PART I

Descriptive research
Data Collection Methods

Surveys
Interviews
Observations
 Descriptive Research
1. Surveys
• May be used to reveal • May be used to
summary statistics by explore relationships
showing responses to between 2 or more
all possible variables.
questionnaire items.
• Often provide leads in
identifying needed
changes
 Interviewing Formats
• Structured Direct • Personal Interview
• Structured Indirect • Mall Intercept
• Unstructured Direct • Telephone
• Unstructured Indirect • Mail
• Internet / E-mail
 Descriptive Research
Survey Forms
• Written questionnaires Factors to be considered
• Sampling
• Type of population
• Personal interviews
• Question Form
• Telephone interviews • Question Content
• Response rates
• Costs
• Available facilities
• Length of data collection
• Computer assisted
techniques for data
collection
 Descriptive Research
2. Survey Form - Interviews
• More time efficient
• Allow the researcher to establish a rapport
with the respondent
• Allow the acquisition of more in-depth
information
• Allow for interviewer observation
• Allow the interviewer to obtain visual cues
• May be personal or telephone interviews
 Descriptive Research
Survey Form – Personal
Interviews
Disadvantages
• Require more staff time
• Require more travel time
 Descriptive Research
Survey Form – Telephone
Interview
Advantages Disadvantages
™Less expensive ™Limited telephone
™Less time-consuming access
™Lack of interviewer’s
ability to observe the
respondent and obtain
visual cues
 Descriptive Research
Survey Form – Mailed
Questionnaires
Advantages Disadvantages
9 Ability to reach large 9 Lower response rate
number of people across a
wide geographic area 9 Need to design a
9 Ease and low cost of survey instrument with
distribution a simple format
9 Minimal amount of staff
required
9 Allows respondents to
respond in their time
frame
 Descriptive Research
Survey Form – Mailed
Questionnaires
• Should state purpose and importance of research
• Should state importance of responding
• Should give a time frame to respond
• Should include a confidentiality statement
• Should include an offer to share results
• Should include a thank-you note to the respondent
 Descriptive Research
Characteristics of a Good Survey
• Good questioning techniques
• Use complete sentences
• Offer a limited set of answers
• Interesting
• Worded so that questions mean the same to all
• Provide definitions for confusing terms
• Uses the “I don’t know” answer very carefully
Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods
Flexibility of Data Collection
• The flexibility of data collection is determined primarily by the
extent to which the respondent can interact with the interviewer
and the survey questionnaire.

Diversity of Questions
• The diversity of questions that can be asked in a survey depends
upon the degree of interaction the respondent has with the
interviewer and the questionnaire, as well as the ability to actually
see the questions.

Use of Physical Stimuli

• The ability to use physical stimuli such as the product, a product
prototype, commercials, or promotional displays during the
interview.
Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods
Sample Control
• Sample control is the ability of the survey mode to reach the units
specified in the sample effectively and efficiently.

Control of the Data Collection Environment

• The degree of control a researcher has over the environment in which
the respondent answers the questionnaire.

Control of Field Force

• The ability to control the interviewers and supervisors involved in
data collection.

Quantity of Data
• The ability to collect large amounts of data.
Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods
Response Rate
• Survey response rate is broadly defined as the percentage of the
total attempted interviews that are completed.

Perceived Anonymity
• Perceived anonymity refers to the respondents' perceptions that
their identities will not be discerned by the interviewer or the
researcher.

Social Desirability/Sensitive Information

• Social desirability is the tendency of the respondents to give
answers that are socially acceptable, whether or not they are true.
 Criteria for Evaluating Survey
Methods
Potential for Interviewer Bias
• The extent of the interviewer's role determines the
potential for bias.

Speed
• The total time taken for administering the survey to
the entire sample.

Cost
• The total cost of administering the survey and
collecting the data.
 A Classification of Observation
Methods
Fig. 6.3

Classifying
Observation
Methods

Observation Methods

Personal Mechanical Audit Content Trace

Observation Observation Analysis Analysis
 Descriptive Research
3. Observational Research
Methods

1. Naturally occurring behaviors observed in

natural contexts
2. Contexts that are contrived to be realistic
 Descriptive Research
Observational Research Methods
• Require direct observation of behavior
• Data gathered without intermediary
instruments
• Can yield a wealth of invaluable
information
• Can be a complicated process
 Descriptive Research
Observational Research Methods

• Can be used to determine how people

interact with technology in various stages of
design and implementation
 Descriptive Research
Observational Research Methods

• 2 Forms of Observational Research

– Structured
– Unstructured
 Observation Methods
Structured Versus Unstructured
Observation
• For structured observation, the researcher specifies in
detail what is to be observed and how the
measurements are to be recorded, e.g., an auditor
performing inventory analysis in a store.

• In unstructured observation, the observer monitors

all aspects of the phenomenon that seem relevant to the
problem at hand, e.g., observing children playing with
new toys.
 Descriptive Research
Observational Research Methods
Structured Observations Unstructured
ÎRigid and controlled Observations
ÎUsed to determine
ÎPredetermined unselective, detailed,
methods continuous description of
behavior.
ÎDetects unintended effects
ÎMore time consuming
because of time and labor
required to collect and
analyze sets of extensive
observations
 Observation Methods
Disguised Versus Undisguised
•
Observation
In disguised observation, the respondents are unaware
that they are being observed. Disguise may be
accomplished by using one-way mirrors, hidden cameras,
or inconspicuous mechanical devices. Observers may be
disguised as shoppers or sales clerks.

• In undisguised observation, the respondents are aware

that they are under observation.
 Observation Methods
Natural Versus Contrived
Observation
• Natural observation involves observing behavior as it
takes places in the environment. For example, one could
observe the behavior of respondents eating fast food in
Burger King.

• In contrived observation, respondents' behavior is

observed in an artificial environment, such as a test
kitchen.
 Descriptive Research
Observational Research Methods
Develop observation form
‰May be paper and pencil or electronic
‰May use a rating scale to evaluate behavior
‰A 3-point rating scale is sufficient
 Descriptive Research
Observational Research Methods
Newer Mediated Observation Techniques
• Audio
• Videotape
• Computers provide on-line monitoring (process of
capturing characteristics of the human-computer
interaction automatically)
– Keystroke records
– Audit trails
– Logging data
 Observation Methods
Personal Observation
• A researcher observes actual behavior as it occurs.

• The observer does not attempt to manipulate the

phenomenon being observed but merely records what
takes place.

• For example, a researcher might record traffic counts

and observe traffic flows in a department store.
 Observation Methods
Mechanical Observation
Do not require respondents' direct participation.
– The AC Nielsen audimeter
– Turnstiles that record the number of people entering or
leaving a building.
– On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video)
– Optical scanners in supermarkets

Do require respondent involvement.

– Eye-tracking monitors
– Pupilometers
– Psychogalvanometers
– Voice pitch analyzers
– Devices measuring response latency
 Observation Methods
Audit
• The researcher collects data by examining
physical records or performing inventory
analysis.
• Data are collected personally by the researcher.
• The data are based upon counts, usually of
physical objects.
 Observation Methods
Content Analysis
• The objective, systematic, and quantitative description
of the manifest content of a communication.
• The unit of analysis may be words, characters
(individuals or objects), themes (propositions), space
and time measures (length or duration of the message),
or topics (subject of the message).
• Analytical categories for classifying the units are
developed and the communication is broken down
according to prescribed rules.
 Observation Methods
Trace Analysis
Data collection is based on physical traces, or
evidence, of past behavior.
„ The selective erosion of tiles in a museum indexed by the replacement
rate was used to determine the relative popularity of exhibits.
„ The number of different fingerprints on a page was used to gauge the
readership of various advertisements in a magazine.
„ The position of the radio dials in cars brought in for service was used
to estimate share of listening audience of various radio stations.
„ The age and condition of cars in a parking lot were used to assess the
affluence of customers.
„ The magazines people donated to charity were used to determine
people's favorite magazines.
„ Internet visitors leave traces which can be analyzed to examine
browsing and usage behavior by using cookies.
Relative Advantages of Observation
• They permit measurement of actual behavior rather than
reports of intended or preferred behavior.

• There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused by

the interviewer and the interviewing process is
eliminated or reduced.

• Certain types of data can be collected only by

observation.

• If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of

short duration, observational methods may be cheaper
and faster than survey methods.
 Relative Disadvantages of
Observation
• The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determined
since little is known about the underlying motives, beliefs,
attitudes, and preferences.
• Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can
bias the data.
• Observational data are often time-consuming and expensive,
and it is difficult to observe certain forms of behavior.
• In some cases, the use of observational methods may be
unethical, as in observing people without their knowledge or
consent.
It is best to view observation as a complement to survey
methods, rather than as being in competition with them.
 Predicting Behavior
Behavioral Correlates
•Past Behaviors
•Intentions

Non-Behavioral Correlates
•Socio-demographics
•Life Style
•Psychographics
•Knowledge / Information
•Attitudes and Opinions
 Behavioral Correlates

Past Behavior is the Best Correlate of Current Behavior

Acquisition, Use, and Possession

Acquisition: Who Purchased the product?

(Mom does the shopping)

Use: Who actually uses the product?

(Who consumes it, uses it)

Possession: Who physically possesses the product?

(whether or not they bought or use)

Influence: Who influences the purchase of the product?

 Behavioral Correlates
Past Behavior: Acquisition, Use, and Possession
 Behavioral Correlates:
Intentions are Complex… Deeper Meaning
1. Understand the technology and its role.
2. Understand the consumer motivations and the
context in which the product will be bought and
used.
3. Make sure the survey is of consumer behavioral
groups with the greatest purchase potential.
4. Go beyond the simplistic and traditional “intent
to purchase” questions.
 Non-Behavioral Correlates

Socio-economic indicators
Age, Income, Occupation, Social Class,
Family Life Cycle.

Life Style indicators

Activities, Interests, Opinions.
 PART II

CAUSAL RESEARCH
 Use Experimental designs
whenever possible
• Types of
EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS:
• Lab
• Field Experiment
• Quasi-Experimental
 Experimental Design
An experimental design is a set of procedures specifying:

„ the test units and how these units are to be divided into
homogeneous subsamples,
„ what independent variables or treatments are to be
manipulated,
„ what dependent variables are to be measured; and
„ how the extraneous variables are to be controlled.
 Definitions and Concepts
• Independent variables are variables or alternatives that are
manipulated and whose effects are measured and compared,
e.g., price levels.
• Test units are individuals, organizations, or other entities
whose response to the independent variables or treatments is
being examined, e.g., consumers or stores.
• Dependent variables are the variables which measure the
effect of the independent variables on the test units, e.g., sales,
profits, and market shares.
• Extraneous variables are all variables other than the
independent variables that affect the response of the test units,
e.g., store size, store location, and competitive effort.
 Validity of Experiment
Internal validity: elimination of other possible causes.
–Sources: external factors (Asian crisis),
maturation of subjects (agents more experienced).
–Lab experiment > Field experiment.

External validity: generalizability of results.

–Artificial situation; inappropriate sample;
inappropriate time.

–Field experiment > Lab experiment:

 Types of Experiments
Laboratory experiment
Research investigation in which investigator
creates a situation with exact conditions so as
to control some, and manipulate other,
variables

Scientific investigation in which an

investigator manipulates and controls
one or more independent variables and
observes the dependent variable for
variation concomitant to the manipulation
of the independent variables
Field experiment
Research study in a realistic situation in
which one or more independent variables are
manipulated by the experimenter under as
carefully controlled conditions as the
situation will permit
 Experiments are the
STRONGEST Design Logic

• The “best” Research

• Design to determine
CAUSAL
RELATIONS
 A Classification of Experimental
Designs
• Pre-experimental designs do not employ randomization
procedures to control for extraneous factors: the one-shot
case study, the one-group pretest-posttest design, and the
static-group.

• In true experimental designs, the researcher can randomly

assign test units to experimental groups and treatments to
experimental groups: the pretest-posttest control group
design, the posttest-only control group design, and the
Solomon four-group design.
 A Classification of Experimental
Designs
• Quasi-experimental designs result when the
researcher is unable to achieve full manipulation of
scheduling or allocation of treatments to test units
but can still apply part of the apparatus of true
experimentation: time series and multiple time series
designs.

• A statistical design is a series of basic experiments

that allows for statistical control and analysis of
external variables: randomized block design, Latin
square design, and factorial designs.
 A Classification of Experimental
Designs
Figure 7.1
Experimental Designs

Pre-experimental True Quasi

Statistical
Experimental Experimental

One-Shot Case Pretest-Posttest Time Series Randomized

Study Control Group Blocks

One Group Posttest: Only Multiple Time Latin Square

Pretest-Posttest Control Group Series

Static Group Solomon Four- Factorial

Group Design
Laboratory Versus Field Experiments
Table 7.7

Factor Laboratory Field

Environment Artificial Realistic

Control High Low
Reactive Error High Low
Demand Artifacts High Low
Internal Validity High Low
External Validity Low High
Time Short Long
Number of Units Small Large
Ease of Implementation High Low
Cost Low High
 Limitations of Experimentation
• Experiments can be time consuming, particularly if the
researcher is interested in measuring the long-term effects.
• Experiments are often expensive. The requirements of
experimental group, control group, and multiple
measurements significantly add to the cost of research.
• Experiments can be difficult to administer. It may be
impossible to control for the effects of the extraneous
variables, particularly in a field environment.
• Competitors may deliberately contaminate the results of a
field experiment.
Selecting a Test-Marketing Strategy
Competition

Very +ve New Product Development -ve

Socio-Cultural Environment

Other Factors Research on Existing Products

Need for Secrecy

Research on other Elements

Stop and Reevaluate

Very +ve -ve
Simulated Test Marketing
Other Factors
Very +ve -ve
Controlled Test Marketing
Other Factors
-ve
Standard Test Marketing

National Introduction

Overall Marketing Strategy

 Criteria for the Selection of Test
Markets
Test Markets should have the following qualities:
1) Be large enough to produce meaningful projections. They should
contain at least 2% of the potential actual population.
2) Be representative demographically.
3) Be representative with respect to product consumption behavior.
4) Be representative with respect to media usage.
5) Be representative with respect to competition.
6) Be relatively isolated in terms of media and physical distribution.
7) Have normal historical development in the product class.
8) Have marketing research and auditing services available.
9) Not be over-tested.
 PART III

Exploratory Research
Primary Vs. Secondary Data

• Primary data are originated by a researcher

for the specific purpose of addressing the
problem at hand. The collection of primary
data involves all six steps of the marketing
research process.
• Secondary data are data that have already
been collected for purposes other than the
problem at hand. These data can be located
quickly and inexpensively.
 A Comparison of Primary &
Table 4.1
Secondary Data
Primary Data Secondary Data

Collection purpose For the problem at hand For other problems

Collection process Very involved Rapid & easy
Collection cost High Relatively low
Collection time Long Short
Uses of Secondary Data
• Identify the problem
• Better define the problem
• Develop an approach to the problem
• Formulate an appropriate research design (for
example, by identifying the key variables)
• Answer certain research questions and test some
hypotheses
• Interpret primary data more insightfully
 Criteria for Evaluating
Secondary Data
• Specifications: Methodology Used to Collect the
Data
• Error: Accuracy of the Data
• Currency: When the Data Were Collected
• Objective(s): The Purpose for Which the Data Were
Collected
• Nature: The Content of the Data
• Dependability: Overall, How Dependable Are the
Data
 A Classification of Secondary Data

Secondary Data

Internal External

Ready to Requires Published Computerized Syndicated

Use Further Materials Databases Services
Processing
 Internal Secondary Data
Department Store Project
Sales were analyzed to obtain:
• Sales by product line
• Sales by major department (e.g., men's
wear, house wares)
• Sales by specific stores
• Sales by geographical region
• Sales by cash versus credit purchases
• Sales in specific time periods
• Sales by size of purchase
• Sales trends in many of these
classifications were also examined
 A Classification of International
Sources
International Secondary Data

Domestic International Organizations in

Organizations Organizations Foreign Countries

Government Nongovernment International Trade

Governments Organizations Associations
Sources Sources
 Type of Individual/Household Level Data
Available from Syndicated Firms
I. Demographic Data
- Identification (name, address, email,
telephone)
- Sex
- Marital status
- Names of family members
- Age (including ages of family members)
- Income
- Occupation
- Number of children present
- Home ownership
- Length of residence
- Number and make of cars owned
 Type of Individual/Household Level
Data Available from Syndicated Firms
II. Psychographic Lifestyle Data
- Interest in golf
- Interest in snow skiing
- Interest in book reading
- Interest in running
- Interest in bicycling
- Interest in pets
- Interest in fishing
- Interest in electronics
- Interest in cable television
There are also firms such as Dun & Bradstreet and American
Business Information which collect demographic data on businesses.
 A Classification of
Published Secondary
Sources
Published Secondary
Data

General Business Government

Sources Sources

Guides Directories Indexes Statistical Census Other

Data Data Government
Publications
 A Classification of Computerized
Databases

Computerized
Databases

Online Internet Off-Line

Bibliographic Numeric Full-Text Directory Special-

Databases Databases Databases Databases Purpose
Databases
Published External Secondary Sources
Guides
• An excellent source of standard or recurring information
• Helpful in identifying other important sources of
directories, trade associations, and trade publications
• One of the first sources a researcher should consult
Directories
• Helpful for identifying individuals or organizations that
collect specific data
• Examples: Consultants and Consulting Organizations
Directory, Encyclopedia of Associations, FINDEX: The
Directory of Market Research Reports, Studies and
Surveys, and Research Services Directory
Indices
• Helpful in locating information on a particular topic in
several different publications
Classification of Computerized Databases
• Bibliographic databases are composed of
citations to articles
• Numeric databases contain numerical and
statistical information
• Full-text databases contain the complete text
of the source documents comprising the
database
• Directory databases provide information on
individuals, organizations, and services
• Special-purpose databases provide specialized
information
 Syndicated Services
• Companies that collect and sell common pools of
data of known commercial value designed to serve
a number of clients
• Syndicated sources can be classified based on the
unit of measurement (households/consumers or
institutions)
• Household/consumer data may be obtained from
surveys, diary panels, or electronic scanner
services
• Institutional data may be obtained from retailers,
wholesalers, or industrial firms
 A Classification of
Syndicated Services
Unit of
Measurement

Households/
Institutions
Consumers
 Syndicated Services: Consumers
Households /
Consumers

Panels

Electronic
Purchase Media scanner services

Surveys Volume Scanner Scanner

Tracking Data Panels Panels with
Cable TV
Psychographic Advertising
General
& Lifestyles Evaluation
Syndicated Services: Institutions
Institutions

Retailers Wholesalers Industrial firms

Audits

Direct Clipping Corporate

Inquiries Services Reports
Single-Source Data
– Single-source data provide integrated information on
household variables, including media consumption and
purchases, and marketing variables, such as product
sales, price, advertising, promotion, and in-store
marketing effort
Recruit a test panel of households and meter each
home's TV sets
– Survey households periodically on what they read
– Grocery purchases are tracked by UPC scanners
– Track retail data, such as sales, advertising, and
promotion