Unit 1 Introduction to System Structure: 1.1 Introduction Objectives 1.2 Definition of a System Common characteristics of systems 1.3 Types of Systems Physical or abstract systems Open or closed systems Deterministic or probabilistic systems Man-made information systems Manual and automated systems Real time systems Distributed systems Business system 1.4 Delineating Systems, Products and Tools System context Product context Tool context 1.5 Precedented versus Unprecedented Systems 1.6 Analytical Representation of a System 1.7 Systems that Require Engineering What is system engineering? System engineering tasks 1.8 Summary 1.9 Glossary 1.10 Terminal Questions 1.11 Answers 1.1 Introduction The study of System Analysis and Design begins with the understanding of SYSTEM. Experience has shown that many people find it hard to clearly and concisely define a system and related key issues. Before embarking on the journey of understanding System Analysis and Design, we need to understand some basic concepts such as: System System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 2 Components of a system Types of systems Functions Outcomes Precedented and unprecedented systems This unit will cover various basic concepts of system. We start by dening a system and the various aspects of the system. Then we introduce different types of systems and illustrate the differences between systems, products, and tools. We will also learn what precedented and unprecedented systems are. We will also study analytical and graphical characterisation of a system. Finally, we will conclude the unit by studying systems that require engineering. Objectives: After studying this unit, you should be able to: define a system discuss various types of systems identify how to delineate systems, products, and tools discuss precedented versus unprecedented systems explain analytical representation of a system discuss the systems that require engineering. 1.2 Definition of a System The name system is developed from the Greek word systma, which represents an organised connection between various functioning units or constituents. A system is a collection of components working together for a common, well defined purpose. Essentially there are three major components of a system namely input, processing and output as seen in figure 1.1. Systems can be large and complex, such as the metro railway control system or mobile phone network or small such as a pocket calculator. System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 3
Figure 1.1: Basic System Components In the system, all the components are linked with each other and they are dependent on each other. Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines System as: A regularly interacting or interdependent group of items forming a unified whole (a number system): as a. A group of interacting bodies under the influence of related forces (a gravitational system) b. An assemblage of substances that is in or tends to equilibrium (a thermodynamic system) c. A group of body organs that together perform one or more vital functions (the digestive system) d. The body considered as a functional unit e. A group of related natural objects or forces (a river system) f. A group of devices or artificial objects or an organisation forming a network especially for distributing something or serving a common purpose (a telephone system) (a heating system) (a highway system) (a computer system) g. A major division of rocks usually larger than a series and including all formed during a period or era h. A form of social, economic, or political organisation or practice (the capitalist system) Sometimes direct or indirect feedback component is involved which is also important to the operation of the system (See figure 1.2) System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 4
Figure 1.2: A Systems Model with Feedback You can also consider a computer as a system. Such a system may consist of a single computer with a keyboard, memory and printer or a series of intelligent terminals connected to a mainframe. The real meaning of a system is that each constituent is an element of the total system and has to do its share to function for the system to attain the designed goal. This orientation needs a systematic grouping of the constituents for design for a successful system. Examples of Systems Engineering: Engineered systems such as traffic control networks and communication networks are successful example of systems from operational viewpoint. Business: In Business world, all commercial and financial institutions can be thought of as systems with components such as inputs, outcomes and feedback. Nature: Much of nature is a system as many components act unitedly to create a final result. Our solar system is a system of planets, each in a unique orbit and controlled by a common gravitational forces. Our human body is an example of a perfect system. Society: Social organisations, such as governments and cities may be described as systems. 1.2.1 Common characteristics of systems Nearly all systems have some common characteristics. These are: Systems have a general structure defined by its parts and actions. Systems function in the same way involving inputs, processes and outputs. The different parts of a system are interdependent. System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 5 Systems often interact outside their boundary with external environment through several input and output processes. There is high degree of integration between the components of systems. Self Assessment Questions 1. The term system is derived from the Greek word ____________ which means an organised relationship among functioning units or components. 2. A system is an orderly grouping of interdependent components linked together according to a plan to achieve a specific objective. (True/False) 1.3 Types of Systems Now as we are clear about the concept of system, let us study different types of systems. There are different types of system. These can be categorised in many ways. One such classification of systems is given below: Physical or Abstract Systems Open or closed systems Deterministic or probabilistic systems Man-made information systems Manual and automated systems Real Time systems Distributed systems Business systems 1.3.1 Physical or abstract systems Physical systems are material entities that may be static or dynamic in process. For example, the physical constituents of the computer centre are the offices, desks, and chairs that facilitate function of the computer. They can be observed and counted, they are static. Alternatively, programmed computer is treated as a dynamic system where data, programs, output and application alters as the user's need or the priority of the information requested changes. System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 6 Abstract systems are theoretical or non-physical entities which may be as simple as formulas of associations between sets of variables or models. For example, a model is a display of an actual or a designed system. The utilisation of models makes it easier for the analyst to imagine associations in the system under observation. 1.3.2 Open or closed systems An open system frequently converses with its surroundings. It obtains inputs from and provides output to the outside. Information system is an example of an open system, as it is adapted to the altering requests of the user. On the contrary, a closed system is cut off from ecological manipulation. In reality, closed systems are uncommon. 1.3.3 Deterministic, probabilistic systems A deterministic system is defined as a system one in which the incidence of all events is completely forecasted. If we obtain the depiction of the system condition at a specific time, the next condition can be simply calculated. An example of such a system is a numerically handled machine tool. On the other hand, for a probabilistic system also called stochastic system for the same input conditions, output will vary. This variation is explained by probability theory. Thus a deterministic system will always give the same output for a set of input conditions. An example of such a system is a warehouse and the stuffing inside it. 1.3.4 Man-made information systems An information system is the foundation for communication among the user and the analyst. It identifies the nature of association between decision makers. Actually, it may be observed as a decision centre for workers at all levels. From this foundation, an information system may be considered as a set of devices, events and operating systems intended to generate information and present it to the user for planning, control and presentation. Many practitioners do not recognise that a business has many information systems; each is intended for a particular reason. The main information systems are: Formal information systems Informal information systems Computer based information system System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 7 Formal information system distinctly defines the work flow, communication flow and the position. The information runs from top to bottom level in terms of goals, rules and regulations, policies and strategies and from bottom to top level in terms of results, feedback, reports, etc. There are three classes of information related to the Formal Information Systems: Strategic Information: Related to long term planning policies. Managerial Information: Used by the middle level management in policy execution and control. Operational Information: Daily information required to operate the business. Informal information system is an employee-based system designed to fulfil personnel and vocational requirements and to help find the solution of work-related difficulties. It also moves information upward via indirect channels. Computer based information systems; Third category of information system relies mostly on the computer for managing business applications. Systems analysts build up numerous different types of information systems to fulfil a multiplicity of business requirements. Computer Based Information Systems is further categorised as: Transaction Processing Systems (TPS) Management Information Systems (MIS) Decision Support Systems (DSS) Office Automation Systems (OAS) Figure 1.3 shows the Hierarchy of CBIS.
Figure 1.3: Hierarchical View of CBIS System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 8 Transaction Processing Systems (TPS): The most basic computer based system in an organisation is related to business transactions. A transaction processing system is a computer based system that captures, categorises, accumulates, maintains, updates and recovers transaction data for record maintaining and for input to other kinds of CBIS. Activities covered under transaction processing system are placing orders, billing customers, appointing employees, depositing cheques, etc. Transaction processing systems offer orderliness, speed and accuracy and can be programmed to follow routines without any inconsistency. Figure 1.4 illustrates a TPS in which a customer is doing a transaction of electronic payment.
Figure 1.4: Transaction Processing System Example of TPS Withdrawing of money by you from an ATM machine is a good example of TPS. The transaction must be carried out instantaneously and the account balance updated as quickly as possible, to authorise the client and the financial institution having the account to preserve a record of funds. Management Information System (MIS): Just a few years back, computer applications were related with record keeping and the automation of daily clerical processes. However, now the computer applications are being used System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 9 to offer information for policy making, management planning and control reasons. MIS can be explained as an information system that offers management with information necessary for implementation of smooth business. This information must be important, timely, precise, complete and concise and inexpensively feasible. Figure 1.5 demonstrates the use of CBIS in management information system.
Figure 1.5: CBIS in an Organisation Setting One example of MIS is monetary accounting system. Decision Support Systems (DSS): It is an information system that provides the type of information that may not be anticipated, the kind that business professionals may require only once. DSS helps management in making unstructured or semi-structured decisions. A decision is treated as unstructured if there are no apparent procedures for making the decision and if not all the factors to be considered in the decision can be readily recognised in advance. To see if it would be a good business decision, managers could use a DSS like the one shown in figure 1.6.
System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 10
Figure 1.6: Decision Support System The decision support system only assists; it does not replace the judgment of manager. Office Automation Systems (OAS): Office automation system refers to the computer systems and software used to generate, gather, stock, and communicate office information required for completing basic tasks and goals.
Figure 1.7: OAS Workflow System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 11 Data storage, electronic transmission and the management of business information are the basic activities of an OAS. Figure 1.7 portrays smooth working process in an office using OAS. Advantages of OAS Better Security Ease of Use Saves Energy Ease in Performing Repetitive Tasks Faster Decision Making Increased Safety Better Quality Control Greater Precision Increased Productivity Improved Design through Simulation A brief summary of different information systems characteristics is given in Table 1.1. Table 1.1: Categories of Information Systems Category of Information System Characteristics Transaction Processing System Substitutes computer-based processing for manual processes. Includes record-keeping applications. Management Information System Provides input to be used in the managerial decision process. Deals with supporting well structured decision situations. Typical information requirements can be anticipated Decision Support System Provides information to managers who make judgements about particular situations. Supports decision makes in situations that are not well structured. Office Automation System It is a multi-function, integrated computer based system that allows many office activities to be performed in an electronic mode.
System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 12 1.3.5 Manual and automated systems In a manual system, human operators carry out all the operations. The processors are not machines but humans. On the contrary, in an automated system, machines perform the system operations. The degree of human involvement may vary. In a fully automated system, no human involvement is necessary. 1.3.6 Real time systems Systems that must produce the output within specified limits of time after obtaining the requisite input are referred to as real time systems. Real time systems include all those systems that have a very small response time. Typically, a real time system consists of the components organised in the following manner, as shown in figure 1.8.
Figure 1.8: Components of Real Time System The turn-around time of a real time system is very rigid. Example: Aircraft autopilot system is a good example of a real time system. The autopilot must respond to an emergency immediately, failing which disastrous consequences are inevitable. 1.3.7 Distributed systems A system whose components are not all localised at one place is called a distributed system. The localisation may be in terms of physically separated at different geographical locations or simply logically separated. The resources of such systems are normally located at different places under System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 13 different forms but all the components at all the places work in tandem to achieve the system goal. The Internet is a very good example of a distributed system. A web page may be located at a logical site called www.abc.com physically hosted on a server possibly at another site. Moreover, one of the picture elements of the page may be located in Australia and another in Honolulu. 1.3.8 Business system Business systems are the means by which business organisations achieve their predetermined goals. A business system combines policies, personnel, equipment and computer facilities to co-ordinate the activities of a business organisation. Essentially, a business system represents an organised way of achieving the pre-determined objectives of an organisation. Business system with its environment includes various elements. These system elements are: Physical (buildings, raw materials, finished products) Procedural (order processing routines, credit checking procedures) Conceptual (statement of policy, market for products) Social (workers, departments) A business system is a subsystem of society and is surrounded by other systems of the business environment. It is an open, adaptive system, exchanging inputs and outputs with its environment and adjusting to the demands of various environmental systems. A business tries to maintain proper interrelationships with the economic, political and social stockholders in its environment. These include customers, suppliers, competitors, stockholders, labour unions, financial institutions, government and the community. Figure 1.9 shows a diagram of a business as a system, with resources, financial stakeholders, market, competition and environmental factors as the inputs and output. System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 14
Figure 1.9: Business as a System A business is typically subdivided into various organisational subsystems. These subsystems typically represent functional areas such as marketing, manufacturing and finance. In an ideal manufacturing business organisation, the functional subsystems are finance, sales, production, human resource management, marketing, stock and purchase. These subsystems are systems in themselves.. This enables easy understanding of the organisation as a whole. Business Subsystems A business system can be divided into a number of subsystems, especially the functional areas. These include, Marketing and purchasing subsystems: Those dealing closely with the environment. Production subsystem: Those dealing with transformational functions, and Accounting, personnel and management subsystems: Those acting in a supportive role System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 15 These subsystems are all interconnected and designed to reflect the overall organisational objectives. A simple model of the subsystems of a business showing some of the relationships is shown below in figure 1.10.
Figure 1.10: Relationship between Subsystems of a Business It is very difficult to define the boundaries of a system and its subsystems. As we see in the figure 1.11, the interface within a business is indicated, thereby illustrating the difficulty in defining the boundaries; should purchasing be a subsystem of production? Should distribution be a subsystem of marketing rather than production? etc. The functional areas of the organisation are determined by the nature of the organisation's business. In general, the areas are characterised by their need to satisfy the demands of particular group of customers or clients. These demands can be satisfied in a number of possible ways, e.g. Manufacturing and selling a product, which has been produced from raw material or by, further processing of products purchased from other organisations. System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 16 Purchasing and distributing finished products (wholesaling and retailing). Offering a service (e.g., hotel and catering, education, banking, insurance, cleaning, maintaining activities) Self Assessment Questions 3. A _______________ system is one in which the occurrence of all events is perfectly predictable. 4. Breaking down various subsystems of a business, simplifies the complexities in the business and management becomes easier. (True/False) 5. Transaction Processing Systems are aimed at improving the routine ____________ activities on which all organisations depend. 6. A system whose components are not all localised at a single site is called a __________________ system. 7. Transaction processing systems does not provide speed and accuracy and cannot be programmed to follow routines without any variance. (True/False) 1.4 Delineating Systems, Products and Tools Now let us study systems, products, and tools. People are frequently confused about the concept and inter-relationship between systems, products, and tools. Lets examine each of these in detail and also how they are related to each other. 1.4.1 System context We have already discussed System in this unit. A system may comprise two or more elements that work in synchronisation to accomplish a common target that may not be successfully achieved by each element working on individual basis. The system elements usually consist of humans, products, and tools. Generally, man-made systems require some level of human resources for scheduling, function or support. 1.4.2 Product context Many systems are created as a work product by other systems. A product is a facilitating element of a bigger system and is usually a physical entity having distinctability such as form and function with a defined level of performance. System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 17 Products need human support to self-apply themselves as they lack intelligence (self-thinking). Also, the products cannot accomplish the system mission goals without human guidance and support in one way or another. In simple terms, we can associate products as items which we can acquire from a vendor. A product may in fact be a vendors system that is used into ours system, thus generate a system of systems (SoS). Example 1. A hammer which can be bought from a store is a physical entity having form and function but cannot apply itself to driving nails into the wall. 2. An aircraft, as a system and a product, is incorporated into an airlines system and may acquire the capability to fly under some circumstances, only when programmed by the pilot. 1.4.3 Tool context A tool is a support product that helps a system or user to enhance its own performance and capabilities. A number of systems or products are considered as tools by upper level systems. Example 1. A simple pulley (system) as a tool, allows a person to leverage his physical power to move a heavy load that otherwise could not be moved at all by him. 2. A statistical software application, as a helping tool, allows a user to examine huge quantities of data in a small phase of time. Self Assessment Questions 8. A _______________ is an assisting product that facilitates a user or system to influence its own potentials and presentation. 9. A product, as a facilitating element of a bigger system, is usually a physical tool or entity that has a particular ability with a defined level of presentation. (True/False) 1.5 Precedented versus Unprecedented Systems As now we have cleared the concepts of System, Product and Tool, now let us study Precedented and Unprecedented Systems. System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 18 Most systems develop or evolve with time. Each new evolution brings about changes in the system that increases the capabilities of the previous system by employing new technologies, tools, techniques, and so on. There are cases where new challenges are encountered that are unprecedented. We describe them as precedented and unprecedented systems. Precedented systems are those for which; The needs are reliable and well recognised. The system structural design is identified to be sufficient for the needs. The acquisition and expansion teams have functioned together to generate an analogous preceding system. Noncompliance of one or more of the elements mentioned above makes the system to be unprecedented. Precedence is one of the most significant elements in the well-timed expansion of any system. In most of the cases, it is more important than many of the issues like tools, techniques architecture, etc. Let us understand unprecedented system by means of an example: Even though the NASA had previously landed unmanned probes on the moon, the Apollo Lunar Spacecraft was the first one in the line of manned lunar landing and launch craft. Self Assessment Questions 10. Precedence is one of the most significant elements in the well-timed expansion of quality _______________. 11. Precedence is more important than many of the issues like tools, techniques architecture, etc in development of unprecedented systems. (True/False) 1.6 Analytical Representation of a System Let us now discuss how to represent a system analytically. As a generalisation, we represent a system as an elementary entity by means of a rectangular box as demonstrated in figure 1.11. Usually, inputs (ex. Stimuli/Cues) are entered into a system which then processes these inputs and generates an output. On a basic level, this representation is satisfactory; but we need more inputs to clearly identify what the system executes. System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 19 The simple diagram in figure 1.11 symbolises a system. Yet, from an analytical point of view, it is missing vital information that refers to how the system functions and operates within its operating environment.
Figure 1.11: Basic System Entity
Figure 1.12: Analytical System Entity The figure 1.12 displays a system from an analytical point of view having all essential elements. The traits of the construct such as acceptable inputs, unacceptable inputs, stakeholders, and acceptable outputs/unacceptable outputs are shown in the diagram, which can act as a checklist to make sure that all factors are thought of when defining, designing, and developing a system. Self Assessment Questions 12. Usually, inputs like stimuli and cues are provided into a system that processes the inputs and generates an ______________. 13. Systems functionality only symbolises the action to be achieved; not how well as exemplified by presentation. (True/False)
System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 20 1.7 Systems that Require Engineering By now, you must be comfortable with the concept of systems. You have studied various types of systems. Some of these systems are workflow- based systems that generate systems, products, or services like schools, hospitals, banking systems, and producers. As such, they need insightful, competent, and successful organisational structures, assisting assets, and mutual communications. A number of systems need the thorough examination, design, development of particular structures, composite interactions, and presentation monitoring that may have an effect on the security, and welfare of the public in addition to the environment; thus engineering of systems may be needed. For example, business systems may need application of different analytical and arithmetical values to build up business models and presentation models to find out profitability and return on investment (ROI) and arithmetical theory for most favourable waiting line or climate conditions, for example. In the case of extremely complex systems, analytical, arithmetical, and technical values may have to be considered. We call this Engineering of Systems, which may call for a combination of engineering fields like system engineering, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering and software engineering. These disciplines may be needed at several phases throughout the analysis, design, and development of a system. Here, we will study the concepts, values, and practices that are relevant to the analysis, design, and growth of both types of systems. These two groups implicate a noticeable difference among those that need engineering and those that do not. So, how do you identify when the engineering of systems is needed? The most effective way to address this question is: What is system engineering? 1.7.1 What is system engineering? In simple words, System Engineering (SE) is the multi-dimensional engineering of systems. There are a many ways to dene system engineering, depending on an organisations or individuals views and experiences, etc. System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 21 The term, Engineering is derived from Latin word ingenerare, which means to create. Now, let us define SE. It can be defined as: System engineering is an inter disciplinary approach and helps in realization of successful systems, by integrating all the disciplines and specialty groups into a team effort, forming a structured development process, that proceeds from concept, to production to operations. 1.7.2 System engineering tasks Systems engineering is a complex process comprising of the following seven tasks (Bahill and Gissing). State the Problem: It means identifying output, understanding needs, discovering necessities and defining system functions. Investigate Alternatives: Alternatives are looked into and evaluated. Model the System: Running models clears up necessities, exposes chokepoints, cuts down cost and discloses duplication of efforts. Integrate: It means designing user interface and coordinating of elements together so they work as a unit. Launch the System: It means working the system and creating outputs. Assess Performance: Performance is evaluated using valuation criteria, technical functioning measures, etc. Re-evaluation: Re-evaluation should be a continuous and looping process with many parallel loops. This process can be summarised as SIMILAR as given by Bahill and Gissing. (See figure 1.13)
Figure 1.13: Bahill and Gissings Model of SE Process System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 22 Self Assessment Questions 14. The term, engineering develops from the Latin word ingenerare, which signifies ______________. 15. ________________ symbolises dissimilar things to dissimilar people. 1.8 Summary Let us summarise the important concepts discussed in the unit: A system is a collection of components working together for some purpose. Systems have been classified into different types such as physical or abstract systems, open or closed systems, deterministic or probabilistic systems, man-made information systems, manual and automated systems, real time systems, distributed systems, and business systems. The system elements usually consist of humans, products, and tools. A product is a facilitating element of a bigger system and is usually a physical entity having a distinct ability such as form and function with a defined level of performance. Products need human support to self- apply themselves as they lack intelligence. A tool is a support product that helps a system or user to enhance its own performance and capabilities. Most systems develop or evolve with time. Each new evolution brings about changes in the system that increases the capabilities of the previous system by employing new technologies, tools and techniques. Inputs are entered into a system which then processes these inputs and generates an output. System Engineering (SE) is the multi-disciplinary engineering of systems. 1.9 Glossary Abstract systems: Abstract systems are theoretical or non-physical entities. Business systems: Systems by which business organisations achieve their predetermined goals. Decision Support Systems: An information system that provides the type of information that may not be anticipated, the kind that business professionals may require only once. System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 23 Deterministic system: A system in which the incidence of all events is completely forecasted. Distributed system: A system whose components are not all localised at one place. Information system: A set of devices, events and operating systems intended to generate information and present it to the user for planning, control and presentation. Management Information System: An information system that offers management with information necessary for implementation of smooth business. Office Automation Systems: Computer systems and software used to generate, gather, stock, and communicate office information required for completing basic tasks and goals. Physical systems: Material entities that may be static or dynamic in process. Probabilistic system: A system in which the incidence of events cannot be completely forecasted. Product: A physical tool that has a specific aptitude with a definite level of performance. Real time systems: Systems that must produce the output within specified limits of time after obtaining the requisite input. System: Collection of components working together for a common, well defined purpose. Tool: A supporting product that allows a system to improve its output. Transaction processing system: A computer based system that captures, categorises, accumulates, maintains, updates and recovers transaction data for record maintaining and for input to other CBIS. 1.10 Terminal Questions 1. What do you understand by a system? Also discuss the basic implications. System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 24 2. What is a business system? Illustrate the concept of simple model of the subsystems of a business showing some of the relationships. 3. Describe the concept of Systems, Products and Tools with examples. 4. Explain how to represent a system analytically. 5. Business is typically subdivided into various organisational subsystems. Comment. 1.11 Answers Self Assessment Questions 1. Systema 2. True 3. Deterministic 4. True 5. business 6. distributed 7. False 8. Tool 9. True 10. Software 11. False 12. Output 13. True 14. To create 15. System engineering Terminal Questions 1. A system is defined as an arranged grouping of inter-reliant components connected jointly as per a plan to accomplish a particular goal. Refer section 1.2. 2. A business system is basically used to unite policies, personnel, equipment, and computer services to organise the activities of a business association. Business organisation is the one which generates goods or services for consumers with an intention of obtaining profit. Refer section 1.3.8. System Analysis and Design Unit 1 Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 25 3. Systems typically enclose humans, products, and tools in varying degrees. A product is generally a physical tool or entity that has a specific capability with a specified level of performance. A tool is a back-up product that allows a user or system to control its own performance. Refer section 1.4. 4. A system is represented as a simple entity by using a rectangular box. The representation is acceptable; however, the more inputs are needed to discover what the system performs, more evidently. Refer section 1.6. 5. Subsystems are systems in themselves. These can also be subdivided into subsystems, which lead to effortless understanding of the organisation all together. Refer section 1.3. References: Kenneth, E. Kendall and Julie E. Kendall., Systems Analysis and Design, 5th Edition, Prentice Hall PTR, 2001. Elias, M. Award., System Analysis and Design, Galgotia Publication Pvt. Ltd., 1991. Gane and Sarson., Structured System Analysis and Design, Prentice- Hall, 1979. Silver, G. A., and Silver, M. L., System Analysis and Design, Addison Wesley Publishing Company, MA, 1989. E-references: asapm.org/asapmag/a_af.htm eastlymeschools.org wikibooks.org/ mbaknol.com ebiz-wiki.com www.web-books.com column2.com freetutes.com/systemanalysis freetutes.com/systemanalysis incose.org