CNT and Organic FETs Based Two-Way Transducing of the Neurosignals

R. Sklyar

Verchratskogo st. 15-1, Lviv 79010 Ukraine, sklyar@tsp.lviv.ua

ABSTRACT
A SuFET based neurotransducer (sensor) with
carbon nanotubes (CNT) or PC kind of input circuit for
the nerve and neuron impulse has been designed. A
nanoSuFET with a high-temperature superconducting
channel is introduced into the nerve fibre or brain tissue for
transducing their signals in both directions. Pickup coils are
implanted into an organism in order to obtain the natural
neurosignals from the organs and tissues, also the
artificially excited signals to them. On the bases of
depicted transducer a combined processor for the natural
and artificial information is advanced.

Keywords: neurosignals, SuFET, interface, textile,
processor

1 INTRODUCTION

The recent achievements in nanoelectronics can be
regarded as a further step in the progress of NS
transduction. They give us the possibility to create the most
advanced and universal device on the basis of known micro
systems. Such a sensor/transducer is suitable for picking up
neurosignals (NSs)- nerve and neuronic impulses (Fig. 1)-
and transforming it into recognizable information in the
form of electric voltage, or a concentration of organic or
chemical substances [1]. Moreover, this process can be
executed in reverse. Substances and/or voltages influence
NSs, thereby controling or creating them (NSs).

Fig. 1 Longitudinal section of an axon
showing a few lines of current flow

The advances in nanotechnology are opening the way
to achieving direct electrical contact of nanoelectronic
structures with electrically and electrochemically active
subcellular structures- including ion channels, and
receptors. Interfacing of nerve cells and field-effect
transistors (FETs) is determined by current flow along the
electrical resistance of the cell-chip junction. A spectral
power density of the junction is 510
-14
V
2
/Hz and can be
interpreted as Nyquist noise of the cell-chip junction with a
resistance of 3 MOhm by measuring the fluctuations of
extracellular voltage with a low-noise transistor [2]. The
thermal noise allows us to elucidate the properties of cell
adhesion and it sets a thermodynamical limit for the signal-
to-noise ratio of neuroelectronic interfacing.

2 DESIGN OF THE TRANSDUCER

Proceeding from the previously mentioned difficulties,
including superconducting element of the sensor/transducer
into an electric current could be the solution to the problem
[3]. Electronic or ionic currents in conductors or axons
respectively, passing through the superconducting FETs
(SuFETs) channel induce the output voltage on its gate
(Fig. 2). The method of combining the bioelectric nature of
NSs with body-temperature pickup coil (PC) and reverse
input of the SuFET device in order to obtain most
advantageous biosensor/transducer was recently advanced
[4] (Fig. 3). The SuFET is used as a zero-resistance
ammeter which converts drain currents into gate voltages.

Among the variety of the organic FET devices [1] there
are majority of them, mainly modifications of nanoFETs,
which allow simultaneous processing of a number of NSs
directly or from the PC. There are two factors that make
simultaneous processing possible. First of all, the sizes of
nanoFETs and nanoPCs are in the same order as the
transmitting substances of NSs, such as axons and neurons.
Secondly, the crossed-nanowire FET or textile (Fig. 4)

Fig. 2

An organic Su FET


and its electrodes

U
out

device
arrays are, in itself, multiinput. The remaining part of FET
devices are applicable for serial connection to the said
mediums. In addition, some of these FETs can be arranged
in the chain in order to transduce the NSs into different
physical and chemical quantities and vice versa [5].

3 COMBINING OF THE NATURAL AND
ARTIFICIAL PROCESSING ABILITIES

Multiprocessor data fusion is in effect intrinsically
performed by animals and human beings to achieve a more
accurate assessment of the processing environment. The
aim of signal processing by the combined artificial-living
being multiprocessor system is to acquire complete
information, such as a decision or the measurement of
quantity, using a selected set of input data stemming to a
multiprocessor system- digital data are coming to artificial
processor and the rest of information consumes by a neural
system of living being. Thereby, a big amount of available
information is managed using sophisticated data processing
for the achievement of a high level of precision and
reliability.

3.1 Arrangement of the Combined System
It is possible to substitute the microcomputer in an
object-oriented problem solution scheme by the natural
processing organ- brain or spinal cord. As a result, the
software component will be eliminated and the most
general characterization of the processing problem in one-
coordinate dimensional calculations could be acquired
naturally, according to the feedback reaction on the input
exposure for calibration, error correction, scaling up or
down, range extension, sampling, resolution, etc (see
Appendix).
in vivo
nerve
impulse
myelin
channel
gate
Vg
ionic
currents
SFET
axons
(Bio)Telemetr y
following external units
Fig. 1. An SFET based biotransducer and its signal behavior
transmit-
ting
unit
receiving
unit
visualization
and memory
units

SuFET
A
V
out
NI
B
i
bi o
s
PC
C
0
R
~
E
0
L
Shie ld
H

i
bi o
C

SuFET

V
out
Gate

Source
Draine


Cryostat
Fig 3. A neurotransducer as the inclusion of a SuFET device into the nerve fibre:
A- implantation of the whole high-Tc SuFET variant;
B and C- tapping of NSs i
bio
on the external SuFET by implantable wire contacts.

Fig. 4 Technological solutions for textile electronics: a) a ribbon; b) a cylindrical yarn.
a) b)
Application variety of the novel superconducting,
organic and CNT transducers allows us to design
processors of the biosignals (nerve, neuronic, DNA, etc.)
that transduce them into different quantities, including
electric voltage, density of chemical and biomolecules. On
the other hand, the said NSs can be controlled vice versa by
the applied electrical signals, or bio and chemical mediums
[4].

3.2 Application of a Solid-State
Electromagnetic (Optical) Transistor
The known ferromagnetic materials have a
hysteresis loop. That is why their application do not
possible because of ambiguity of characteristic. The device
for controlling the magnitude of optical flux by the
application of an electromagnetic (EM) field is based on a
ferroelectric (FE) or ferroelectromagnetic (FEM) polarizer
that allows the rotation of the polarizing plane according to
a hysteresis loop [6]. Besides, the controlling possibility of
the known ferromagnetic and FE devices is substantially
restricted by an ambiguous part of a hysteresis. That is why
it is possible only switching of an EM flux between two
stages.
The invented transistor consists of FE or FEM
processing crystal, source of an EM energy, and the
analysing element (Fig. 5). Control of an EM flux or OB
has been carried out by splitting them on two parts: a
passed one through the processing body and reflected part
by this body. An EF or MF is applied by the carbonic
nanotubes (CNT) or polymer nanowires to the crystal
which is rotating a polarization angle of EM flow or OB.
The electrical transport between the contact metal and the
nanotube occurs along the entire nanotube under the contact
electrode. This suggests that the transfer length, which is
defined as the distance required for current to flow into or
out of the contact electrode is thought to be less than 50 nm
[7]. This angle is rotated according to the linear part of a FE
or FEM crystals characteristic. The amplified signal is
analysed in the units of a polarization angle. The reflected
part is used as polarization P
2
() (Fig. 5) for creating the
logical (optical and magnetic) elements AND, OR, and
NOT. This device is switching or amplifying of EM flow
and OB as by magnitude, as well as by an angle of
polarization.
As a result, it will be possible to overcome the said
disadvantages of the known devices, namely: 1) to raise the
fast-action up to the maximal possible- the speed of
spreading an electromagnetic (optical) wave; 2) to reduce
the noise level in an amplified signal at the expense of
using the material with a unique fashion amplifying
(without a hysteresis) performance- without the internal
mechanical transformations; 3) to improve an ease of
manufacture by using of printing nanotechnologies and
expulsion of an additional optical planes or mirrors.

Opt
rev
Fig. 5 An Electromagnetic Transistor
based on CNT

Opt
trans
Opt
in
+

N

S

_

P2()
P1()
Ferro-el/magn

Exploitation of the parallel input to multiprocessor
allows determination of space and time dynamics of NSs in
the nerve fibre and neurons and also the amplification of
output signal U
out
by multiplying the concentration of
molecules according to a number of input NSs. After the
implantation of parallel SuFET(s) or optical transistors, the
averaging or summation of this dynamic among the whole
flow network, nerve fibre or neurons is possible.

REFERENCES
[1] R. Sklyar, Superconducting Organic and CNT
FETs as a Biochemical Transducer, ISMCR 2004:
14th International Symposium on Measurement and
Control in Robotics, NASA Johnson Space Center,
Houston, Texas, IEEE (ISMCR), section 24, (13
pages), 2004.
[2] F. Patolsky, B. P. Timko, G. Yu et al., Detection,
Stimulation, and Inhibition of Neuronal Signals
with High-Density Nanowire Transistor Arrays,
Science 313 (2006) 11001104.
[3] R.Sklyar, Superconducting Induction Magnetometer,
IEEE Sensors Journal, April 2006, Vol. 6, Iss. 2,
pages 357- 364.
[4] R. Sklyar, Sensors with a Bioelectronic Connection,
IEEE Sensors Journal (Special Issue), May 2007,
Vol. 7, Iss. 5, pp. 835-841.
[5] R. Sklyar, The Microfluidic Sensors of Liquids,
Gases, and Tissues, Journal of Automation, Mobile
Robotics and Intelligent Systems (JAMRIS), 2007,
No. 2, pp. 20-34.
[6] R. Sklyar, Patent UA #76691 "The control method
of the electromagnetic flow intensity and
amplifying elements on its bases, Bull. 9, 2006.
[7] Yo. Nosho et al., Evidence of Edge Conduction at
Nanotube/Metal Contact in Carbon Nanotube
Devices, Jap. J. of Appl. Phys., vol. 46, 2007, pp.
L474L476.

International Scholarly Research Network
ISRN Nanotechnology
Volume 2012, Article ID 102783, 9 pages
doi:10.5402/2012/102783
Review Article
A CNTFET-Based Nanowired Induction Two-Way Transducers
Rostyslav Sklyar
Verchratskogo st. 15-1, Lviv 79010, Ukraine
Correspondence should be addressed to Rostyslav Sklyar, sklyar@tsp.lviv.ua
Received 15 December 2011; Accepted 28 February 2012
Academic Editors: C. A. Charitidis and J. Sha
Copyright 2012 Rostyslav Sklyar. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
A complex of the induction magnetic eld two-way nanotransducers of the dierent physical values for both the external and
implantable interfaces in a wide range of arrays are summarized. Implementation of the nanowires allows reliable transducing of
the biosignals partials and bringing of carbon nanotubes into circuits leading to examination of the superconducting transition.
Novel sensors are based on the induction magnetic eld principle, which causes their interaction with an ambient EM eld.
Mathematical description of both the signal and mediums denes space embracing of the relevant interfacing devices. As a result,
a wide range of the nano-bio-transducers allow both delivering the variety of ionized biosignals and interface the bioEM signals
with further stages of electronic systems. The space coverage and transducing values properties of the state-of-the-art magnetic
interfaces are summarized, and directions for their future development are deduced.
1. Introduction: Biophysical Signals,
Transducing, and Interface Applications
A biosensor is a device that incorporates a biologically active
layer as the recognition element and converts the physical
parameters of the biological interaction into a measurable
analytical signal [1]. Understanding of biosignals (BS)
nature and properties of their mediums are a basis for
eective design of magnetic interfaces (MIs). Rapid progress
in the advancement of several key science areas including
nanoscale interfaces has stimulated the development of
electronic sensor technologies applicable to many diverse
areas of human activity. For example, the conceptualization
and production of electronic nose devices have resulted in
the creation of a remarkable new sector of sensor technology
resulting from the invention of numerous new types of
olfactory-competent electronic sensors and sensor arrays [2].
The growing variety of biosensors can be grouped into
two categories: implantable and external. In turn, the last one
has two existing paradigms: wearable sensor and noncontact
sensor. A wearable sensor had potential to be intrusive,
and noncontact sensor methods may still be intrusiveness
to a certain extent, while a noncontact sensor is limited in
its capability of acquiring physiological signals [3]. Voltage
potentials of the living organism and its organs are measured
by both implantable and external electric eld probes of high
sensitivity [4]. Information on organ activity is obtained
by measuring biomagnetic signals. For such purposes a
multichannel high-temperature superconducting quantum
interference device (high T
c
SQUID) system for magneto-
cardiography (MCG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG)
of humans, with high magnetic eld resolution, has been
developed [5, 6].
The most current sensing devices give us the possibility
to receive a full scale of both the internal and external
control BS. The internal ones are picking up by polymeric
microprobes, CMOS chips, and nanoneedles, while the
external by electromyography and neuroprosthetic (elec-
troencephalogram (EEG) and MEG) systems. Improving an
informational capability of the interface is implemented by
the application of the advanced superconducting transducer
and electromagnetic (EM) transistor/memristor [7, 8]. These
elements are arranged into the arrays of a dierent cong-
urations and can cover the order of spaces from macro- to
nanolevels.
There are a number of methods and devices for transduc-
ing dierent BS into recordable or measurable information.
The transfer of nerve impulses (NI) is the main data ow
that carries sensory information to the brain and control
signals from it and from the spinal cord to the limbs.
2 ISRN Nanotechnology
Moreover, the complex view on BS requires further stages of
precise processing in order to decode the received or control
information. There are dierent kinds of transducers/sensors
for picking up NI: room-temperature and superconducting,
external, and implantable. Development of such devices
is increasing the penetration into bioprocess while simul-
taneously simplifying the exploitation of the measuring
systems in order to bring them closer to the wide range
of applications. For this reason, the magnetometer with a
room-temperature pickup coil (PC) for detecting signals,
which can clearly be detected in higher frequency range, was
developed in order to simplify the SQUID system. The PC is
set outside the cryostat and is connected to the input coil of
the SQUID [9] or a channel of superconducting eld-eect
transistor (SuFET) [10]. On the other hand, implantable-
into-nerve ber transducers are evolving from the ordinary
Si-chip microelectronics devices [11] into superconducting
and nanodevices [12, 13].
The recent achievements in nanoelectronics can be
regarded as a further step in the progress of BS transduction.
They give us the possibility to create the most advanced
and universal device on the basis of known microsystems.
Such a sensor/transducer is suitable for picking up BS
NI, electrically active (ionized) molecules, and the base-
pair recognition event in DNAsequencesand transforming
it into recognizable information in the form of electric
voltage, or a concentration of organic or chemical substances.
Moreover, this process can be executed in reverse. Substances
and/or voltages inuence BSs, thereby controling or creating
them (BS) [14]. Steady and rapid progress in the robotics
eld requires ever quicker and better human-machine inter-
action and the development of a new generation of interfaces
for intelligent systems. Such advances give rise to markedly
increased biophysical research on the one hand and the need
for new bioelectronic devices on the other. Transduction
and measurement of BS are key elements of MIs design.
There are two means involved in signal transduction: (1)
biochemicalby hormones and enzymes; (2) biophysical
by nerve impulses (ionic currents). Let us consider the
biophysical ones as useful for the said interfaces design above.
There are two valuesvoltage and electric currentwhich
characterize the pathway of transduction [15].
Calculations of PC arrays were performed with the
primary sensor ux transformer sites distributed uniformly
on a spherical sensor shell, extending from the vertex to
a maximum angle max [16]. The radial magnetometers
and gradiometers occupy one site each, there are two
orthogonal planar gradiometers at each site and there are
three orthogonal magnetometers at each site for vector
magnetometers. Coverage can be achieved by designing some
kind of density control mechanism, that is, scheduling the
sensors to work alternatively to minimize the power wastage
due to the overlap of active nodes sensing areas. The sensing
area of a node is a disk of a given radius (sensing range). The
sensing energy consumption is proportional to the area of
sensing disks or the power consumption per unit [17].
There are two broad ways of brain-computer interface
(BCI): invasive and noninvasive. The invasive technique can
capture intracortical action potentials of neurons and thus,
provides high signal strength spatiotemporally, for example,
prediction of movement trajectory. In noninvasive tech-
nique, EEG and MEG have emerged as viable options; both
of them have time resolutions in milliseconds. Any activity
in brain is accompanied by change in ionic concentrations in
neuron leading to polarization and depolarization. Such an
electrical activity is measured by EEG, while MEG measures
the magnetic eld associated with these currents. Electric and
magnetic elds are oriented perpendicular to each other [18].
Application of organic-, chemical-, and carbon-
nanotubes- (CNT-) based FETs for design of the
superconducting transducers (SuFETTrs) of BS into
dierent quantities (electrical and biochemical) is the
proposed variant of interfacing [19]. The placement of the
devices can be carried out both in vivo and in vitro with
the possibility of forming the controlling BS from the said
quantities. The range of picked up BS varies from 0.6 nA to
10 A with frequencies from 20 to 2000 Hz.
A further step should be the synthesis of the said two
methods in order to develop the internal (implantable)
nano-bio-interface arrays. This means wrapping of molec-
ular nanowired PC around the axons of a nerve bre or
synapses of neurons in order to obtain the natural biosignals
from the nervous system and brain. This leads to sensing
access across a vast range of spatial and temporal scales,
including the ability to read neural signals from a select
subset of single neural cells in vivo. Moreover, this process
can be executed in reverse for introducing the articial
control signals with the local neural code into the single cell
electrical activity.
2. Biosignals and Nanoelements for Their
Transduction
As an electrical signal, the biosignal has two components:
electrical potential or voltage and ionic or electronic cur-
rents. The rst component is suciently developed and
does not require penetration into the substances of biosignal
propagation. The marketable progress in transducing of the
second component began when the necessary instrumenta-
tion for measurement of micro- and nanodimensions had
been created [14].
Short platinum nanowires (NWs) already have been
used in submicroscopic sensors and other applications. A
method of making long (cm) Pt NW of a few nanometers
in diameter from electrospinning was described [20]. Those
wires could be woven into the rst self-supporting webs of
pure platinum. Double-gated silicon NW structures (DG-
SiNW), where the position and/or type of the charge could
be tuned within the NW by electric eld, have been studied
[21]. Self-assembled molecular nanowires were found to
be composed of a single crystal, allowing good electrical
transport with low resistivity [22].
An interesting structure is that of helical CNT or
nanocoils for PCs. Nanocoils oer unique electronic prop-
erties that straight CNT do not have. The plasticity of
CNT will be relevant to their use in nanoscale devices [23].
Carbon nanocoils (CNCs), as a new type of promising
ISRN Nanotechnology 3
nanomaterials, have attracted considerable attention because
of their potential applications, such as parts for nano-
or micro-electromechanical systems, EM wave absorbers,
reinforced composites, nanosolenoids, and eld emission
devices [24]
Integrated CMOS image sensor device for in vivo
neural imaging has been developed. Improvement in the
packaging process has resulted in a compact single-chip
device for minimally invasive imaging inside the mouse
brain [25]. Application of the SuFETs modications such
as CMOSuFET (low T
c
) [26] and coplanar SuFET (high
T
c
) [27] broadens the range of requirements, which are
being satised by the SuFETTr. Alternatively, an FET-based
neurotransducer with CNT or PC kind of input circuit
for the nerve and neuron impulse has been designed. A
CNTFET with a high-temperature superconducting channel
is introduced into the nerve bre or brain tissue for
transducing their signals in both directions [28].
Flexible antennas have the potential to enhance the
emerging eld of exible electronics, which is primarily
motivated by the desire to incorporate electronics into
exible substrates such as textiles, displays, and bandages
[29]. The ability to reversibly deform antennas may also
enable new capabilities (e.g., rolling and unrolling for remote
deployment, enhanced durability). Relative to conventional
copper antennas, uidic antennas have several advantages
[30]. Furthermore, it has been shown that ultrathin layers
of metal can display superconductivity, but any limits on
the size of superconducting systems remain a mystery.
On the other hand, (BETS) 2GaCl4, where BETS is bis
(ethylenedithio) tetraselenafulvalene, is an organic super-
conductor, and in bulk it displays a superconducting gap
that increases exponentially with the length of the molecular
chain [31].
Graphene-solution-gated FET (G-SGFET) fabricated on
copper foil oers outstanding electronic performance, is
chemically stable and biologically inert, and can readily be
processed on exible substrates. Not only were the action
potentials of individual cells detectable above the intrinsic
electrical noise of the transistors, but these cellular signals
could be recorded with high spatial and temporal resolution.
The analysis of the recorded cell signals and the electronic
noise of the transistors conrm that graphene transistors
surpass state-of-the-art devices for bioelectronic applications
[32].
An organic FET (OFET) is characterized by textile
process fully compatible size and geometry. This transistor
has shown very interesting performances, with typical values
of the electronic parameters very similar to those of planar
devices. This result is very promising in view of innovative
applications in the eld of smart textiles [33]. Also FETs with
single- and doublewire channels (NWFET) were fabricated
to give some indication of the potential application of
the molecular wires [22]. Finally, inkjet-printed FETs using
carboxyl-functionalized nanotubes as source, drain, and
gate electrodes, poly (ethylene glycol) (PEG-) functionalized
nanotubes as the channel, and PEG as the gate dielectric
were also tested and characterized. Considerable nonlinear
transport in conjunction with a high channel current on/o
Diagnostic
Delivery
M

M
+
M

M
+
M
+
CNT
G
D
S
V
out/in
Figure 1: Diagnostics of the biomedium with the necessary drugs
delivering.
ratio of 70 was observed with PEG-functionalized nanotubes.
The positive temperature coecient of channel resistance
shows the nonmetallic behavior of the inkjet-printed lms
[34].
Finally, FETs with single- and doublewire channels
were fabricated to give some indication of the potential
application of the molecular wires. Substantial progress has
been made in dening the performance limits and exploring
applications based on NWFETs [22]. A ve-channel FET
structure is composed of two double-gate transistors and a
bottom single-gate transistor on a silicon-on-insulator. 3D
transistor structures such as multiple-gate FETs have been
proposed and extensively studied as a promising solution to
overcome the scaling limitations of planar bulk devices. They
oer excellent multigate control of the channels and higher
current drive [35]. In high-performance n-channel OFETs,
charge carrier injection at the interface between the organic
lm and source/drain electrodes plays a crucial role [36].
3. An SuFETTr-Based Magnetic Interface
Devices
The advent of semiconductor devices with nanoscale dimen-
sions creates the potential to integrate nanoelectronics and
optoelectronic devices with a great variety of biological
systems. In such a case, it is possible to substitute the
microcomputer in an object-oriented problem solution
scheme by the natural processing organ-brain or spinal cord.
As a result, the software component will be eliminated and
the most general characterization of the measurement prob-
lem in one-coordinate-dimensional measurements could be
acquired naturally, according to the feedback reaction on the
input exposure. Moreover, the organs of the senses of living
beings could be regarded in the same way as the natural
6 ISRN Nanotechnology
Table 1: Dependence of the received BS parameters on the mode of SuFETTrs functioning.
Medium
Mode
Serial Parallel
External Implantable External Implantable
NI

i
bio
= 1cont. or sens. imp.
i
bio
= i
bio
( f
1
) + i
bio
( f
2
) +
+ i
bio
( f
N
)
di
bio
/dt, di
bio
/dx

i
bio
= 1 network or 1 bre
Molecules

BSs bio and chem. molec.
variation of BSs
concentr. of molec.

BSs = 1 type of molec.

BSs =

bio and chem. molec.
DNA
propagation of BS along DNAs
spirals
decoding the BSs of
nucleoted recognition
space and length dynamic
on both spirals
4 nucleoteds 4 outputs
Table 2: Measuring eects (values) and the relative nanotransducers (for interfacing).
Physical value
NW element
SuFET channel PC(s) Superconducting membrane
Ionic currents NI
impl
NI
ext
NI
impl
FerroEM EMTM EMTM acoustical EMTM
Magnetic induction NI
contr
induction transducer noise absorb.
Magnetodynam. gaseous owmeter volume owmeter universal owmeter
single (passive) solid-state device EM transistor/memristor
(EMTM) has been advanced [48]
An attempt to lay down the foundations of biosensing
by natural sensors and in addition to them by the articial
transducers of physical quantities, also with their expansion
into space arrays and external/implantable functioning in
relation to the nervous system, is performed. Because the
sensing organs are exponentially better than any of analogous
articial ones, the advances in nanotechnology are opening
the way to achieving direct electrical contact of nano-
electronic structures with electrically and electrochemically
active neurocellular structures. The transmission of the sen-
sors signals to a processing unit has been maintaining by an
EM transistor/memristor (externally) and superconducting
transducer of ionic currents (implantable). The arrays of the
advanced sensors give us information about the space and
direction dynamics of the signals spreading.
Recent developments in bioengineering, nanotechnol-
ogy, and soft computing make it possible to create a
new generation of intelligent sensing. There are developing
opportunities for combining natural and articial sensing
abilities in the synthesized system. Backed up by the rapid
strides of nanotechnology, nanosensor research is making
a two-directional progress, rstly in evolving new sensors
employing mesoscopic phenomena, and secondly in the
performance enhancement of existing sensors. Nanosensors
are nanotechnology-enabled sensors characterized by one
of the following attributes: either the size of the sensor or
its sensitivity is in the nanoscale, or the spatial interaction
distance between the sensor and the object is in nanometers.
These nanosensors have been broadly classied into physical
and chemical categories, with the biosensors placed on
borderlines of biological signals with the remaining classes
[49].
Multiprocessor data fusion is in eect intrinsically per-
formed by animals and human beings to achieve a more
A functional pattern of SuFETTr
Electronic Ionic
el. current
Informational ow
el. voltage
Empirical data
EM eld
Biological Technical
Informational ow
Biological
Technical
S
e
n
s
o
r
A
c
t
u
a
t
o
r
Figure 7
accurate assessment of the processing environment. The aim
of signal processing by the combined articial-living being
multiprocessor system is to acquire complete information,
such as a decision or the measurement of quantity, using
a selected set of input data streaming to a multiprocessor
system-digital data are coming to articial processor and
the rest of information consumes by a neural system of
living being (Figure 5). Thereby, a big amount of available
information is managed using sophisticated data processing
for the achievement of a high level of precision and reliability.
4. Results
Application variety of the novel superconducting, organic,
and CNTFETs allows us to design transducers of BS
(nerve, biochemical, etc.) that transduce them into dierent
quantities, including electric voltage, density of chemical
and biomolecules. On the other hand, the said BS can
ISRN Nanotechnology 7
Table 3: Geometrical form of the distributed in space and time arrays.
Dimension
Value
Scalar Array Vector Tensor
point module dierential triaxial triaxial vector
line gradiometrical dierential gradiometrical dierential triaxial dierential triaxial vector
curve dierential module gradiometrical module dierential triaxial dierential triaxial vector
plane gradiometrical module gradiometrical dierential module gradiometrical triaxial gradiometrical triaxial vector
Table 4: Dependence of the received structure parameters on the mode of functioning- passive (Figure 1) or active (Figure 2).
Object
Device
Passive modulus Active modulus Passive gradient Active gradient
surface I
1
=

s
f (x, y, z)ds I
2
=

s
f (x, y, z)dxdy I
1
= I

1
I

1
I
2
= I

2
I

2
volume V
1
=

s
f (x, y)dxdy V
2
=

V
f (x, y, z)dv V
1
= V

1
V

1
V
2
= V

2
V

2
structure level
drug delivery to sheath
(envelopes) of organs
investigation of the inside
structure of the organs and
tissues
comparing delivery to the
organs or tissues areas
dierential investigation the
twin (pair) organs or tissues
object (body)
level
drug delivery to homogeneous
organs or tissues
investigation of inhomogeneous
organs or tissues
comparing delivery to the
homogeneous organs or
tissues areas
dierential investigation the
inhomogeneous twin (pair)
organs or tissues
Two-way current transducers (TCTs)
Conductor CNT
(bio)physical/chemical
MEG EM (optical)
transistor
Neurointerface
S
e
n
s
o
r
A
c
t
u
a
t
o
r
Flowmeter
E
x
t
e
r
n
a
l
I
m
p
l
a
n
t
a
b
l
e
-ammeter
EM head coil
Acoustical
head coil
Pickup coil
magnetometer
Figure 8
be controlled by the applied electrical signals or bio and
chemical mediums.
The described SuFETTrs designed on the basis of organic
and nano-SuFETs are suitable for describing the wide range
of BS dynamical parameters (see Table 1). Following the
columns of the table, it should be noticable that serial
connection of the external PCs allows us to gain some
integrated signal, that is, the whole sensing or control NI,
which spreads along the number of axons of the nerve
bre: the amount of ions passing through the PCs and
the generalized BS passing through one or both spirals of
DNA. When SuFET channel(s) are implanted into the tissue
or process, we can acquire more precise data about the
frequency distribution of NI, volume distribution of ionized
molecules and detecting activity of individual nucleotides.
Exploitation of the parallel input to SuFETTr allows
determination of space and time dynamics of BS in the nerve
bre and DNA spiral(s) and also the amplication of output
signal U
out
by multiplying the concentration of molecules
according to a number of input BS. After the implantation
of parallel SuFET(s), the averaging or summation of this
dynamic among the whole neural network, nerve bre, or
DNA spiral(s) is possible.
A number of both active and passive electronic elements
are used with PCs. On the other hand, any particular element
is susceptible by the eect of some specic physical quantity.
The relevant interfacing devices, which are acquired on the
said basis, are shown in Table 2. As a result, a wide range of
the biosensors allow both measuring the variety of magnetic
signals and interface the EM signals with further stages of
electronic systems.
The designed sensors are arranged in a space and time
arrays for investigation of the biostructures of the dierent
level of precision. This correspondence is established by
composing the head sensors from Table 2 into the various
gradiometry schemes from a simple planar to the 2d vector
enclosing in Table 3. In Table 3, the geometrical dimensions
from a point to volume ranges are transformed to the
mathematical terms.
The described interfaces designed on the basis of
SuFETTr are suitable for investigating both the structure of
organic objects and their comparing analysis (see Table 4).
Following the strings of the table, it should be noticeable,
that investigations of biological surfaces are performing
according to the surface integrals for a passive and active
signals moduluses, respectively. The surface gradients are
acquired by nding the dierence between the respective
values of I
1
or I
2
. The same is applying to the investigations
of biological volumes V
1
and V
2
as the double and triple
8 ISRN Nanotechnology
integrals respectively. The next two strings are explaining the
bounds on the possible spreading of the said method.
The aggregated interface qualities, which are given in the
tables, have been shown in the graph (Figure 6). Upon its
analysis, it becomes clear that the area which is bounded
by the dashed lines presents the MIs. At the same time,
there are some uncertain areas (marked on the gure)
that are inaccessible to the designed transducing elements.
Furthermore, the graphs square is open to the right for
perspective media of MIs.
5. Conclusions
The reviewed variety of FETs shows the varying extent of
readiness for them to be exploited in SuFETTr of electrical
current signals (see Figure 7). The most appropriate for
such an application are the ordinary solid-state SuFET
modications and novel CNT-based SuFETs. The organic
SuFETs are not amply developed, but this work is being
carried out in a number of directions. At the same time,
the PCs, which are necessary for the external sensor with
respect to the transducing medium (nerve bre, ow of
ions and DNA spiral), and corresponding low-ohmic wire
traces for connecting PCs to the FETs channel are suciently
developed, even at nanodimensions.
The preliminary calculations conrm the possibility of
broadening the SuFETTrs action from magnetic eld to
the biochemical medium of BSs. The main parameters of
such BSs can be gained by applying the arrangement of
the SuFETTr(s) to the whole measurement system. Two
directions of SuFETTr function enable decoding of the BS by
comparing the result of its action on some process or organ
with an action on them of the simulated electrical or bio-
chemical signal after their reverse transducing through the
SuFETTr(s). Furthermore, this decoded signal will provide
a basis for creating feedback and feedforward loops in the
measuring system for more precise and complete inuence
on the biochemical process.
The advance in the instrumentation techniques and
technology of materials allows introducing of more accurate
methods of interfacing and transducers for their execution
(see Figure 8). At this level of progress, the head sensors of
paramount sensitivity and simplicity in picking up function
with minimal changes of the physical variables. The recent
breakthrough in superconducting- and nanotechnologies
caused the creation of induction transducers, which have bet-
ter informational capability in some diagnostical purposes.
These devices are based on the universal law of the EM
induction on the one hand and dierent special eects of MF
interaction with a medium on the other. Since the proposed
variety of bio-nano-sensors are passive, they do not aect the
functions of the organs and their interaction.
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Molecular recognition using corona phase
complexes made of synthetic polymers adsorbed
on carbon nanotubes
Jingqing Zhang
1
, Markita P. Landry
1
, Paul W. Barone
1
, Jong-Ho Kim
1,2
et al.*
Understanding molecular recognition is of fundamental importance in applications such as therapeutics, chemical catalysis
and sensor design. The most common recognition motifs involve biological macromolecules such as antibodies and
aptamers. The key to biorecognition consists of a unique three-dimensional structure formed by a folded and constrained
bioheteropolymer that creates a binding pocket, or an interface, able to recognize a specic molecule. Here, we show that
synthetic heteropolymers, once constrained onto a single-walled carbon nanotube by chemical adsorption, also form a new
corona phase that exhibits highly selective recognition for specic molecules. To prove the generality of this phenomenon,
we report three examples of heteropolymernanotube recognition complexes for riboavin, L-thyroxine and oestradiol. In
each case, the recognition was predicted using a two-dimensional thermodynamic model of surface interactions in which
the dissociation constants can be tuned by perturbing the chemical structure of the heteropolymer. Moreover, these
complexes can be used as new types of spatiotemporal sensors based on modulation of the carbon nanotube
photoemission in the near-infrared, as we show by tracking riboavin diffusion in murine macrophages.
M
olecular recognition and signal transduction are the two
main challenges in sensor design
1,2
. Frequently, scientists
and engineers borrow from nature to gain analyte speci-
city and sensitivity, using natural antibodies as vital components
of the sensors
1,36
. However, antibodies are expensive, fragile,
easily lose biological activity on external treatment (such as immo-
bilization) and exhibit batch-dependent variation, limiting their use
in widespread applications
1,6,7
. This has driven the search for
methods to synthesize or discover articial antibodies or their ana-
logues from polymeric materials, leading to molecularly imprinted
polymers
6,8
and DNA-aptamers
2,3,6
.
Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs), rolled cylinders of
graphene, are ideal materials for molecular recognition and signal
transduction. They have near-infrared bandgap uorescence
9
with
no photobleaching threshold
10,11
, and are sensitive to the surround-
ing environment. Electron-donating or -accepting groups can
increase or decrease emission
1214
with single-molecule sensi-
tivity
1517
. Adsorbates can also screen the one-dimensional conned
exciton
18,19
, causing solvatochromic shifts in emission
20,21
, particu-
larly with polymer wrappings that change conformation. Our labora-
tory and others have developed SWNT uorescence sensors for
detecting b-D-glucose
12
, DNA hybridization
21
, divalent metal
cations
20
, assorted genotoxins
22
, nitroaromatics
23
, nitric oxide
13,17
,
pH
16
and the protein avidin
14
. These efforts have invariably exploited
conventional molecular recognition entities, such as enzymes
24
, oli-
gonucleotides
21
or specic functional groups with known afnity for
the target molecule
13
. In this work, we instead demonstrate a new
recognition motif consisting of specic polymers adsorbed onto a
SWNT, whereby the interface recognizes certain small-molecule
adsorbates, resulting in modulation of nanotube uorescence
(Fig. 1). We show that the recognition results from the combination
of analyte adsorption to the graphene surface and lateral interactions
with molecules in the adsorbed phase in a predictable manner. We
introduce this concept as corona phase molecular recognition.
Screening of a polymerSWNT library
To generate polymernanotube interfaces in aqueous solution,
candidate amphiphilic polymers were synthesized with both hydro-
phobic and hydrophilic domains, enabling SWNT surface adsorp-
tion and entropic stabilization, respectively. For simplicity, only
non-ionic or weakly ionic polymer phases were used in this study,
to assist structural understanding. For screening, each polymer
SWNT construct was exposed to a library of 36 small molecules,
and the resulting SWNT uorescence response was monitored in
triplicate using a near-infrared uorescence spectrometer, auto-
mated to acquire data in a 96-well-plate format (Supplementary
Fig. 4). Each spectrum was deconvoluted into eight SWNT chiral-
ities using a custom spectral tting program (Supplementary
section Materials and Methods) that also calculates standard
errors. The resulting intensity and wavelength modulations of
each construct before and after the addition of each analyte in the
library were recorded (for all unprocessed spectra see
Supplementary Figs 2346).
Molecular recognition by polymer corona phase on SWNTs
From the polymerSWNT library screened to date we identied
three distinct examples of polymernanotube-mediated molecular
recognition. The simplest example is provided by a rhodamine iso-
thiocyanate-difunctionalized poly(ethylene glycol)SWNT complex
(RITC-PEG-RITCSWNT; Fig. 2a, 5 or 20 kDa), which exhibits u-
orescence quenching exclusively in response to oestradiol (both
alpha- and beta-oestradiol). Two similar synthetic variantsuor-
escein isothiocyanate-difunctionalized PEG (FITC-PEG-FITC;
Fig. 2b) and distearyl phosphatidylethanolamine PEG (PE-PEG;
Fig. 2c)result in non-selective response proles. The simple
polymer design allows for elucidation of the adsorbed phase struc-
ture. The selectivity of this response (Fig. 2a) is distinct from
schemes using principle component analysis
22
or differential
sensor responses
25
for analyte recognition, and we therefore assign
*A full list of authors and their afliations appears at the end of the paper.
ARTICLES
PUBLISHED ONLINE: 24 NOVEMBER 2013 | DOI: 10.1038/NNANO.2013.236
NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY | ADVANCE ONLINE PUBLICATION | www.nature.com/naturenanotechnology 1
2013 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved.

surface forces. The recognition is realized only once the polymer and
the SWNT are conjugated with each other, while the polymers by
themselves have little to no previously identied connection or af-
nity for the analytes of interest. We designate this effect corona
phase molecular recognition to highlight the essential role of
both the polymer and nanotube surfaces, and we note that compar-
able spherical and elliptical nanoparticles may also show phases
capable of molecular recognition. The observation that binding
sites formed in this manner have tunable afnity following small
changes in polymer composition and nanotube chirality indicates
that the potential parameter space is exceedingly large.
Furthermore, a theoretical framework based on a two-dimensional
equation of state provides a quantitative understanding of the
library of responses and offers strong mechanistic insight for the
recognition. Our work provides a platform that can be used in
various elds, such as sensor development, nanoparticle surface
science, single-molecule polymer physics and the study of nano-
particlebiomolecule interactions. However, of immediate utility
are the families of uorescent constructs that can be used for real-
time, intracellular detection of important biomolecules, as demon-
strated experimentally in this work.
Received 17 December 2012; accepted 10 October 2013;
published online 24 November 2013
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Acknowledgements
The authors thank L. Trudel for her assistance with cell culture. The authors thank
D. Wittrup, C. Love and V. Sresht for discussions. This work made use of the Extreme
Science and Engineering Discovery Environment (XSEDE), which is supported by
National Science Foundation (grant no. OCI-1053575). M.S.S. acknowledges a grant from
the Army Research Ofce and support via award no. 64655-CH-ISN to the Institute for
Solider Nanotechnologies. D.A.H. acknowledges the Damon Runyon Cancer Research
Foundation. A.A.B. is funded by the National Defense Science & Engineering Graduate
Fellowship. A.J.H. acknowledges funding from the Department of Energy SCGF
programme (contract no. DE-AC05-06OR23100). Z.W.U. acknowledges support from the
Department of Energy CSGF (DOE grant DE-FG02-97ER25308). M.P.L. acknowledges an
NSF postdoctoral research fellowship (award no. DBI-1306229). S.K. was supported by a
fellowship from the Deutsche Forschungsmeinschaft (DFG).
Author contributions
M.S.S. conceived and developed the recognition concept, with input from P.W.B. and
D.A.H. Authors J.Z., M.P.L., P.W.B. and J.K. contributed equally to this work. J.Z., P.W.B.
and M.S.S. analysed the data and co-wrote the manuscript, with contributions from S.B.
NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY DOI: 10.1038/NNANO.2013.236
ARTICLES
NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY | ADVANCE ONLINE PUBLICATION | www.nature.com/naturenanotechnology 9
2013 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved.