 nm diameter silica beads, which still presents a real
experimental challenge today and is of relevance for the developing
nanotechnology eld. The paper also outlines the drag and drop technique
for measuring the forces involved on holding particles, a quick and dirty method
that is used in many laboratories today.
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3. Techniques
The specic function of optical tweezers is to allow the non-invasive
manipulation of single particles (or in more advanced set-ups many single
particles simultaneously) and to carry out some kind of study on that particle.
Over the past 20 years, the science enabled by optical tweezers has concentrated
on the measurement of position and forces to incredible precision, primarily on
force-producing molecules in biology, but also in colloid interactions studies and
hydrodynamics. They have also allowed the controlled study of the properties of
light beams and enabled single particle spectroscopy in a controlled manner. New
variations on the original single-beam trap continue to develop, opening up new
studies and allowing us to underpin our work with a better understanding of the
science behind the interaction of light with matter. So how do these basic
techniques work?
One of the most powerful things about optical tweezers systems is their
simplicity. A functional optical tweezers that is used to carry out publication
quality research can be constructed from a laser, a couple of telescopes, a few
mirrors, a microscope objective and some imaging optics with a camera. This has
allowed the proliferation of the technique and its introduction into undergraduate
teaching labs worldwide. Indeed, a summer student in my group recently
developed a portable compact optical tweezers system which consisted of a low-
power laser diode, a dichroic mirror, an aspheric lens (instead of a microscope
objective) and a battery powered wireless camera and high brightness LED
(for imaging). The whole system is mounted on a post and is portable in the sense
that it can be lifted in one hand and moved from place to place (and still work).
A schematic for a simple optical tweezers set-up is shown in gure 2.
camera
laser
beam steering
mirror
telescope
lenses form
image relay
microscope
objective
sample cell
incoherent
illumination
sample
stage
Figure 2. A basic optical tweezers system. The beam is expanded to the desired size by the rst
telescope. The second telescope aids in beam alignment and beam steering. This expanded beam
passes through a microscope objective into the sample. Such a system is very simple to design and
build, and this simplicity is one of the optical tweezers great selling points.
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At present, one of my primary research interests is the use of holographically
generated light elds for the manipulation of particles and atoms. This is one of
the newer methods for the trapping and manipulation of multiple particles.
These fall into three broad areas: simple beam combination techniques, scanning
techniques and holographic techniques.
The beamcombinationtechniques are best summarizedbythe workof Fallman&
Axner (1997), in which a laser is split into two separate beams. With careful
optical design, these can be combined and independently controlled in the focal
plane of the microscope objective. Thus, a dual-beam optical tweezers is formed,
and this type of system forms the workhorse for much of the force measurement
research that currently takes place. Scanning techniques generally make use of
acousto-optic deectors (AODs) which can scan a beam from point to point at
kilohertz rates. This is a very powerful and exible technique (one of the most
impressive demonstrations is that of micro-Tetris by Christoph Schmidts group at
Vrije University (http://www.nat.vu.nl/compl/index-en.html)), which works by
time-sharing the light between trapping sites. So long as the beam returns to the
trapped particle before it diffuses away, then the particle will remain trapped. This
type of effect can be partially extended into three dimensions by some clever optics,
and has been demonstrated by Alfons van Blaaderens group (Vossen et al. 2004).
To achieve true three-dimensional control of multiple trap sites, one must move
to holographic techniques. A hologram is able to control the phase of a light beam,
which tells howthe beamwill propagate. So if one wishes to have a laser beamturn
into a picture of the Royal Society crest a hologramwhich encodes the phase of the
crest pattern must be generated. Then by reecting our normal laser beam off the
hologram, we can transformthat beaminto the desired pattern. The holograms can
be generated by the use of well-established algorithms. For complex holograms
(designs other than simple arrays of spots), we make use of iterative algorithms
designed to solve the inverse problem. The concept is illustrated in gure 3.
Such work was pioneered by Fournier et al. (1995), who made use of static
glass holograms to produce beams with multiple trapping sites. Follow-up work
to this was done by David Griers group (then in Chicago, now at NYU) who
studied the use of glass-etched holograms for examining the dynamics of colloidal
particles in these extended light elds. This work would form the basis for later
optical sorting techniques. The next step beyond the fabricated techniques was
to use dynamically alterable devices, spatial light modulators. The pioneers in
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3. Producing a hologram from an intensity pattern. To recreate an intensity image using a
hologram, we rst need to compute the desired phase of that object. This is done by taking the
desired image ((a) the Royal Society logo) and feeding it through a computer algorithm, in this
case an iterative adaptive algorithm. The computer can compute the hologram (b) and what it
predicts the image will look like when replayed by the illuminating laser beam (c).
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this area were Tizanis group at the University of Stuttgart, who outlined how
computer controlled holograms (Reicherter et al. 1999; Liesener et al. 2000) could
be used to generate trapping patterns that could be iterated in real time and
allowed full three-dimensional control over the particles. This work was quickly
built upon by the Grier group in the paper Dynamic holographic optical
tweezers (Curtis et al. 2002), and is now regarded by many as the foundation on
which the growing body of work in this area is based. The 2002 paper outlined
how iterative algorithms could be used to implement complicated trapping
arrays and extended the work of Tiziani from a few to hundreds of trap sites.
Although it is not the rst paper in the eld it did seem to energize the
community about this new technique. The advantages of using dynamic
holographic optical tweezers are that they offer full control over the spatial
localization of a trapped particle. This means that each particle can be moved
independently in three dimensions. Further, the use of holograms offers the
potential to correct for optical aberrations in the system (Wulff et al. 2006) as
well as offering a user-friendly experimental experience (if one hologram is wrong,
then it is a simple matter to change it to a better one). The disadvantages of this
technique tend to lie in the speed of the devices, their efciency and image
delity. The issue of speed is one that can easily be seen by trying to recreate the
beam scanning technique of an AOD by a spatial light modulator (SLM). The
parameters for each manufactures SLM are slightly different, but we carried out
a time-sharing experiment with a phase modulating Boulder nonlinear systems
device (Melville et al. 2003), which should have been able to run at above video
frame rates (compared with kilohertz rates for an AOD) and found that in
practice, for trapping experiments, it was limited to around 10 Hz. This was
enough to trap six particles via time sharing but shows that the SLM is not
optimized for rapid dynamic tasks. In the experiment to demonstrate this, we
also showed some of the power of the SLM, in that the particles trapped were all
trapped on different z-planes, spaced approximately 1 mm apart, a trick that
cannot be done with an AOD. Of course, one can just make a hologram to trap
the six particles simultaneously rather than by time sharing. The dynamics of the
SLM have not really been an issue in experiments to date and for those
experiments that do require speed, such as atom trapping (McGloin et al. 2003),
different types of spatial light modulators with much lower efciency can be used,
whereby kilohertz rates can be achieved (Boyer et al. 2004, 2005).
To date, much of the work on the SLMs has concentrated on device
characterization and novel colloidal studies, with some work in the biosciences, as
well as onmore general beamshapingtechniques. Todate, twoof themainplayers are
the Grier group at NYUand Miles Padgetts groupin Glasgow. The NewYork group
has focused on colloidal manipulation, beam shaping and algorithm improvements.
The power of SLMs in beam shaping techniques was shown in the study of optical
vortices (optical singularities; Curtis &Grier 2003a,b) in which optical vortex beams
could be created very simply in real time. They could be modulated with ease to alter
the shape, while still retaining the orbital angular momentum associated with such
beams. The experiments described by Curtis &Grier (2003a) are simple to try using
dynamic techniques, but would require signicant fabrication effort to be done
ofine. Such vortices have also been used to study hydrodynamic coupling between
colloidal particles (Ladavac & Grier 2005) and develop microuidics pumps
(Ladavac & Grier 2004). Other colloidal work has made used of dynamically
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evolving light patterns to mimic peristaltic pumps, whereby temporally evolving
light patterns can be used to transport particles in the absence of ow. Such
techniques canalsobeusedtoachieve andstudythermal ratchets (Lee &Grier 2005a,
2006; Lee et al. 2005) including the observationof uxreversal, whereby particles can
be made to move in the opposite direction to the direction of the optical pattern. My
own group has been working on similar mechanisms using static patterns. We have
examined how particles move in Bessel beams, which show directed transport of
particles owing to the intensity imbalance between the outside and the inside of the
beam (Milne et al. 2005; Paterson et al. 2005). This technique can be used to sort
particles, including red and white blood cells in the absence of ow. The sorting is
relatively slow, but may nd niche application areas.
Other notable work by the New York group in this area has been the
demonstration of dual wavelength holographic optical tweezers (Lee & Grier
2005b), a technique that is likely to be of interest for future optical tweezers
spectroscopic tools, the push of optical tweezers as nanotools for the manipulation
of both carbon nanotubes (Plewa et al. 2004) and semiconductor nanowires
(Agarwal et al. 2005), and the assembly of quasicrystals (Roichman &Grier 2005).
The other main group working on holographic traps is based at the University
of Glasgow, which is the home of the signature experiment in this area. Akin to
the Tetris experiment using AODs, the Smallest strip the willow in the world
(Willow) demonstrates the power of the SLM technique (and is beautifully put to
music to boot). The Glasgow work has focused on complicated beam shaping,
and the creation and controlled rotation of three-dimensional crystals (Bingelyte
et al. 2003; Jordan et al. 2004; Leach et al. 2004a; Sinclair et al. 2004a), three-
dimensional beam propagation algorithms (Sinclair et al. 2004b; Whyte &
Courtial 2005) as well as the structure of light beams (Leach et al. 2004b). They
have also looked at limiting values in holographic traps and aberration correction
(Sinclair et al. 2004c) and are now exploring applications in microuidics,
including using holographic tweezers and video microscopy to map out uid ow
in microchannels and around rotating microobjects (Di Leonardo et al. 2006).
Another recent rst for holographic tweezers includes the Raman imaging of
cells (Creely et al. 2005), in which a cell is manipulated by an array of spots and
scanning through the probing Raman beam. For people interested in single particle
spectroscopy, optical manipulation seems to offer much: the particle of interest is
localized and static and therefore is easy to probe. There has been increasing work
in this area, with Raman spectroscopy being a popular choice among researchers.
Thurn & Kiefer (1984) carried out work on Raman spectroscopy of levitated
droplets, while Biswas et al. (1989) looked at stimulated Raman scattering (SRS)
and this work built on Ashkin & Dziedzics (1977b) whispering gallery mode work.
Direct Raman spectroscopy on a trapped particle was shown by Ajito &Torimitsu
(2001) on droplets in solution and on polystyrene beads.
The use of holographic tweezers in cellular microscopy (Emiliani et al. 2005)
has also been recently shown, demonstrating how the technique may be used in
biology to measure forces, generate forces (Emiliani et al. 2004) or to locally
probe different parts of a cell simultaneously by trapping an array of particles
and moulding them around the cell.
The use of holograms in optical trapping is not limited to the use of spatial light
modulators. One of the most signicant papers in recent years in the eld was the
demonstration of particle sorting using an optical lattice (MacDonald et al. 2003).
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Here, a simple-etched hologram was used to create a ve-beam interference
pattern which was projected into a sample. As particles ow through the three-
dimensional optical structure, they are separated. The separation is due to the
different interaction with the light that particles with different polarizabilities
have. It is also dependent on the connectivity of the lattices sites, with some light
leakage between sites offering the best sorting. The sorting mechanism is due to
the interplay between the Brownian motion of the particles, the optical forces and
the ow-induced forces. By tailoring the relative phases and intensities of the
interfering beams a sophisticated sorting sieve can be created. Such work has also
been demonstrated in a slightly simpler set-up using a single line of the SLM-
generated traps (Ladavac et al. 2004a). As optical sorting is passive, particles are
sorted by their inherent properties and do not necessarily require labelling.
Therefore, the goal would be to separate cell types, such as red and white blood
cells, or cancerous and non-cancerous cells merely due to the fact that they
interact with the light in slightly different ways. Work towards these goals is
underway, but robust and reliable methods of routinely sorting cells, as opposed to
non-biological colloidal particles, are still some way off.
Another developing technique for the manipulation of large numbers of
particles is evanescent eld manipulation (gure 4). This work, pioneered by
Kawata (Kawata & Sugiura 1992), has seen a resurgence of late (Garce s-Cha vez
et al. 2005; Quidant et al. 2005) and recent work has demonstrated optically
bound arrays in evanescent elds (Mellor & Bain 2006) and also large area
manipulation using surface plasmon eld enhancement (Garce s-Cha vez et al.
2006). While this type of manipulation may have applications in colloidal
crystallization studies, it is not yet evident if it offers any signicant advantages
over existing techniques. Further the issue of the control of individual particles
within the evanescent eld has yet to be seriously addressed, but it does show
promise as the areas over which particles can be manipulated are signicantly
larger than the microscope-based techniques.
The nal technique to discuss is one of the most widely used in optical
manipulation, the ability to detect very small position changes and the ability to
sense and apply forces in the piconewton range. These techniques rely on the fact
that a simple beam optical tweezers is a harmonic trap and any particle trapped
CCD
CM
IL
BS
RL
l
a
s
e
r
prism
mirror
L
2
n
2
I(h)
n
1
L
1
MO
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 4. (a) Experimental conguration for large area evanescent manipulation. The inset shows the
beam geometry at the interface of the prism and the sample. (b) Field intensity of a ve-beam
interference pattern used to trap particles in (c). Reprinted with permission from V. Garce `s-Chavez.
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in it can be considered a damped harmonic oscillator. This information allows us
to calibrate the trap to work out the spring constant and using this information
allows us to sense the position of a trap particle or work out the force being
applied to the particle. The primary uses of this technique are in the studies
of biological organisms, and in particular, the work on molecular motors
(Neuman & Block 2004). In the past year or so, Steven Blocks group at Stanford
have developed their already world-leading studies in this area to push the
position sensing capabilities of optical traps to angstrom precision (quite
remarkable when you consider the diffraction limited resolution of the trap
itself). They were able to observe the base pair stepping of RNA polymerase,
showing that the steps averaged around 3.7 A

(Abbondanzieri et al. 2005;

Greenleaf et al. 2005). Another landmark experiment in this eld was also carried
out last year (Rohrbach 2005) in which an optical tweezers was used to measure
a controlled 25 fN force on a 533 nm latex sphere. The suggestion is that this is
the smallest switchable force ever measured and illustrates the power of optical
tweezers in this arena. To put this in context, the thermal forces on such a
particle are likely to be in the piconewton regime and the Sun exerts around
20 fN on a 75 mm diameter dust particle oating in the atmosphere. These two
results (position and force sensitivities) push the techniques into new realms that
will allow us to explore ever more sensitive parameters and is likely to enable
optical tweezers to get more of a handle on the nanoworld.
(a ) Optical manipulation derivatives
Recent work by Ming Wus group at Berkeley (Chiou et al. 2005) has
demonstrated a convergence of two types of manipulation to offer a tantalising
vision of the future of optical manipulation. The concept is essentially an extension
of the trapping technique known as dielectrophoresis (DEP) in which electric elds
are used instead of optical elds to trap (or repel) particles. Conventional DEP
makes use of patterned electrodes to allow localization of the electric eld to
enable trapping. As such it is a xed architecture technique requiring complicated
patterning to enable more arbitrary functionality. The beauty of the new light-
induced dielectrophoresis (LIDEP) is that a large area electrode can be patterned
by a light eld, by either scanning a pattern on the electrode or a mask (such as a
hologram) to project a static pattern, and the optical power level required to
create an electric trap can be extremely low (microwatts) compared with optical
tweezers. The power of the technique lies in combining the large area effect of DEP
with the precision and recongurability of optics. This new technique has made
many in the optical trapping community to sit up and take notetraditionally,
the optical and dielectrophoretic communities work in isolation. Work in the
Optical Trapping Group in St Andrews has recently produced a proof of concept
LIDEP device with the ultimate goal of producing a large area, high throughput
sorting device (S. N. Neale 2005, personal communication).
4. Recent work
At present, one of my research focuses is the manipulation and interrogation of
droplets. Some of the application of this work is inspired by our collaborators,
the group of Jonathan Reid, in the Chemistry Department at Bristol University.
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The focus is on the manipulation of droplets with a view to studying their size,
composition and dynamics (gas uptake studies, particle coagulation, etc.), in
atmospheric chemistry. Our work concentrates on areas, such as guiding of
droplets over large distances using radiation pressure, designing new techniques
to trap and probe droplets enabling the manipulation of many droplets
simultaneously to try and create optically driven digital microuidic chemical
microreactors.
We have recently been working on the optical guiding of aerosol droplets
(Summers et al. 2006). Typical work on the optical spectroscopy of single
droplets relies on the probing of freely falling droplets. Therefore, single droplet
manipulation techniques have great utility in allowing more accurate and longer
time-scale studies. Optical tweezers is one method of achieving single droplet
localization. However, for some studies, it would be useful to drive a droplet (or
other airborne particle) through a number of spectroscopic beams (say, doing a
uorescence measurement followed by a Raman measurement) in a controlled
fashion; we have been investigating ways to do this optically (gure 5). The
simplest method is to take a Gaussian beam and levitate a particle against
gravity. One can then alter the power in the beam and adjust the equilibrium
position to adjust the height of the particle. Using this method, we can guide
droplets (of water, ethanol and dodecane) over several hundred micrometres.
However, a higher guiding distance is desired to give appropriate spatial
separation between our multiple probe beams and so we make use of the non-
diffracting properties of the Bessel beam. The Bessel beam has a long, thin core
which does not spread in the same way as a focused Gaussian beam of similar
dimension. As such we can use it to controllably guide droplets over much longer
distances, of around 4 mm.
Trapping airborne particles is inherently more difcult than trapping particles
in a suspending medium such as water. This is due to the reduced damping offered
by the medium, and so one cannot simply go and pick up the particle one desires as
Figure 5. Optical levitation of dodecane droplets. We are able to stably trap arrays of droplets
(in this case six) using a Bessel beam. We believe the arrays are optically bound, that is the
position of the droplet above the one below is determined not only by the levitating beam but also
by the interaction of the light with the lower droplet.
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in conventional uid sample optical tweezers, rather we must wait until a particle
falls into the trap and then make a decision as to whether it is the one we want.
This is one reason why airborne trapping has received far less attention than
trapping in the underdamped regime to date, despite much of Ashkins early work
being devoted to levitating droplets. The focus for early airborne work up until a
few years ago was optical levitation, often combined with Raman spectroscopy
(Thurn & Kiefer 1984; Biswas et al. 1989). Omori et al. (1997) appear to have been
the rst group to directly optically trap (as opposed to levitate) an airborne
particle, in this case glass beads. Magome et al. (2003) achieved the same result
with liquid droplets. Reids group along with Andrew Ward at the Rutherford
Appleton Laboratory (RAL) followed up this experiment with work trapping two
droplets in a dual-beam trap (Hopkins et al. 2004) and presented the rst
demonstration of optically controlled coagulation of aerosols. Using the same
system around the same time (at RAL), Martin King examined how single
seawater and oleic acid droplets reacted with ozone (King et al. 2004). Both of
these recent papers indicate the potential power of optical trapping techniques to
elucidate mechanisms in atmospheric science.
Reids work demonstrated the utility of using cavity-enhanced Raman
scattering in sizing droplets (to within G2 nm, limited by measurement
resolution) and also outlined how tweezers may be used to study droplet
dynamics by examining what happens during coagulation (gure 6a). We have
recently demonstrated the use of holographic optical tweezers to trap multiple
aerosol droplets (Burnham & McGloin 2006; gure 6b,c) with the intention to
explore similar ideas with increasing numbers of particles. We have also shown
that the refresh rate of the SLM does not seem to be a limiting factor to observe
the real-time manipulation of droplets and this has allowed us to demonstrate the
controlled coagulation of water droplets. We have also tentatively demonstrated
the ability of optical tweezers to rotate droplets (via orbital angular momentum)
and we believe that this may allow us to create micromixers for airborne
chemical reactors and microuidic devices.
605
(a)
615
r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

i
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
/
a
r
b
i
t
r
a
r
y

u
n
i
t
s
625 635
wavelength (nm)
(b) (c)
Figure 6. (a) Droplet coagulation and associated Raman spectra. The sharp spectral peaks are due
to the cavity enhancement provided by the droplets. The uppermost spectra are for the droplet on
the right, the middle spectra are the combined signal for both drops and the lower signal for the
coagulated drop. The combined volume calculated from the spectra is 3.905!10
K16
m
3
, while the
coagulated volume is calculated as 3.902!10
K16
m
3
. (b) Array of six droplets held by holographic
optical tweezers. (c) Array of four droplets in a Y conguration held by holographic tweezers.
(Reproduced by permission from the PCCP Owner Societies.)
3531 Optical tweezers: 20 years on
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5. Future outlook
So where to now? Optical manipulation research has not been shy about
jumping on bandwagons and the push towards nanotech and biotech and by
implication microuidics are probably where the application-driven focus of the
work will take place. Integration of optical manipulation systems into lab-on-a-
chip type microow devices is an active area of research in my group if
advanced devices of this type are economically viable, scalable and practical at
whichever coal face one is interested in working (GPs surgery, medical labs,
industrial labs, academic labs, etc.) and that this area is certainly worth
exploiting to the full. Integration of optical sorting (which has yet to really
prove itself in the biological arena beyond limited proof of concept experiments)
and single particle spectroscopy techniques are also worth pursuing provided
they can provide adequate throughputs and offer real advantages over existing
techniques. Recent, unpublished, work at St Andrews suggests AOD sorting
methods may be where the future of the technique lies. It is likely that they
will nd niche areas rather than replacing conventional proven techniques, such
as FACS.
The advanced use of techniques, such as holographic tweezers is still in its
infancy, while some interesting experiments have been carried out the real proof of
the pudding is still to be shown. I am condent that this method will make a
scientic impact, but it may only be in speeding up or making more convenient
existing experimental systems. The application areas that look worth exploiting
again lie in microuidics, in novel force-sensing techniques in biology and colloidal
interactions.
Near eld methods appear to be an exciting option to try and move optical
manipulation properly into the nano-regime. If people are serious about using
optical tweezers to move truly nanoscale objects, then this is the way forward to
overcome the diffraction limit problem. Work has already begun and is likely to
prove a very fruitful avenue of research over the coming decade or so.
Both near eld and holographic techniques offer the possibility of
manipulating large numbers of particles simultaneously. This may allow
information about large-scale colloidal dynamics but I have doubts that this
will prove any better than existing techniques. In the case of large-scale
manipulation by surface evanescent elds, this is mainly due to the fact that the
optical forces induce troublesome thermal forces, but there remains plenty of
mileage left in this eld. The use of holographic elds is probably limited by the
fact that they are used directly in optical tweezers (using high NA objectives)
and as such have a limited eld of view which represents a limited number of
trapped particles. However, for smaller scale studies, these may be a good option.
Some of the pioneering experiments that have recently been reported making
angstrom scale position measurement and femtonewton force measurements are
just jaw dropping. The implications are for ever more precise measurements on
biological motors and other single molecular systems.
To conclude, this has been a brief dash over the eld of optical manipulation,
which celebrates its twentieth birthday in 2006. The future for the area looks
bright as this active research area matures into a set of well-dened tools, and
there is no reason to think that another 20 years of active research are not about
to begin.
D. McGloin 3532
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I would like to acknowledge the Royal Society for their support as well as the RSC, NERC and
EPSRC for funding some of the work mentioned above. The members of the Optical Trapping
Group at St Andrews are also thanked for many stimulating discussions over the past several years.
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AUTHOR PROFILE
David McGloin
David McGloin is a Royal Society University Research Fellow in the School of
Physics and Astronomy at the University of St Andrews. He received an
MSci(Hons) in laser physics and optoelectronics in 1997 from St Andrews
followed by a PhD on electromagnetically induced transparency, also from St
Andrews, in 2000. He left academia after his PhD to work for Dstl at Fort
Halstead on optical imaging techniques before returning to St Andrews as a
postdoc. He worked on the laser manipulation of cold atoms and optical tweezers.
Awarded a URF in 2003 on the topic of tailored optical potentials for particle
and atomic manipulation, he now works on developing manipulation techniques
and applying them in a range of areas from the physical, chemical and biological
sciences. During 2006, he is spending six months in the Chemistry Department at
the University of Washington in Seattle.
3537 Optical tweezers: 20 years on
Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A (2006)
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