Unit 1: Biology and

the Scientific
Method
Unit 1: Biology and the Scientific Method 3
Vocabulary
Study the vocabulary words and definitions below.
apparatus ........................................ the equipment or tools needed for a
specific task (pl. apparati)
Example: forceps are dissecting apparati
biologist .......................................... a person who studies the science of life
biology ............................................ the study of living things; the science of
life
conclusion ...................................... the logical evaluation of a theory as
shown by data from an experiment or
evidence from experience
control ............................................. that part of the experiment where the
variable is not changed
data .................................................. information recorded on all aspects of
an experiment
experiment ..................................... an activity designed to test a hypothesis
fact ................................................... something known with certainty
hypothesis ...................................... a statement that may explain a group of
related observations (pl. hypotheses)
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Unit 1: Biology and the Scientific Method
metric system................................. an international system of measurement
based on multiples of 10
microscope ..................................... an instrument with a series of
magnifying lenses for inspecting objects
too small to be seen in detail by the
unaided eye
observation..................................... something learned through the senses
sight, hearing, taste, smell, or touch
problem........................................... a question that can be answered through
observation and experimentation
science ............................................. the system by which data is gathered,
problems are solved, and theories are
developed; it seeks to describe the scope
and function of the universe
scientific method........................... a logical, orderly way to solve a problem
or answer a question using
experimentation and observation
superstition .................................... an untested or untestable belief upheld
by faith in magic or chance
theory .............................................. a generalized explanation of events
based on the conclusions of several
experiments made by several people
over a long period of time
variable ........................................... a condition that can be changed
throughout the experiment to test the
hypothesis
Unit 1: Biology and the Scientific Method 5
Introduction
Biologists are people who study the science of life. Science provides a
way to ask questions about the world around us and to find reliable
answers. Biologists and other scientists use a system to investigate
questions that is called the scientific method. Though this term may
sound rather technical, all of us use the scientific method to some extent
each day as we make sense of information.
Science is an exciting exercise because it gives us a way to investigate the
things that puzzle us. Biology, as the science of life, involves everything
around usthe trees outside the window as well as the fingernail on your
little finger. Its more than a subject that begins and ends as you open and
close this book. So crank up that scientific method and look around: Ask
why, find out how get the facts!
The Scientific Method: What Is It?
People once used superstition and myth to explain everyday happenings
such as thunder (the gods must be angry) to the origins of tadpoles
(they come from the mud). People now try to explain such mysteries
with the help of the scientific method. The scientific method is a way to
logically answer questions.
The scientific method involves several steps. First, you identify a problem
or an area of interest. You state it as a question that you think you can
answer through further investigation. Second, you gather more
information about the problem. Third, you construct a statement that you
think explains what you have observed. This statement is called a
hypothesis. Fourth, you carry out an experiment to test your hypothesis.
You must make careful observations of
the results of your experiment. Using
these, you draw a conclusion that is
supported by your observations. It
is important to note a few points
about conclusions. Conclusions
are based on observations from
experiments. They are not based
on observing the entire
universe. For that reason,
Draw conclusions and
report the results.
Identify the problem.
Gather information on the problem.
Form a hypothesis.
Experiment to test the
hypothesis.
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Unit 1: Biology and the Scientific Method
conclusions can do only a few things. A conclusion can show a hypothesis
is untrue. Conclusions cannot prove a hypothesis is true. At first, this may
seem strange, but remember:
conclusions can prove a hypothesis is
untrue
conclusions can support a hypothesis
or state it seems likely
conclusions can never prove a
hypothesis is true
Remember
Whatever conclusions you reach, the conclusion is only a part of the
scientific method. It relies on the rest of the scientific method being
performed properly.
1. Identify the problem.
2. Gather information on the problem.
3. Form a hypothesis.
4. Experiment to test the hypothesis.
5. Draw conclusions and report the results.
Remember, the scientific method
involves the following five steps:
Though its easy to laugh at the superstitions of people from long ago,
strange notions based on mistakes in thinking are not limited to the far
past. In fact, when we look at some of the wrong conclusions people have
drawn from their observations, even recently, it gives us even more reason
to apply the scientific method very carefully to problems we face today.
Unit 1: Biology and the Scientific Method 7
The Scientific Method in Action
The problem of yellow fever is a good example of how the scientific
method was used to fight myth and superstition. Yellow fever is a disease
that used to kill thousands of people, particularly in the southern United
States and throughout Central and South America. Large numbers of
people died in outbreaks of this disease as recently as the early 1900s.
Until the turn of the century, people didnt know where this disease came
from. Some burned fires in an effort to clean the air, thinking it somehow
came from bad air. In Jacksonville, Florida, authorities would fire cannons
across the St. Johns River, hoping the vibrations would chase the disease
away.
However, in collecting information on yellow fever, some scientists
noticed that outbreaks of the disease mainly occurred in swampy areas
areas with lots of mosquitoes. When these scientists presented their
hypothesis that mosquitoes carried the disease, some peopleincluding
other scientiststhought this was such a stupid idea that they slashed
their window screens to show their disbelief in this explanation.
As an experiment for testing their hypothesis, the scientists suggested
widespread mosquito extermination. The number of mosquito bites was
the variable they wanted to change. Areas where the number of mosquito
bites remained the same served as a control for their experiment. As
people wiped out mosquitoes by draining swamps and other places
where they breed, there were fewer outbreaks of the disease.
From this data, many formed the conclusion that mosquitoes were indeed
the carriers of the disease. Using this conclusion to investigate the disease
further, scientists finally discovered that one specific type of mosquito
carries a virus that causes yellow fever. From this
and other scientific investigations, biologists
have come up with the theory that
communicable diseases are caused by living
organisms, not bad air or other
superstitions. A theory is a general
description of activity based on many
supported hypotheses.
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Unit 1: Biology and the Scientific Method
Talking About It
From this story its obvious that open discussion between scientists is very
important in solving scientific problems. What if the scientists who
believed that mosquitoes were the carriers of yellow fever had been
unable to present their opinion and test their hypothesis? Even though
many people thought they were crazy, some pursued their hypothesis
using the scientific method. The story of yellow fever is an important
lesson in how even supposed experts argue among themselves and how
every hypothesis has value until it is proven wrong.
Scientists present their work for discussion by publishing it in scientific
journals. You may have heard of the New England Journal of Medicine or the
American Naturalist. In these journals, scientists describe their experiments
clearly and present their measurements in the metric system, a system of
measurement that is used worldwide for science (see Metric Tables, pages
329-330). This gives other scientists a chance to read about new work and
discoveries to decide whether the scientific method was used correctly to
form conclusions. Other scientists may even go so far as to repeat an
experiment to see if they get the same results that were reported. In this
way scientists can check each other's work.
The scientists who investigated yellow fever were exploring a new
problem. As we mentioned above, other scientists investigated previous
results. Since the conclusion of the investigation into yellow fever, other
experiments have been conducted. These theories have been used to make
predictions. Another reason to investigate is to check how well a theory
predicts. Occasionally, two theories may be proposed. In this case,
scientists investigate to see which theory best fits the results.
?
Theory One Theory Two
Yellow Fever
?
mosquitoes were
to blame
bad air was to
blame
With yellow fever, we could consider that there were two theories. One
theory said bad air was to blame, and another said mosquitoes were the
culprits. We have learned that the mosquito theory seems to have been
Unit 1: Biology and the Scientific Method 9
better. As we mentioned before, though, no theory is ever proven true. It
is possible (though highly unlikely) that some new theory may better
describe how people catch yellow fever. This is one of the most important
ideas in science. No matter how well one theory may work, another may
work better. It may describe more or predict more. This process leads to
the occasional discarding of theories.
What happens when such a theory is discarded? One result is that we
have a better understanding of the universe. Most such changes are small.
As we saw with yellow fever, sometimes the changes are drastic. As time
passes, we gain a more refined view of the world and universe. Scientists
don't think they will ever achieve absolute truth, but they will continue to
improve upon what we know. Each day we get a better picture of our
world.
Its important that each of us use the scientific method when we read the
newspaper each day. Does the news seem to present the facts fairly? Does
the writer seem to jump to conclusions that disagree with the data? What
about advertisements? Does a television cost any less if you rent to own
instead of saving up your money and paying for it all at once?
Experimental Equipment
Biologists and other scientists have come up with a variety of tools. These
different tools, called apparati, are for testing their hypotheses through
experiments. Youre probably familiar with one common apparatus, the
microscope. The computer is another apparatus. There are some items
that you will have to practice to know and use well. Basic equipment is
described on page 11, Scientific Apparatus.
The microscope is one of the most important tools in
biology because it increases our powers of observation.
Though the microscope may seem like a rather
complicated machine, its really just a set of
magnifying lenses. It magnifies both through the lens
of the eyepiece and a second lens nearer the thing
you're examining. When you use a microscope,
you prepare the thing you wish to observethe
specimenby placing it on a glass slide. Then,
when the slide is placed on the microscope stage,
light passes through both the specimen and
through the lenses. The image you see is
magnified many times.
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Unit 1: Biology and the Scientific Method
eyepiece
low-power
objective lens
high-power
objective lens
stage clips
stage
base
light
or mirror
diaphragm
coarse
adjustment
knob
fine
adjustment
knob
arm
4
x
4
0
x
Parts of the Microscope
Unit 1: Biology and the Scientific Method 11
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5 Laboratory Graduated Avoirdupois/ Metric Scale
droppers petri dish beaker test
tube
thermometer
dissecting scissors
scalpel
probe
graduated
cylinder
microscope
slide
balance
forceps
hand lens
flask
mortar and
pestle
safety goggles
metric
ruler
The other lab equipment you will be using, for the most part, includes
containers for mixing and tools for measuring. Become familiar with their
names so that youll be comfortable using them in experiments.
Scientific Apparatus
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Unit 1: Biology and the Scientific Method
Safety in the Lab
Working safely usually means using common sense. Because most of us are
sensible people, its easy to think we know all we need to know about
safety. However, thats not necessarily the case in a laboratory setting. The
laboratory is at least a little bit unfamiliar to most students. Therefore,
situations might come up where the sensible thing to do isnt obvious.
Thats why its important to look at safety rules developed by people who
are used to working in laboratories and have experience with the dangers
that might arise in a laboratory.
Read the Safety Guidelines below. Learn them well enough that they
become second nature when youre working in a lab. They will save you
from mistakes that have hurt other people as they were working. These
rules are designed to protect you.
1. Read and follow all directions while working in the laboratory.
2. Wear protective gear, such as aprons, at all times. Wear goggles
when working with dangerous or hot chemicals, or any time
your teacher instructs you to do so.
3. NEVER taste or directly inhale chemicals. Waft chemicals to smell
them. Your teacher can show you how.
4. DO NOT bring food or drink into the lab.
5. Wash hands thoroughly after each lab.
6. DO NOT rub eyes or put hands in mouth.
7. Dress in a way that helps you work safely and efficiently in the
lab. Tie your hair back. Wear cottonit doesnt catch fire as easily
as nylon or polyester. Always keep your shoes on while in the
lab. Roll up long or loose sleeves.
8. DO NOT look directly down into the mouth of a filled test tube.
DO NOT point the mouth of a filled test tube at another student.
Liquid can splash into eyes.
9. DO NOT perform any experiments unless the instructor is in
the room.
10. Report ALL minor and major accidents to your instructor.
11. Know the location of the safety shower, eye wash, and fire blanket.
Know how to use these important pieces of safety equipment.
12. Turn off gas burners and the gas outlets when no one is using
them. NEVER leave a lit burner unattended.
13. Keep lab tables clean and neat to prevent accidents. Wipe all
areas at the end of the lab.
14. MAKE SAFETY A HABIT!
Safety Guidelines
Unit 1: Biology and the Scientific Method 13
Summary
The scientific method gives us a framework for posing and answering
questions. It consists of the following steps:
1. Identify the problem.
2. Gather information on the problem.
3. Form a hypothesis.
4. Experiment to test the hypothesis.
5. Draw conclusions and report the results.
Open discussion allows scientists to compare the results of their
experiments. A commitment to review by other scientists is essential.
Scientists use the metric system as a standard system of measurement for
all experiments.
Scientists conduct investigations on new problems to check old theories, to
test how well a theory predicts, and to compare theories. These
investigations sometimes lead to large changes; more often, changes are
small. These changes take place because a conclusion is never proven true.
Sometimes theories are discarded. The result of all this is an improved
view of the world.
Scientific equipment, particularly microscopes, is useful in studying
biology. Practicing safety in the laboratory protects you, your classmates,
and the scientific equipment you use.
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4
0
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Careers in Biology
Laboratory technicians assist in the operation of
scientific labs. These labs can vary widely to include
medical research labs, chemistry labs, or
pharmaceutical labs. The work done by a technician
may be overseen or monitored by scientists, doctors,
or others who direct the investigation. Some
technicians receive on-the-job-training while others
may take some college course work to prepare. The
need for laboratory technicians seems to be growing.
Laboratory Technician