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This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2011 J. Mater. Chem., 2011, 21, 843–850 | 843
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Scheme 1 Synthesis of ladder-type heteroacene polymers (PDCPTCz and PDCPTCz-BT). Reagents and conditions: (i) AlCl3, dichloromethane,
4-octylbenzoyl chloride, 50 C, 5 h; (ii) 2-tributylstannylthiophene, anhydrous DMF, Pd(PPh3)4, 80 C, 18 h; (iii) MeLi, anhydrous THF, 78 C to RT,
12 h; (iv) anhydrous dichloromethane, BF3$OEt2, RT, 4 h; (v) FeCl3, anhydrous CHCl3, RT, 48 h; (vi) NBS, CHCl3, RT, 4 h; (vii) 4,7-diboronicester-
2,1,3-benzothiadiazole, Pd(PPh3)4, 120 C, toluene, 2 M aqueous K2CO3, 48 h.
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Fig. 4 (a) Schematic diagram of p-type OFET structure (L ¼ 50 mm, W ¼ 1.5 mm) with PDCPTCz (black circles) and PDCPTCz-BT (red circles),
respectively (b) transfer curves in saturated regime; (c and d) the output curves at different gate voltages.
OFETs as compared to the acyclic carbazole-based alternating PDCPTCz/PC71BM-based cell has a short circuit current density
copolymers, which can be largely attributed to the low molecular (Jsc) of 1.92 mA cm2, an open circuit voltage (Voc) of 0.74 V,
weights of both polymers.32–34 However, both PDCPTCz and a fill factor (FF) of 52%, generating a PCE (he) of 0.73%. In the
PDCPTCz-BT provide excellent FET output characteristics with case of the solar cell made from PDCPTCz-BT/PC71BM, a Jsc of
clear saturation (Fig. 4c and d). There are many examples of the 4.59 mA cm2, a Voc of 0.81 V, respectively; combined with a FF
application of microwave irradiation as heat source to reduce of 42%, it gives a PCE of 1.57%, a substantial improvement when
reaction times and increase the yield and the molecular weight of compared to that of PDCPTCz/PC71BM, because of its
metal-mediated cross-coupling reactions.35–37 Therefore, increased photocurrent. This result is in good agreement with the
a microwave-facilitated synthesis of the PDCPTCz-based poly- OFET measurements. The hole mobility in pure PDCPTCz-BT
mers is underway to improve the molecular weights. is about two orders of magnitude higher than that obtained with
PDCPTCz. Therefore, this higher hole mobility in PDCPTCz-
BT, presumably related to a better organization, can explain the
Polymer solar cells
higher value of the Jsc with PDCPTCz-BT. In addition, we
The polymer solar cells had a layered structure of ITO/ cannot count out that lower band gap for PDCPTCz-BT can
PEDOT:PSS/polymers:PC71BM/Ca/Al. The active layer was contribute to higher Jsc than that of PDCPTCz/PC71BM-based
P3HT/PC71BM at 1 : 2 weight ratio. It was spin-coated from cell. As shown in Fig. 5b, the difference in photocurrent between
a solution containing the polymer and PC71BM in o-dichloro- two devices is confirmed by measurement of the incident photon-
benzene onto an ITO/glass substrate covered by poly(3,4-ethyl- to-current efficiency (IPCE) spectra that reveal the photon–
enedioxythiophene)/poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT–PSS). Thin current response of devices with respect to the wavelength.
layers of Ca (20 nm) and Al (80 nm) were thermally deposited The Voc values of both PDCPTCz/PC71BM and PDCPTCz-
under vacuum. All data were obtained under white light AM BT/PC71BM are improved in comparison with P3HT/PC71BM.38
1.5G illumination from a calibrated solar simulator with irradi- This is not unexpected due to the carbazole building units in the
ation intensity of 100 mW cm2. The device performance of main chain since the polycarbazole derivatives lead to the rela-
a solar cell is determined by the open-circuit voltage (Voc), short- tively deep-lying HOMO energy levels that can potentially
circuit current (Jsc), and fill factor (FF). The power conversion increase Voc.21,29,39,40 This is, indeed, supported by our CV results.
efficiency (he) of a solar cell is given as he ¼ (Jsc Voc FF) In the case of both PDCPTCz/PC71BM and PDCPTCz-BT/
100/Pinc, where Pinc is the intensity of incident light. PC71BM, the significant lower Jsc values, relative to the BHJ
The current–voltage characteristics of the solar cells based on solar cell-based polymers/fullerenes, lead to an overall decrease
the two blends PDCPTCz/PC71BM and PDCPTCz-BT/PC71BM in PCE (he). This may be attributed to one of the following two
are shown in Fig. 5a. Under the white light illumination, the factors that an undesirable morphology in the BHJ, due to
846 | J. Mater. Chem., 2011, 21, 843–850 This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2011
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Fig. 5 (a) J–V characteristics of polymer solar cells under illumination of AM 1.5G (100 mW cm2). (b) Incident photon-to-current efficiency (IPCE)
spectra of PDCPTCz/PC71BM and PDCPTCz-BT/PC71BM.
This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2011 J. Mater. Chem., 2011, 21, 843–850 | 847
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a series of mono-disperse polystyrene as standards in THF through a 0.45 mm PTFE filter, spin-coated at 1500 rpm for 60 s then
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(HPLC grade) at 308 K. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) measurements moved to glove box with filled nitrogen. Those samples were
were performed on Solartron SI 1287 with a three-electrode cell brought into a vacuum system (about 107 torr) and a Ca (20 nm)
in a 0.1 M tetra-n-butylammonium hexafluorophosphate (n- and Al electrode (80 nm) was deposited on the top of the BHJ layer.
Bu4NPF6) solution in acetonitrile at a scan rate of 50 mV s1 at The active area is 13.5 mm2.
room temperature under argon. A silver wire, a platinum wire
and a glass-carbon disk were used as the reference electrode,
counter electrode and working electrode respectively. The Ag/
Ag+ reference electrode was calibrated using a ferrocene/ferro- Synthesis of 2,7-dibromo-N-(2-decyltetradecyl)-3,6-bis(4-
cenium redox couple as an external standard, whose oxidation octylbenzoyl)carbazole (2)
potential is set at 4.8 eV with respect to zero vacuum level. The
To a mixture of compound 1 (3 g, 4.5 mmol) and AlCl3 (1.42 g,
HOMO energy levels were obtained from the equation HOMO ¼
10.6 mmol) in 30 mL of anhydrous dichloromethane (CH2Cl2),
(Eoxonset E(ferrocene)onset + 4.8) eV. The LUMO levels of poly-
4-octylbenzoyl chloride (2.5 g, 9.9 mmol) was added slowly at
mers were obtained from the equation LUMO ¼ (Eredonset
room temperature. The mixture was stirred for 5 h at 50 C, and
E(ferrocene)onset + 4.8) eV.
then quenched with ice. The inorganic precipitate was dissolved
in 2 M NaOH and the product was extracted with CH2Cl2. The
OFET device preparation and measurement
separated organic layer was dried over MgSO4 and removed
All p-type OFETs were fabricated on heavily doped n-type under reduced pressure. The residue was purified by column
silicon (Si) wafers each covered with a thermally grown silicon chromatography (silica gel, 5% ethyl acetate in hexane) to afford
dioxide (SiO2) layer with thickness of 200 nm. The doped Si 4.66 g (94%) of 2 as yellow gummy solid. 1H NMR (600 MHz,
wafer acts as a gate electrode, and the SiO2 layer functions as the CDCl3) d (ppm) 7.92 (s, 2H, Ar-H), 7.68–7.67 (d, 4H, Ar-H, J ¼
gate insulator. The active layer was deposited by spin-coating at 7.8 Hz), 7.60 (s, 2H, Ar-H), 7.18–7.17 (d, 4H, Ar-H, J ¼ 7.8 Hz),
2500 rpm. All solutions were prepared at 0.5 wt% concentration 4.1–4.09 (d, 2H, CH2, J ¼ 7.8 Hz), 2.6–2.58 (t, 4H, 2 CH2-Ph,
in chlorobenzene. The thickness of the deposited films was about J ¼ 7.8 Hz), 2.1 (m, 1H, CH), 1.57–1.53 (m, 4H, 2 CH2, J ¼
60 nm. Prior to vapor-deposition of source-drain electrodes, the 7.2 Hz), 1.32–1.29 (m, 4H, 2 CH2, J ¼ 6.0 Hz), 1.28–1.18 (m,
films were dried on a hot plate stabilized at 80 C for 30 minutes. 56H, 28 CH2), 0.8–0.78 (t, 12H, 4 CH3, J ¼ 7.8 Hz).13C
All fabrication processes were carried out in a glove box filled NMR (600 MHz, CDCl3) d (ppm) 195.6, 149.3, 142.66, 136.5,
with N2. Source and drain electrodes using Au were deposited by 134.7, 132.1, 130.5, 128.6, 120.9, 118, 115.5, 114.2, 40.6, 36.1,
thermal evaporation using a shadow mask. The thickness of 31.9, 31.8, 31.6, 29.9, 29.6, 29.3, 26.4, 22.6, 14.1, 14.09. MALDI-
source and drain electrodes was 50 nm. Channel length (L) and TOF-MS m/z: [M + Na]+c ¼ 1114.
channel width (W) was 50 mm and 1.5 mm, respectively. All
OFET devices were made in the top contact geometry as shown
in Fig. 4a. Electrical characterization was performed using
a Keithley semiconductor parametric analyzer (Keithley 4200) Synthesis of 2,7-di(thiophen-2-yl)-N-(2-decyltetradecyl)-3,6-
under N2 atmosphere. The electron mobility (m) was determined bis(4-octylbenzoyl)carbazole (3)
using the following equation in the saturation regime: 2-Tributylstannylthiophene (2 g, 5.3 mmol) was added to
2 a solution of 2 (2.5 g, 2.3 mmol) in anhydrous DMF (25 mL) and
Ids ¼ (WCi/2L) m (Vgs VT) ,
the resulting mixture was purged with argon for 30 min.
where Ci is the capacitance per unit area of the SiO2 dielectric Pd(PPh3)4 (81 mg, 0.07 mmol) was then added, and the reaction
(Ci ¼ 15 nF cm2), VT is the threshold voltage. mixture was stirred at 80 C overnight. Excess DMF was
removed under high vacuum, and the residue was dissolved in
ethyl acetate and treated with 10% HCl solution. The mixture
Photovoltaic cells fabrication and testing
was filtered through a pad of Celite. The separated organic layer
The organic photovoltaic cells, with the sandwiched structure of was dried over MgSO4, filtered, and removed under vacuum. The
Glass/ITO/PEDOT:PSS/polymer–PC71BM(1 : 2)/Ca (20 nm)/Al crude product was purified by flash chromatography using 5%
(80 nm), were prepared on commercial Indium Tin Oxide (ITO)- ethyl acetate in hexane to afford 2.2 g (88%) of 3 as yellow gum.
coated glass substrate (15 10 mm2) with a sheet resistance of 30 1
H NMR (600 MHz, CDCl3) d (ppm) 8.15 (s, 2H, Ar-H), 7.66–
Ohm sq1 (M & M Tech, Korea). Prior to use, the substrates were 7.65 (d, 4H, Ar-H, J ¼ 8.4 Hz), 7.55 (s, 2H, Ar-H), 7.19–7.18 (d,
cleaned with detergent and deionized water. Then, they were 2H, Th-H, J ¼ 1.2 Hz), 7.12–7.11 (d, 4H, Ar-H, J ¼ 8.4 Hz),
ultrasonicated for 10 minutes in deionized water, acetone and iso- 6.97–6.96 (d, 2H, Th-H, J ¼ 1.2 Hz), 6.88–6.86 (t, 2H, Th-H, J ¼
propanol respectively and dried in the oven at 100 C for overnight. 3.4 Hz), 4.28–4.26 (d, 2H, CH2, J ¼ 7.2 Hz), 2.6–2.58 (t, 4H, 2
The ITO substrates were then kept in UVO cleaner for 1500 s, and CH2-Ph, J ¼ 7.8 Hz), 2.2 (m, 1H, CH), 1.58–1.56 (m, 4H, 2
were spin-coated (5000 rpm, 60 s) with a thin film (40 nm) of poly- CH2), 1.41–1.39 (m, 4H, 2 CH2), 1.36–1.23 (m, 56H, 28
(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT– CH2), 0.88–0.85 (t, 12H, 4 CH3, J ¼ 3.6 Hz).13C-NMR (600
PSS, Baytron P, H. C. Starck) and baked at 140 C for 10 min in air. MHz, CDCl3) d (ppm) 198.1, 148.4, 142.7, 135.7, 132.2, 131.6,
A blend of [6,6]-phenyl-C71-butyric acid methyl ester (PC71BM) 130.1, 128.2, 127.6, 127.5, 125.9, 122.0, 121.4, 35.9, 31.9, 31.8,
(Nano-C, USA) and polymer (2 : 1, 4.0 mg mL1 of polymer in 31.6, 31.0, 29.7, 29.6, 29.3, 26.5, 22.6, 14.1. MALDI-TOF-MS m/
o-DCB) was solubilized in chlorobenzene for overnight and filtered z: [M + Na]+c ¼ 1123.
848 | J. Mater. Chem., 2011, 21, 843–850 This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2011
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Synthesis of 2,7-di(thiophen-2-yl)-N-(2-decyltetradecyl)-3,6- acetate in hexane to provide 1.94 g (88%) pure product. 1H NMR
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bis(1-(4-octylphenyl)ethanolyl)carbazole (4) (600 MHz, CDCl3) d (ppm) 7.7 (s, 2H, Ar-H), 7.27–7.26 (d, 2H,
Ar-H, J ¼ 2.4 Hz), 7.16–7.12 (dd, 4H, Ar-H, J ¼ 8.4Hz),
A solution of dithiopheno diketone 3 (2 g, 1.8 mmol) in anhy-
7.04–7.02 (d, 4H, Ar-H, J ¼ 8.4 Hz), 6.92 (d, 2H, Th-H, J ¼
drous THF (30 mL) in a 100 mL Schlenk flask was cooled to
1.8 Hz), 4.19–4.18 (d, 2H, CH2, J ¼ 7.8 Hz), 2.53–2.50 (q, 4H,
78 C in an acetone-dry ice bath. Subsequently, a solution of
2 CH2, J ¼ 7.8 Hz), 2.24 (m, 1H, CH), 1.91 (m, 6H, 2 CH3,
1.6 M methyllithium in diethyl ether (8 mL) was added to reac-
J ¼ 16.2 Hz), 1.55–1.53 (m, 4H, 2 CH2), 1.30–1.23(m, 60H,
tion mixture in argon atmosphere. After 1 h at 78 C, the
30 CH2) 0.89–0.86 (t, 12H, 4 CH3, J ¼ 2.4 Hz). 13C-NMR
reaction mixture was allowed to reach room temperature and
(600 MHz, CDCl3) d (ppm) 157.4, 147.1, 141.5, 141.4, 141.0,
stirred for 12 h and then water was added to quench the reaction.
134.4, 128.4, 126.0, 125.9, 124.9, 121.2, 115.1, 113.3, 99.3, 52.7,
The product was extracted with CH2Cl2 (100 mL), treated with
37.6, 35.5, 35.4, 31.9, 31.3, 30.0, 29.7, 29.6, 29.2, 26.4, 24.9, 22.7,
saturated NaCl solution, dried over MgSO4 and the solvent was
22.6, 14.1. MALDI-TOF-MS m/z: [M + Na]+c ¼ 1274.
removed in vacuo. The crude product was purified by flash
chromatography 10% ethyl acetate in hexane to get pure dia-
lcohol 4, 1.85 g (90%) as pale yellow solid.1H NMR (600 MHz, Synthesis of poly(dicyclopentathienocarbazole) (PDCPTCz)
CDCl3) d (ppm) 8.59 (s, 2H, Th-H), 7.26–7.25 (d, 4H, Ar-H, J ¼ In a 50 mL flame dried Schlenk flask, monomer 5 (0.3 g,
1.8 Hz), 7.21–7.20 (d, 2H, Th-H, J ¼ 4.8 Hz), 7.06–7.04 (d, 4H, 0.27 mmol) was dissolved in anhydrous CHCl3 (7 mL), to this
Ar-H), 7.02–7.01 (d, 4H, Ar-H), 6.79–6.77 (t, 2H, Th-H, J ¼ 1.2 a solution of anhydrous iron chloride (0.2 g, 1.2 mmol) in anhy-
Hz), 6.21–6.20 (t, 2H, 2 OH, J ¼ 3.6 Hz), 4.06–4.05 (d, 2H, drous CHCl3 (7 mL) was added. The mixture was vigorously
CH2, J ¼ 3.6 Hz), 2.59–2.56 (t, 4H, 2 CH2–Ph, J ¼ 7.8 Hz), stirred at room temperature for 2 days. Then the solution was
2.1 (m, 1H, CH), 2.04–2.03 (s, 6H, 2 CH3, J ¼ 7.2 Hz), 1.61– precipitated in a mixture of methanol and ammonia (3 : 1 v/v,
1.56 (m, 4H, 2 CH2, J ¼ 7.2 Hz), 1.36–1.23 (m, 60H, 30 270 mL). This was filtered off through 0.45 mm nylon filter, washed
CH2), 0.89–0.86 (t, 12H, 4 CH3, J ¼ 7.2 Hz).13C-NMR on Soxhlet apparatus with methanol (1 d) and acetone (1 d). 0.2 g
(600 MHz, CDCl3) d (ppm) 148.1, 141.1, 140.0, 137.86, 131.07, (60%) of the polymer was recovered as a orange red powder (Mn ¼
128.1, 126.1, 125.1, 122.0, 118.4, 114.9, 37.7, 35.4, 32.4, 31.9, 3.41 103 g mol1, PDI ¼ 1.87). 1H NMR (600 MHz, CDCl3)
29.9, 29.6, 29.5, 26.1, 22.7, 22.6, 14.1. MALDI-TOF-MS d (ppm) 7.8 (br, 2H), 7.36 (br, 4H), 7.15–7.12 (br, 4H), 7.01–6.95
m/z: [M + Na]+c ¼ 1154. (br, 4H), 6.87 (br, 2H), 4.1(br, 2H), 2.45 (br, 4H), 1.8 (br, 6H), 1.49
(br, 4H), 1.18–1.03 (br, 60H), 0.89–0.74 (br, 12H).
Synthesis of dicyclopentathienocarbazole (5)
This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2011 J. Mater. Chem., 2011, 21, 843–850 | 849
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850 | J. Mater. Chem., 2011, 21, 843–850 This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2011