Ex.

1; N=8

Euler's Method, N=8

xk
0
0.125
0.25
0.375
0.5
0.625
0.75
0.875
1

k
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

yk
2
2.21875
2.445215
2.676357
2.910431
3.146409
3.383659
3.621784
3.860525

y(xk)
2
2.223267
2.452997
2.686657
2.922799
3.160564
3.399424
3.639043
3.879201

ek

rk

0.004517
0.007782
0.0103
0.012367
0.014155
0.015766
0.01726
0.018676

0.002032
0.003172
0.003834
0.004231
0.004479
0.004638
0.004743
0.004814

4
3.8
3.6
3.4
3.2
y

yk

3
y(xk)

2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2

0.125

0.25

0.375

0.5

0.625

0.75

0.875

Page 1

Ex.1; N=16

Euler's Method, N=16

xk
0
0.0625
0.125
0.1875
0.25
0.3125
0.375
0.4375
0.5
0.5625
0.625
0.6875
0.75
0.8125
0.875
0.9375
1

k
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

yk
2
2.109375
2.221013
2.334392
2.449121
2.564909
2.681532
2.798823
2.91665
3.034911
3.153528
3.272438
3.39159
3.510944
3.630468
3.750134
3.869923

y(xk)
2
2.110603
2.223267
2.337516
2.452997
2.569444
2.686657
2.804481
2.922799
3.041517
3.160564
3.279882
3.399424
3.519155
3.639043
3.759065
3.879201

ek

rk

0.001228
0.002254
0.003124
0.003875
0.004535
0.005124
0.005658
0.006149
0.006606
0.007036
0.007444
0.007834
0.008211
0.008576
0.008931
0.009279

0.000582
0.001014
0.001336
0.00158
0.001765
0.001907
0.002018
0.002104
0.002172
0.002226
0.00227
0.002305
0.002333
0.002357
0.002376
0.002392

4
3.8
3.6
3.4
3.2
y

yk

y(xk)

2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2

2
0

0.125

0.25

0.375

0.5

0.625

0.75

Page 2

0.875

Ex.1; N=32

Euler's Method, N=32

xk
k
0
0
1 0.03125
2
0.0625
3 0.09375
4
0.125
5 0.15625
6
0.1875
7 0.21875
8
0.25
9 0.28125
10
0.3125
11 0.34375
12
0.375
13 0.40625
14
0.4375
15 0.46875
16
0.5
17 0.53125
18
0.5625
19 0.59375
20
0.625
21 0.65625
22
0.6875
23 0.71875
24
0.75
25 0.78125
26
0.8125
27 0.84375
28
0.875
29 0.90625
30
0.9375
31 0.96875
32
1

yk
2
2.054688
2.10999
2.165831
2.222143
2.278869
2.335959
2.393371
2.451066
2.509014
2.567185
2.625556
2.684105
2.742813
2.801664
2.860643
2.919738
2.978936
3.038229
3.097607
3.157062
3.216588
3.276177
3.335825
3.395525
3.455275
3.515068
3.574903
3.634775
3.694682
3.754621
3.814589
3.874584

y(xk)
2
2.055008
2.110603
2.16671
2.223267
2.280218
2.337516
2.395121
2.452997
2.511113
2.569444
2.627965
2.686657
2.745501
2.804481
2.863585
2.922799
2.982113
3.041517
3.101004
3.160564
3.220192
3.279882
3.339627
3.399424
3.459268
3.519155
3.579081
3.639043
3.699039
3.759065
3.81912
3.879201

ek

rk

0.000321
0.000613
0.000879
0.001124
0.001349
0.001557
0.00175
0.001931
0.0021
0.002259
0.002409
0.002552
0.002687
0.002817
0.002941
0.003061
0.003177
0.003288
0.003397
0.003502
0.003605
0.003705
0.003803
0.003899
0.003994
0.004086
0.004178
0.004268
0.004357
0.004445
0.004532
0.004618

0.000156
0.00029
0.000406
0.000505
0.000591
0.000666
0.000731
0.000787
0.000836
0.000879
0.000917
0.00095
0.000979
0.001004
0.001027
0.001047
0.001065
0.001081
0.001095
0.001108
0.001119
0.00113
0.001139
0.001147
0.001154
0.001161
0.001167
0.001173
0.001178
0.001182
0.001187
0.00119

4
3.8
3.6

3.4

3.2
yk

y(xk)

2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2
0 0.06250.1250.18750.250.31250.3750.4375 0.5 0.56250.6250.68750.750.81250.8750.9375 1
x

Page 3

Ex.2; N=8

Runge-Kutta 2nd order, N=8

xk
0
0.125
0.25
0.375
0.5
0.625
0.75
0.875
1

k
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

K1

K2

1.75
1.815707
1.855064
1.87955
1.895336
1.905848
1.91305
1.918112

1.811721
1.852997
1.878409
1.894673
1.905444
1.912795
1.917945
1.921638

yk
2
2.222608
2.451902
2.685244
2.921133
3.158681
3.397346
3.636784
3.876768

y(xk)
2
2.223267
2.452997
2.686657
2.922799
3.160564
3.399424
3.639043
3.879201

ek

rk

0.000659
0.001095
0.001413
0.001666
0.001883
0.002078
0.00226
0.002433

0.000297
0.000447
0.000526
0.00057
0.000596
0.000611
0.000621
0.000627

4
3.8
3.6

3.4

3.2
yk

y(xk)

2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2
0

0.125

0.25

0.375

0.5

0.625

0.75

Page 4

0.875

Ex.2; N=16

Runge-Kutta 2nd order, N=16

k
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

xk
0
0.0625
0.125
0.1875
0.25
0.3125
0.375
0.4375
0.5
0.5625
0.625
0.6875
0.75
0.8125
0.875
0.9375
1

K1

K2

1.75
1.787489
1.816209
1.838426
1.855782
1.869471
1.880367
1.889117
1.896202
1.901984
1.906738
1.910674
1.913954
1.916704
1.919023
1.92099

1.786211
1.815311
1.837784
1.855314
1.869124
1.880107
1.888919
1.89605
1.901866
1.906645
1.9106
1.913895
1.916657
1.918985
1.920958
1.922639

yk
2
2.110507
2.223094
2.337281
2.452711
2.569114
2.686288
2.804079
2.922365
3.041055
3.160074
3.279366
3.398884
3.518591
3.638456
3.758455
3.878569

y(xk)
2
2.110603
2.223267
2.337516
2.452997
2.569444
2.686657
2.804481
2.922799
3.041517
3.160564
3.279882
3.399424
3.519155
3.639043
3.759065
3.879201

ek

rk

9.65E-05
0.000173
0.000235
0.000286
0.00033
0.000368
0.000403
0.000434
0.000463
0.00049
0.000516
0.00054
0.000564
0.000588
0.00061
0.000632

4.57E-05
7.77E-05
0.0001
0.000117
0.000128
0.000137
0.000144
0.000148
0.000152
0.000155
0.000157
0.000159
0.00016
0.000161
0.000162
0.000163

4
3.8
3.6
3.4

3.2
y

yk

y(xk)

2.8

2.6
2.4
2.2
2
0

0.125

0.25

0.375

0.5

0.625

0.75

Page 5

0.875

Ex.2; N=32

Runge-Kutta 2nd order, N=32

xk
K1
k
0
0
1 0.03125
1.75
2
0.0625 1.770058
3 0.09375 1.787571
4
0.125 1.802896
5 0.15625 1.816342
6
0.1875 1.828167
7 0.21875 1.838593
8
0.25 1.847807
9 0.28125 1.855971
10
0.3125 1.863221
11 0.34375 1.869675
12
0.375 1.875433
13 0.40625 1.880581
14
0.4375 1.885195
15 0.46875 1.889339
16
0.5 1.893067
17 0.53125 1.896429
18
0.5625 1.899466
19 0.59375 1.902215
20
0.625 1.904708
21 0.65625 1.906972
22
0.6875 1.909032
23 0.71875 1.91091
24
0.75 1.912624
25 0.78125 1.914191
26
0.8125 1.915626
27 0.84375 1.916942
28
0.875 1.918151
29 0.90625 1.919262
30
0.9375 1.920286
31 0.96875 1.921229
32
1
1.9221

K2
1.769693
1.787267
1.802642
1.816128
1.827987
1.83844
1.847677
1.855859
1.863125
1.869592
1.875361
1.880519
1.885141
1.889291
1.893026
1.896393
1.899434
1.902187
1.904683
1.90695
1.909012
1.910892
1.912608
1.914177
1.915613
1.916931
1.91814
1.919253
1.920277
1.921221
1.922093
1.922899

yk
2
2.054995
2.110578
2.166675
2.223223
2.280165
2.337456
2.395054
2.452924
2.511035
2.56936
2.627876
2.686563
2.745402
2.804379
2.863478
2.922688
2.981999
3.0414
3.100882
3.16044
3.220064
3.279751
3.339493
3.399287
3.459128
3.519011
3.578934
3.638894
3.698887
3.75891
3.818962
3.87904

y(xk)
2
2.055008
2.110603
2.16671
2.223267
2.280218
2.337516
2.395121
2.452997
2.511113
2.569444
2.627965
2.686657
2.745501
2.804481
2.863585
2.922799
2.982113
3.041517
3.101004
3.160564
3.220192
3.279882
3.339627
3.399424
3.459268
3.519155
3.579081
3.639043
3.699039
3.759065
3.81912
3.879201

ek

rk

1.31E-05
2.47E-05
3.49E-05
4.41E-05
5.24E-05
5.99E-05
6.67E-05
7.29E-05
7.87E-05
8.41E-05
8.91E-05
9.38E-05
9.83E-05
0.000103
0.000107
0.00011
0.000114
0.000118
0.000121
0.000125
0.000128
0.000131
0.000134
0.000138
0.000141
0.000144
0.000147
0.00015
0.000152
0.000155
0.000158
0.000161

6.38E-06
1.17E-05
1.61E-05
1.98E-05
2.3E-05
2.56E-05
2.78E-05
2.97E-05
3.14E-05
3.27E-05
3.39E-05
3.49E-05
3.58E-05
3.66E-05
3.72E-05
3.78E-05
3.83E-05
3.87E-05
3.91E-05
3.95E-05
3.98E-05
4E-05
4.03E-05
4.05E-05
4.06E-05
4.08E-05
4.1E-05
4.11E-05
4.12E-05
4.13E-05
4.14E-05
4.15E-05

4
3.8
3.6
3.4
yk

y(xk)

2.8

2.6
2.4
2.2

Page 6

0.9375

0.875

0.8125

0.75

0.6875

0.625

0.5625

0.5

0.4375

0.375

0.3125

0.25

0.1875

0.125

0.0625

2
0

3.2

Error 1

Absolute Errors for Euler's Method

eN
N
ln(N)
8 0.018676 2.079442
16 0.009279 2.772589
32 0.004618 3.465736

ln(eN)
-3.98052
-4.68005
-5.3779
ln(eN)

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

2.5

3.5

-1

ln(eN)

-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
ln(N)

Relative Errors for Euler's Method

rN
N
ln(N)
8 0.004814 2.079442
16 0.002392 2.772589
32 0.00119 3.465736

ln(rN)
-5.33615
-6.03568
-6.73353
ln(rN)

0
0

0.5

1.5

-1
-2

ln(rN)

-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
ln(N)

Page 7

Error 2

Absolute Errors for Runge-Kutta 2nd order

eN
N
ln(N)
8 0.002433 2.079442
16 0.000632 2.772589
32 0.000161 3.465736

ln(eN)
-6.01858
-7.36583
-8.73446

ln(eN)

0
-1 0

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

2.5

3.5

-2

ln(eN)

-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9
-10
ln(N)

Relative Errors for Runge-Kutta 2nd order

rN
N
ln(N)
8 0.000627 2.079442
16 0.000163 2.772589
32 4.15E-05 3.465736

ln(rN)
-7.37421
-8.72146
-10.0901
ln(rN)

0
0

0.5

1.5

-2

ln(rN)

-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
ln(N)

Page 8

Remarks

Remarks
The equation being solved is:

dy
y
1

2
,
dx
x 1 y x 1 2

y 0 2

This equation is solvable, so the methods ar being used to compare accuracy. The actual
solution is:
3

29 x 1
3

y x 3

4
4 x 1

From the graphs, the Runge-Kutta 2nd order method is more accurate than Eulers Method,
although both are fairly close to the real solution between 0 and 1. The accuracy also
increases as the value of N increases. The ln-ln plots give a fairly straight line, which
suggests that they are related by a law of the form:
eN = N
Where and are constants.

Page 9