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Date : July, 04, 2008

Lecturer : D. S. KIM
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE & GOVERNING STANDARD
TYPES OF RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
COMPONENTS / AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
UNBALANCED FORCES IN RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
CAPACITY CONTROL (LOADING & UNLOADING)
REFERENCE
2
INTRODUCTION
COMPRESSOR :Any machine which uses external energy to
increase the pressure of a gas/ mixture of gases is called a compressor.
Compressors are broadly classified into the following two categories-
Positive Displacement Type
Dynamic Type
Positive Displacement type compressors are those in which
successive volumes of gas are confined within some type of
enclosure (compression chamber) and elevated to a higher
pressure. Eg. Reciprocating compressors, screw
compressors, sliding vane compressors etc.
Dynamic compressors accelerate a continually flowing gas stream and subsequently
convert the velocity head into pressure. Eg.: Centrifugal Compressors, axial flow
compressors, mixed flow compressors etc.
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INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION : Reciprocating compressors are positive
displacement machines with a piston compressing the gas in a
cylinder. As the piston movesforward it compresses the gas into a
smaller space, thus raising its pressure. There are two types of
reciprocating compressors, called "lube" type with oil injectionand
"non lube" as oil-free.
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INTRODUCTION
3
PURPOSE & GOVERNING STANDARD
PURPOSE: For producing pressurized air/gas at required outlet
conditions.
(Generally for high pressure applications with capacity as a
constraint between Centrifugal & Reciprocating compressors).
Governing standards:
API 618 - Specification for Reciprocating compressor.
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TYPES OF RECI. COMPRESSOR
I. Based on the mounting & cylinder arrangement
1. Horizontal
2. Vertical
3. V configuration
4. Y configuration
5. L configuration
6. Radial
7. Balanced opposed
8. Tandem type
II. Based on no. of cylinders in series
1. Single stage
2. Two stage
3. Multi-stage
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TYPES OF RECI. COMPRESSOR
III. Based on no. of cylinders per stage
1. Simplex
2. Duplex
3. Triplex and so on
IV. Based on the Lubrication
1. Lubricated R.C
2. Non-lubricated R.C
V. Based on compression sides
1. Single acting
2. Double acting
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TYPES OF RECI. COMPRESSOR
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Horizontal Vertical L-Type
V-Type
Y-Type
Radial
Single stage
Inlet Outlet
Inlet Outlet
Double stage
Balanced Opposed Tandem arrangement
TYPES OF RECI. COMPRESSOR
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4
3
1
2
P
V
1-2 Adiabatic(Polytropic) compression
2-3 Constant pressure Discharge
3-4 Adiabatic (Polytropic) expansion
4-1 Constant pressure Suction
P-V Diagram :
Single acting
Double acting
Discharge
Suction
Discharge
Suction
Discharge Suction
COMPONENTS
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Sectional View of simple Reciprocating compressor:
COMPONENTS
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Sectional View of simple Reciprocating compressor:
COMPONENTS
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Cylinder:
The Cylinders will be one of the following types
a. Single acting
b. Double acting
c. Tandem single or double acting
d. Fitted with tail rods ( For high pressure services)
The cylinders may be lubricated or non-lubricated, vertical or
horizontal.
In the case of non-lubricated cylinders, a distance piece is inserted
between the cross-head and cylinder to ensure the part of the
piston rod adjacent to the cross head (which is lubricated) does
not enter the non-lubricated cylinder packing.
The distance piece is often fitted with a wiper ring and may have one
or more compartments which are pressurized or purged with
inert gas and vented if the compressor is used on toxic gas service.
COMPONENTS
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Cylinder:
Cylinders may be fitted with air cooling fins, but are usually water
cooled. In the case of cryogenic service, the water passages are
often filled with a static supply of anti-freeze supplied from a
header tank, with the objective of minimizing temperature
gradients within the cylinder casting.
Cylinders are sometimes fitted with replaceable liners, either of wet
or dry type. The material is invariably cast iron or steel
depending on the application, but Ni-Resist is sometimes used on
non-lubricated service. The bore of the cylinder is honed with
PTFE when this material is used for the piston rings. Cylinders
for oxygen service are sometimes immersed in water tanks to
maintain a low working temperature.
Cylinders head can be fitted with clearance pockets to increase the
cylinder clearance and thus reduce the volume flow through the
cylinder. The pockets can be of fixed OR variable volume and
operated manually or pneumatically.
COMPONENTS
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Typical views of reciprocating compressors:
Fig: Cylinder with wet liner
Fig: Non-lubricated cylinder
COMPONENTS
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Typical views of reciprocating compressors:
Fig: Double acting Cylinder
Fig: Piston with tail rod
COMPONENTS
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Typical views of reciprocating compressors:
Fig: Balanced opposed (lubricated) cylinder arrangement
COMPONENTS
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Typical views of reciprocating compressors:
Fig: Balanced opposed (Oil free) cylinder arrangement
COMPONENTS
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Typical views for cylinder cooling:
Fig: Valves on cylinder head & tail ends
Fig: Valves on sides of cylinder walls
COMPONENTS
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Valves:
Compressors usually have automatic valves which operate when a
set set pressure differential exists across the valve. To function
properly a valve must seat uniformly and tightly against its seat,
yet must not have snap-action on opening or closing. Until
pressure builds up to the discharge point the valve must remain
closed, open at discharge pressure, and then reset as the pressure
in the cylinder drops below the discharge value. The same type of
action is required for the suction valves.
Valves must be made of fatigue resistant carbon or alloy steel or
stainless steel, depending upon the service. The stainless steel &
carbon steel is often used for corrosive and/or high temperature
service. Any springs, as in the plate type valves, are either carbon
or nickel steel.
Valves passages must be smooth, streamlined and as large as
possible. Cylinder efficiency depends to a certain extent upon the
proper selection and sizing of the valves. Valves must be
adequately cooled, so provision is usually made for water jackets
immediately adjacent to the valves, particularly the discharge
valves.
COMPONENTS
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Valves:
Valve lift should be kept to a minimum to prolong valve life, but this
will of course reduce the flow area and increase the gas velocity
and subsequently the losses through the valve. Suction valves are
often fitted with un-loaders to facilitate compressor starting.
These can take the form of a fork actuated either manually or
pneumatically to hold the valve off its seat.
Common causes of sudden valve failure are due to compression of
wet or dirty gas, and the formation of condensate within the
cylinder. Solid or liquid particles settling on the valve seat can
cause failure of the plate at that point. Delivery valves should
therefore be located at the bottom of the cylinder to prevent
accumulation of solids or condensate.
In lubricated cylinder service the design of valve pockets should be
such that oil cannot collect in the pocket. Compressor discharge
temperatures are often above the flash point of the oil used and
fire explosion can occur as results of carbon or oil accumulation
in the vicinity of the valves. Suction and delivery valve assemblies
should be designed to ensure they cannot be interchanged during
assembly.
COMPONENTS
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Types of Valves:
1. Feather type valves
2. Plate type valves
3. Channel type valves
4. Ring channel valves, etc
The valves may be channel or reed type, but are usually concentric
circular plates or ported plate type.
The operations of concentric circular plates are assisted by helical
springs bearing on the plate and a dampener plate may be located
over the valve plate to reduce flutter. Adjacent concentric plates
tend to open out of phase in relation to each other and an
alternative ported plate design with an integral central leaf spring
gives better performance. The ported plate type can also have a
dampener plate and helical springs located around the plate edge.
COMPONENTS
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Fig: Valves & valves details
Plate type valves
Ring channel valves
Channel type valves
COMPONENTS
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Fig: Valves & details
COMPONENTS
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Piston, Piston rod & Packing:
Pistons are usually manufactured from cast iron or aluminium in order
to balance the masses on successive throws of the crankshaft. Large
diameter pistons are often produced in segments bolted together.
Single acting pistons are sometimes fitted with cooling fins cast
under the crown. First stage large diameter pistons are often of
welded construction.
Piston rings are normally manufactured from cast iron for lubricated
cylinders, but in non-lubricated cylinders, they are either carbon or
PTFE. Solid carbon rings are used with segmented pistons, but
segmented carbon rings are a common alternative. Carbon relies on
moisture for its strength and should therefore not be used on very
dry gas service.
PTFE has a lower permissible operating temperature than carbon
(about 180C). Above this temperature the wear rate increases
rapidly. Split PTFE rings are flexible and easily assembled over solid
COMPONENTS
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Piston, Piston rod & Packing:
pistons, however, because of their flexibility, a steel garter spring ring
is sometimes inserted behind the sealing ring. Solid PTFE bearer
rings are usually located centrally on the piston to transmit the
weight of the piston on to the lower cylinder wall. Running
clearances are a function of operating and wall temperatures. When
checking the cylinder design ensures that the pressure rings do not
span the valve pockets as this causes distortion and uneven wear of
the rings, leading to premature failure.
Labyrinth pistons do not touch the cylinder wall at any point. The
piston rod is carried on a piston guide which runs on lubricated pads
above the cross-head. The piston sides are machined with
circumferential grooves and there is no contact with the cylinder
walls. Leakage is greater with labyrinth pistons than with pressure
rings, but by increasing the piston length the loss can be reduced to
an acceptable amount. Labyrinth pistons are particularly suitable
for oxygen and clean gas service.
COMPONENTS
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Piston Cylinder
Labyrinth piston
COMPONENTS
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Piston, Piston rod & Packing:
A compromise between the labyrinth and self-lubricating ring design is
the captive ring and piston. This arrangement is fitted with PTFE
rings and a piston guide. The inner edge of the ring is retained by a
flange. After an initial wear period, no contact exists between the
rings and cylinder. Clearances are smaller than can be
accomplished with the labyrinth design and momentary contact is
harmless.
The piston rod, where it enters the cylinder, is sealed by spring loaded
segmented sealing rings. These are PTFE or carbon in non-
lubricated machines, but can be metallic in lubricated cylinders.
The packing box is sometimes water-cooled and can be vented at
some point along its length. Purging with inert gas or high-pressure
gas is used for special applications. The pressure seal between the
cylinder pressure and the crank case or atmosphere is maintained by
a packing gland.
COMPONENTS
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Pulsation dampers:
Pulsations generated by reciprocating pistons cause vibration and
pulsations in the gas lines on both inlet and outlet sides of the
compressor. These have an adverse effect on the valves and on any
measuring instruments fitted to the gas lines, and cause vibration in
the piping and support structures. These effects can be reduced by
fitting a large volume bottle or vessel as close to the cylinder as
possible. Pulsations can thus be reduced to 2% of the line pressure.
In large installations, it is necessary to conduct a study of the piping
in the vicinity of the compressor to ensure that harmful vibrations or
pulsations do not exists. This study is conducted by an analog
computer programmed to produce a model of the piping and
indicate where pulsations might occur. The study should be
performed at all expected part load flow rates.
AUXILIARY SYSTEM
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Auxiliary Systems
1. Filters
2. Coolers
3. Drivers
4. Piping, instrumentation & controls
Filters:
Filters will be used to avoid entering of dust particles, moisture etc into
the compressor cylinder, in order to get better efficiency and to meet
the system output requirements. Depending upon the moisture
content of the fluid, separators are provided before some
compression stages to ensure that no moisture is entrained in the gas
flow to the cylinders.
Coolers:
Where the overall compression ratio is so high that the discharge gas
temperature is unacceptable, it is necessary to effect the compression
in stages. Delivery from the first stage is cooled to somewhere near
the initial suction temperature before passing to the next stage.
Inter-coolers can be mounted directly on the cylinders, along with
any necessary pulsation bottles and separators.
AUXILIARY SYSTEM
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Drivers:
Drivers for Reciprocating compressors are
O Electric motors
O Diesel engines or Gas engines
O Turbines
The driver may be connected to reciprocating compressors by means of
C Coupling
CRigid
CFlexible
C Constant or Variable speed arrangement
C Belt
C Gear box
C Fluid coupling, etc.
AUXILIARY SYSTEM
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Fluid (Hydraulic) Coupling:
The fluid or hydraulic coupling is a device used for transmitting power
from driving shaft to driven shaft with the help of fluid. There is no
mechanical connection between the two shafts. It consists of a radial
pump impeller mounted on a driving shaft and a radial flow reaction
turbine mounted on the driven shaft. Both the impeller and runner
are identical in shape and they together form a casing which is
completely enclosed and filled with oil.
In the beginning, both the shafts are at rest. When the driving shaft
rotates, the oil starts moving from the inner radius to the outer
radius of the pump impeller . The pressure and kinetic energy of the
oil increases at the outer radius of the pump impeller. This oil of
increased energy enters the runner of the reaction turbine at the
outer radius of the turbine runner and flows inwardly to the inner
radius of the turbine runner. The oil, while flowing through the
runner, transfers its energy to the blades of the runner and makes
the runner to rotate. The oil from the runner then flows back into
the pump impeller, thus having a continuous circulation.
AUXILIARY SYSTEM
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Fluid (Hydraulic) Coupling:
In usual practice the speed of the driven shaft will be 2% less than the speed
of the driver shaft.
Efficiency of the hydraulic coupling:
input Power
output Power
Efficiency =
UNBALABCED FORCES
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Unbalanced forces in Reciprocating Compressors:
In a single cylinder, single crank arrangement, the primary forces set
up by the out-of-balance weight of the piston can be reduced to
half the maximum value by placing a counter weight on the crank
throws, though the secondary force, having twice the frequency of
the primary force, will remain unbalanced.
With a two crank vertical arrangement the primary forces are
balanced, but the secondary forces are twice those produced in a
single crank machine and cannot be economically balanced. With
this arrangement, a primary couple, due to the distance between
piston centerlines (d) and equal to half the primary force
multiplied by the distance (d), if the machine is fitted with
counterweights, then is also present.
Two cylinder horizontally opposed arrangements have no out-of-
balance forces or couples and are preferred where space permits.
V and L cylinder arrangements have balanced primary forces,
but the secondary forces are not balanced.
CAPACITY CONTROL
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Capacity control (Loading & Unloading) in Reciprocating Compressor:
Types:
O Variable speed
O Suction throttling
O Bypass control
O Receiver pressure Start/Stop method
O Adjusting (Screwing) the piston rod further into or out of the cross
head, for some single acting units
O Suction valve un-loaders
O Clearance pocket un-loaders
CFixed clearance pocket
CVariable clearance pocket
O Combination of Suction valve & Clearance pocket un-loaders
CAPACITY CONTROL
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O Variable speed
Capacity control can be achieved with the help of Variable speed
drives like variable speed motors, Hydraulic converter, etc.
O Suction throttling
Capacity control can be achieved by throttling the flow in the suction
line.
O Bypass control
With the help of bypassing the amount of air (which is not exactly
required or which is a excess of flow at that particular operating
point) back to the suction line capacity control can be obtained, but
the bypassing air needs to be cooled before passing into the suction
line.
CAPACITY CONTROL
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O Receiver pressure Start/Stop method
In this method the compressor will be loaded OR unloaded
depending on the receiver pressure control switches. But the
compressor will be subjected to frequent start & stop.
O By Adjusting (Screwing) the piston rod further into or out of the cross
head (only in case of single acting units) capacity control can be
achieved.
O Suction valve un-loaders
In this method when compressor un-loading is required then the
suction valve will be kept open for complete cycle, that means with in
the cylinder there will not be any compression. What ever the air its
sucks into the cylinder will be discharged through the suction valve
without compressing it to a higher valve. In this type depending on
the cylinder arrangement capacity can be control in steps of
CAPACITY CONTROL
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a) 0%, 100% (for single stage)
b) 0%, 50% & 100%. ( for double acting )
c) 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% & 100% (for combination of double
acting & Duplex cylinder arrangement)
O Clearance pocket un-loaders
By increasing the clearance volume at the cylinder head end capacity
can be controlled. There are two types of clearance pockets
CFixed clearance pocket
CVariable clearance pocket
Fixed clearance pocket : In this type of clearance pocket capacity
can be controlled in steps depending on the cylinder arrangement.
The steps of control may be
a) 0%, 100% (for single stage)
b) 0%, 50% & 100%. ( for double acting )
c) 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% & 100% (for combination of double
acting & Duplex cylinder arrangement)
CAPACITY CONTROL
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Variable clearance pocket : In this type of clearance pocket capacity
can be controlled in a wide range depending on the area of the
clearance pocket. If the area of the clearance pocket is sized for
1) The complete piston displacement in case of single acting
cylinder arrangement
2) Half the piston displacement in case of double acting or duplex
cylinder arrangement
3)1/4
th
of the piston displacement in case of combination of double
acting & duplex arrangement
then the capacity control range will be from 0% to 100% of
compressor discharge capacity.
O Combination of Suction valve un-loaders & Clearance pocket un-
loaders
By using combination of suction valve un-loaders and clearance
pocket un-loaders the capacity can be controlled to a great extent
with out providing excessive clearance pocket area.
CAPACITY CONTROL
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Figures: Capacity control
Using two clearance pockets each having
50% area of piston displacement
Using single clearance pockets with
100% area of piston displacement
CAPACITY CONTROL
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Pneumatic control schematic
Fixed clearance pocket
Variable clearance pocket
CAPACITY CONTROL
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5-Step capacity control: Using clearance pockets only
Combination of suction valve un-loaders & clearance
pockets
REFERENCE
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API 618 - Specification for Reciprocating Compressors:
This specification covers the minimum requirements for reciprocating
compressors and their drivers used in petroleum, chemical and gas
industry services for handling process gas or air with wither
lubricated or non-lubricated cylinders.
This specification covers Compressors which are of moderate to low speed
and in critical services. This specification also covers the related
lubricating systems, controls, instrumentation, inter-coolers, after-
coolers, pulsation suppression devices and other auxiliary equipment.
This specification does not cover
a. Integral gas engine driven compressors with single acting trunk type
(automotive type) pistons that also serve as crossheads and
b. Either plant or instrument-air compressors that discharge at a gauge
pressure of 9 bar (125 pounds per square inch) or less.
Requirements for packaged high speed reciprocating compressors for
oil and gas production services are covered in API-11P.
Requirements for packaged reciprocating plant and instrument-air
compressors are covered in API-680.
REFERENCE
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API 618 - Specification for Reciprocating Compressors:
Following are the minimum requirements to be complied as
per API-618 Specification for Reciprocating
compressors:
Design requirements:
General :
1. Minimum service life shall be 20 years and uninterrupted
operation shall at least be 3 years.
2. The capacity at the normal operating point shall have no negative
tolerance.
3. The maximum predicted discharge temperature shall not exceed
150
0
C(300
0
F)
4. In case of high pressure hydrogen (or those with molecular weight
of 12 or less) OR applications requiring non lubricated cylinders ,
the predicted discharge temperature shall not exceed 135
0
C
(275
0
F).
REFERENCE
42
API 618 - Specification for Reciprocating Compressors:
5. The Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (MAWP) shall be at
least 10% more than rated discharge pressure or 1.7 bar
(25pounds per square inch), which ever is greater.
6. The cylinder shall have replaceable, dry type liner, not contacted
by the coolant. The liner shall be at least 9.5 millimeters thick for
piston diameters up to & including 254 millimeters (10 inches).
For pistons diameters larger than 254 millimeters, the minimum
liner thickness shall be 12 millimeters.
7. Replaceable, precision-bored shell (sleeve) crank-pin bearings and
main bearings shall be used; however tapered roller type anti-
friction bearings are acceptable for main bearings in compressors
with nominal frame ratings of 150 kW or less. Cylindrical or
roller or ball bearings are unacceptable.
8. All tapered roller-type anti-friction bearings shall be suitable for
belt drives and shall give an L10 -rated life of either 50,000 hours
with continuous operation at rated conditions or 25,000 hours at
maximum axial & radial load & rated speed.
REFERENCE
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API 618 - Specification for Reciprocating Compressors:
9. The frame lubrication system shall be a pressurized system;
however, splash lubrication systems may be used on horizontal
compressors with anti-friction journal bearings when the
compressors nominal frame rating is 150 kW or less.
10. The crankcase oil temperature shall not exceed 70
0
C for
pressurized oil systems and 80
0
C for splash systems.
11. Cooling coils shall not be used in crankcase or oil reservoirs.
12. If not specified the capacity shall not have negative tolerance.
13. The driver nameplate power should be selected to be a minimum
of 110% (for electric motor) or 120% (for turbines) of the greatest
total power required.
14. The power required by the compressor at the normal operating
point shall not exceed the stated power by more than 3 percent.
15. Air cooled cylinders shall not be furnished.
REFERENCE
44
API 618 - Specification for Reciprocating Compressors:
16. The walls of cylinders without liners shall be thick enough to
provide for re-boring to a total of 3.2 mm (1/8 inch) increase over
the original diameter without encroaching on either the MAWP,
or the maximum allowable continuous gas load, or the maximum
allowable combined rod loading.
17. To prevent the gas condensation in the cylinder Coolant inlet
temperature shall be at a minimum of 6K (10
0
F) above the inlet
gas temperature.
18. Coolant exit temperature should not exceed 16K (30
0
F) above the
gas inlet temperature to avoid capacity reduction.
19. The coolant circulated shall be controlled to maintain a rise in
coolant temperature across any individual cylinder, including the
cylinder heads between 5K (10
0
F) & 10K (20
0
F).
20. Pneumatically operated un-loaders shall be used for capacity
control.
REFERENCE
45
API 618 - Specification for Reciprocating Compressors:
21. If hollow pistons are used, they shall be continuously self-venting;
that is, they shall de-pressure when the cylinder is de-pressured.
22. All piston rods, regardless of base material, shall be continuously
coated from the piston-rod packing to the oil wiper packing travel
areas with a wear resistant material.
23. Cross-head packing boxes shall employ wiper packing to
effectively minimize oil leakage from the crankcase.
24. Lubricators shall have provisions for pre-lubrication of the
compressor start-up.
25. Lubrication oil reservoir shall be adequate for 30 hours of
operation at normal flow.
REFERENCE
45
P & ID HAND OUT
THE END
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Q & A
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