i

Application of Dyadic Greens Function Method in

Electromagnetic Propagation Problems




A Thesis

Presented to the Graduate School
Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree


of


Master of Science


In



Engineering Mathematics



By



Islam Ahmed Abdul Maksoud Ali Soliman




February 2009

ii

Application of Dyadic Greens Function Method in
Electromagnetic Propagation Problems


Presented by


Islam Ahmed Abdul Maksoud Ali Soliman


For the Degree of


Master of Science

In

Engineering Mathematics





ExaminersCommittee: Approved

Prof. --------------------------- -----------

Prof. --------------------------- -----------

Prof. --------------------------- -----------

Prof. --------------------------- -----------



Prof. Dr./
Vice Dean of graduate studies and research
Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University



iii

Advisors Committee:

Prof. Dr. Hassan Elkamchouchi -----------

Prof. Dr. Refaat El-Attar -----------


















iv
ABSTRACT

Dyadic Greens functions are widely used in solving electromagnetic problems.
They are used as a mathematical kernel that relates the radiated or propagated
electromagnetic fields with their cause through an integral. Frequency domain models
were commonly used. However, there is a recent tendency in the electromagnetic
literature to use time domain models. This tendency is basically due to the recent
increasing use of short pulses with wide bandwidths in communications and radar
systems. A newly published form for the time domain dyadic Greens function for
Maxwells equations in free-space contains a source region term that seems to be
inconsistent with the extensively studied frequency domain form. One objective of the
thesis, is to clear this apparent inconsistency and to represent a form that is
completely consistent with the frequency domain results. Another objective, is to
show that when the dyadic Greens function is used as a propagator for a certain
initial field, the second derivative term can be completely omitted. This result reduced
greatly the time and effort in computing the propagated field. Verifications and
interpretations of these results are presented.




























v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................. iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS...............................................................................................v

CHAPTER 1 1
INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Motivation and Contribution................................................................................1
1.2 Organization.........................................................................................................2

CHAPTER 2 3
ELECTROMAGNETIC FUNDUMENTALS 3
2.1 Maxwells Equations ...........................................................................................3
2.1.1 Maxwells Equations in Differential Form...................................................3
2.1.2 Maxwells Equations in Integral Form.........................................................5
2.1.3 Duality of Maxwell's Equations....................................................................5
2.2 Essence of Electromagnetics................................................................................6

CHAPTER 3 10
FREQUENCY-DOMAIN ANALYSIS 10
3.1 Introduction........................................................................................................10
3.2 Field Equations and Associated Potentials in Frequency-Domain....................10
3.2.1 Electric and Magnetic Fields in Frequency-Domain ..................................10
3.2.2 Vector Wave and Vector Helmholtz Equations..........................................12
3.2.3 Vector and Scalar Potentials and Associated Helmholtz Equations...........13
3.3 Solution of Field Equations Outside the Source Region ...................................15
3.3.1 Solution of Scalar Helmholtz Equation Using Green's Function Method..16
3.3.2 Combined-Source Solution of Maxwells Equations .................................19
3.3.3 Separated-Source Solution of Maxwells Equations ..................................22
3.3.4 Vector Potentials Approach ........................................................................25
3.4 Solution of Field Equations Inside the Source Region ......................................26
3.4.1 Source Region Solution of Scalar Helmholtz Equation..............................27
3.4.2 Source Region Solution of Maxwell's Equations .......................................29

CHAPTER 4 36
TIME-DOMAIN ANALYSIS 36
4.1 Introduction........................................................................................................36
4.2 Field Equations and Associated Potentials in Time Domain.............................37
4.2.1 Wave Equations ..........................................................................................37
4.2.2 Vector and Scalar Potentials .......................................................................37
4.3 Solution of Field Equations Outside the Source Region ...................................38
4.3.1 Solution of Scalar Wave Equation Using Green's Function.......................38
4.3.2 Solution of Maxwells Equations Using Dyadic Green's Function
Felsens Approach ...............................................................................................45
4.4 Field Inside the Source Region and Propagation of Initial Field The Complete
Time-Domain Solution ............................................................................................50
4.4.1 Nevels Approach .......................................................................................50
4.4.2 Time-Domain Vector Potential Approach Proposed Approach ..............60

vi
CHAPTER 5 78
CONCLUSIONS 78

APPENDIX A..............................................................................................................80
APPENDIX B..............................................................................................................82

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................84
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION


1.1 Motivation and Contribution
Integral equations have been widely used to solve electromagnetic scattering and
related problems. A fundamental component of the integral equation model is the
dyadic Greens function. The dyadic Greens function makes it possible for the
integral equation to directly transform the electromagnetic sources to electromagnetic
fields. During the past era, frequency-domain dyadic Greens functions have appeared
regularly in the literature. On the other hand, time-domain forms were much less
common [1]. A principle reason for favoring the frequency-domain over the time-
domain is that the frequency-domain approach was generally more tractable
analytically. Furthermore, the experimental hardware available for making
measurements in past years was largely confined to frequency-domain. However, the
recent increasing use of short pulses with wide bandwidths in communication and
radar systems has made time-domain methods more attractive. Some variants of
which has received widespread attention in the literature, mainly owing to their
superiority for solving wide-band problems and studying transient fields, in
comparison with frequency-domain methods.
Recently, [1] have reported a formula for the time-domain dyadic Greens function
of Maxwells equations in an unbounded space. The formulation included both
influences of the source currents and propagation of an initial field. The used state-
space approach have raised a new source region term that was not reported before.
However, for a field due to entirely a source current, the new term only contributes a
local nonpropagating field. This shows that the new term is unnecessary when the
field outside the source current region is considered. The new term was not reported
in literature before [1] because consideration had only been on the field due to entirely
a source current and propagating outside the source region. However, it is verified in
[1] that the new term is necessary to obtain the correct results of the propagation of an
initial field. The new term is also needed when the field inside the source current
region is required.
The problem of the field inside the source region was extensively studied in
frequency-domain by Yaghjian and Van Bladel among others. Their work in [2] and
[3] has shown that the strong singularity of the dyadic Greens function inside the
source region must be treated carefully. In order to correctly exclude the source region
singularity to perform the integral in a principle-value sence, a source region term
must be added to the dyadic Greens function. The added term has some properties
that were discussed in detail in the work of Yaghjian in [3]. One main property is that
its value is dependent on the shape of volume excluding the singularity. The principle
value integral shows a similar dependency on the shape of the exclusion volume. Both
contributions add up in just the right way to cancel the dependency on the shape of the
exclusion volume. The combination always results in a unique value for the field
independent of the shape of the exclusion volume.
2
It is expected that both source region terms; the one reported in [1], and that
deduced in frequency-domain in [3], are two aspects of one thing. In other words, the
two forms for the source region terms are time-frequency transform duals. However,
the form reported [1] seem to be inconsistent with the frequency-domain form in that
it does not show the dependency on the shape of the volume excluding the singularity
as the frequency-domain form does.
The objective of this thesis is to introduce a form of the time-domain dyadic
Greens function that is completely consistent with the frequency-domain form. We
will also explain why such inconsistency occurred for the form in [1]. Another
objective is that we will show that the second derivative term in the form in [1] for the
field propagator is completely unnecessary. This leads to a great simplification in
calculations. Verifications and interpretations are presented afterwards.

1.2 Organization
The thesis consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 is the introduction. Chapter 2
presents some fundamental concepts from classical electromagnetic theory. Chapter
begins with a presentation of the governing Maxwells equations for macroscopic
electromagnetic phenomena, both in differential and integral forms. The property of
duality of Maxwells equations is presented. The chapter concludes with a section on
the essence of electromagnetics scientific. Different models used in solving
electromagnetic problems are discussed.
The third chapter presents the frequency-domain analysis necessary for an integral
equation model. The chapter begins with a representation of the field equations and
the equations governing the vector and scalar potentials in frequency-domain. The
method of Greens function is presented and applied in finding the solution of the
scalar Helmholtz equation. The free space dyadic Greens function of Maxwells
equations is derived. The chapter ends with a detailed study of the problem of finding
the fields inside the source region.
Chapter 4 introduces time-domain analysis to find the time-domain solution of
Maxwells equations in free space. The chapter starts by a brief overview of the field
equations and the associated vector and scalar potentials in time-domain. The
following section seeks the solution of the time-domain Maxwells equations in free
space. A time-domain Greens function method is used to find the complete solution
of the scalar wave equation including the influences of the initial conditions and the
nonhomogeneous boundary conditions. Then, we find the solution of Maxwells
equations as an influence of source currents only. Limitations of the described
solutions are pointed out. The following section describes two approaches that yield
time-domain solutions of Maxwells equations in free space. The described solutions
include both influences of the source currents and initial fields and covers the whole
domain including the source region. The first approach is the one recently described
by Nevels and Jeong in their paper [1]. The second is the proposed approach based on
vector potentials. Verifications and interpretations of the results are presented.
The fifth chapter gives the summary and conclusions.
3
CHAPTER 2
ELECTROMAGNETIC FUNDUMENTALS

This chapter gives a brief description of the fundamentals of electromagnetics. The
chapter begins with a presentation of Maxwells equations for macroscopic
electromagnetic phenomena. Maxwells equations are presented in both differential
and integral forms. The duality property of Maxwells equations is also presented.
The chapter concludes with a section on the essence of the electromagnetics discipline
with a presentation of the most common propagator models used in solving
electromagnetics problems and the basic differences between these models.


2.1 Maxwells Equations
2.1.1 Maxwells Equations in Differential Form
Classical macroscopic electromagnetic phenomena are governed by a set of vector
equations known collectively as Maxwell's equations. Maxwell's equations in
differential form are

). , ( ) , ( ) , (
), , ( ) , ( ) , (
), , ( ) , (
), , ( ) , (
t t
t
t
t t
t
t
t t
t t
e
m
m
e
r J r D r H
r J r B r E
r r B
r r D
+

=
=
=

(2.1)
where E is the electric field intensity ) m / V ( , D is the electric flux density ) m / C (
2
,
B is the magnetic flux density ) m / Wb (
2
, H is the magnetic field intensity ) m / A ( ,
e
is the electric charge density ) m / C (
3
,
e
J is the electric current density ) m / A (
2
,
m
is the magnetic charge density ) m / Wb (
2
, and
m
J is the magnetic current density
) m / V (
2
, and where Vstands for volts, C for coulombs, Wb for webers , A for
amperes, and m for meters.
The equations are known, respectively as, Gauss' law, the magnetic-source law or
magnetic Gauss' law, Faraday's law and Ampere's law. The magnetic charge and
magnetic current density have not been shown to physically exist, and so often those
terms are set to zero. However, their inclusion provides a nice mathematical
symmetry to Maxwell's equations.
The constitutive equations

4

) , ( ) , ( ) , (
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
0 0
0
t t t
t t t
r M r H r B
r P r E r D

+ =
+ =
(2.2)

provide relations between the four field vectors in a material medium, where Pis the
polarization density ) m / C (
2
, M is the magnetization density ) m / A ( ,
0
is the
permittivity of free space ) m / F 10 85 . 8 (
2 12
, and
0
is the permeability of free
space ) m / H 10 4 (
7
, and where Fstands for farads and Hfor henrys.
The polarization and magnetization densities are associated with electric and
magnetic dipole moments, respectively, in a given material. These dipole moments
include both induced effects and permanent dipole moments. In free space these
quantities vanish.
In the preceding equations r is the "field point" position vector z y x z y x r + + = .
However, r denotes the "source point" position vector z y x + + = z y x r . The vector
that points from the source point to the field point is denoted by
R ) , (

) , ( r r R r r r r R =
with ) , ( ) , ( r r r r r r = = R R .
An important equation that demonstrates the charge conservation is embedded in
(2.1) is known as the continuity equation. Taking the divergence of Ampere's law we
get

t
e

+ = =
D
J H 0 (2.3)
and, upon interchanging the spatial and temporal derivatives and invoking Gauss' law,
we obtain the continuity equation
0 =

+
t
e
e

J (2.4)
Similarly, starting with Faraday's law we obtain
0 =

+
t
m
m

J (2.5)
Conversely, the two divergence equations are not independent equations within the set
(2.1), in the sense that they are embedded in the two curl equations and the continuity
equation. Therefore, in macroscopic electromagnetics, one may consider the relevant
set of equations to be written as
) , ( ) , ( ) , ( t t
t
t
m
r J r B r E

= (2.6)
) , ( ) , ( ) , ( t t
t
t
e
r J r D r H +

= (2.7)
0 ) , (
) (
) (
=

+
t
t
m e
m e

r J (2.8)
subject to appropriate boundary conditions.
5
2.1.2 Maxwells Equations in Integral Form
Starting with the differential (point) form of Maxwell's equations, an integral
(large-scale) form may be derived. Applying the divergence theorem

= =
S S V
d dS dV S F F n F
(2.9)
to the divergence and continuity equations, and Stokes' theorem


=
l S
d d l F S F
(2.10)
to the curl equations, leads to the integral form






=
+ =
=
=
=
V
m e
S
m e
S S
e
l
S S
m
l
V
m
S
V
e
S
dV t
dt
d
d t
d t d t
dt
d
d t
d t d t
dt
d
d t
dV t d t
dV t d t
) , ( ) , (
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
) , ( ) , (
) , ( ) , (
) ( ) (
r S r J
S r J S r D l r H
S r J S r B l r E
r S r B
r S r D

(2.11)
assuming that the conditions implied by the divergence and Stokes' theorems are
satisfied and that the differential and integral operators may be interchanged.

2.1.3 Duality of Maxwell's Equations
Maxwell's equations (2.1) are symmetric with respect to electric and magnetic
quantities, except for a sign change. This symmetry can be utilized to simplify some
electromagnetic problems. Considering the set of equations comprising Maxwell's
equations and the continuity equations, the substitutions



, , , ,
, , , ,
e m m e e m
m e
J J
J J B D D B E H H E
(2.12)
leave the set unchanged. This duality is often used when a solution ( )
e e
H E , is
obtained for the fields caused by electric sources , ,
e e
J with magnetic sources set to
zero. Then upon the replacements

, , ,
, ,


m e
m e
J J E H H E

one has the solution for the electric and magnetic fields ( )
m m
H E , maintained by
magnetic sources.


6
2.2 Essence of Electromagnetics
Electromagnetics is the scientific discipline that deals with electric and magnetic
sources and the fields these sources produce in specific environments. Maxwell's
equations provide the starting point for the study of electromagnetic problems,
together with certain principles and theorems such as superposition, linearity, duality,
reciprocity, induction, uniqueness, etc., derived therefrom. While a variety of
specialized problems can be identified, a common ingredient of essentially all of them
is that of establishing a quantitative relationship between a cause (forcing function or
input ) and its effect (the response or output), a relationship which is referred to as a
field propagator. This relationship may be viewed as a generalized transfer function as
shown in figure.

In general , we can say that the essence of electromagnetics is the study and
determination of field propagators to obtain thereby an input-output transfer function
for the problem of interest. This observation, while perhaps appearing transparent, is
an extremely fundamental one as it provides a focus for what elecromagnetics is all
about [4].
It is convenient to classify solution techniques for electromagnetic modeling in
terms of the field propagator that might be used, the anticipated application, and the
problem type. Such classification is outlined in table below.

Field Propagator Description based on:
Integral Operator Green's function for infinite medium
or special boundaries
Differential Operator Maxwell's curl's equations or their
integral counterparts
Transfer Function
derived from
Maxwell's Equations
Input Output
(Excitation) (Near, Far and sources
Fields)
PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
(Electrical, Geometrical)
Fig. The electromagnetic transfer function
7
Modal Expansions solutions of Maxwell's equations in
particular coordinate system and
expansion
Optical Description rays and diffraction coefficients
Application Requires:
Radiation determining the originating sources
of a field
Propagation obtaining the fields distant from a
known source
Scattering determining the perturbing effects of
medium inhomogeneities
Problem Type Characterized by:
Solution Domain time or frequency
Solution Space
configuration r or wave number k
Dimensionality one, two , or three
Electrical properties of medium
and/or boundary
dielectric; lossy; perfectly
conducting; anisotropic; inhomogeneous;
nonlinear
Boundary Geometry linear; curved; segmented;
compound; arbitrary

Selection of a field propagator is a first step in developing the electromagnetic
model for the problem we are interested in. The two mostly common propagator
models are those which employ Maxwell's curl equations directly or those described
by source integrals which employ a Green's function. The first type is named the
differential equation DE model, and the other is named the integral equation IE
model. Another criteria in constructing the EM model is the selection of the solution
domain. Either IE or DE propagator models can be formulated in time-domain or in
frequency-domain. Hence, basically we have four major models :

1. Time Domain Differential Equation (TDDE) Models: the use of which has
increased tremendously over the past several years, primarily as a result of
much larger and faster computers.
2. Time Domain Integral Equation (TDIE) Models: although available for
well over 30 years , have gained increased attention in the last decade. The
8
recent advances in this area make these methods very attractive for a large of
variety of applications.
3. Frequency Domain Integral Equation (FDIE) Models: which remain the
most widely studied and used models, as they were the first to receive detailed
development.
4. Frequency Domain Differential Equation (FDDE) Models: whose use has
also increased considerably in recent years, although most work to date has
emphasized low frequency applications.

It worth noting that the well-known method of moments (MoM) in general
involves IE modeling, whereas the finite element method (FEM) and finite difference
method (FDM) both use DE formulations.
Basic Differences
We briefly discuss and compare below the characteristics of IE and DE models in
terms of their development and applicability.
1. Integral Equation Model
The basic starting point for developing an IE model is the selection of a Green's
function appropriate for the problem class of interest. The model is formulated as an
integral from which the fields in a giving contiguous volume of space can be written
in terms of integrals over the surfaces which bound it and volume integrals over those
sources located within it.
2. Differential Equation Model
A DE models requires intrinsically less analytical manipulation than does the
derivation of an IE model. That is because it seeks a direct numerical solution of
Maxwell's equations. It is implemented by discretizing the space of the problem into a
mesh, then repeatedly implement a discretized analog of Maxwell's equations or their
integral counterparts at each lattice cell or element of the mesh. However, in order to
be capable of handling infinite domains, certain absorbing boundary conditions
(ABC) are imposed. ABCs have the advantage of truncating the solution domain and
effectively simulate its extension to infinity.
Some basic differences between DE and IE models are as follows:
DE models include a capability to treat medium inhomogeneities,
nonlinearities and the time variations in a more straight forward manner than
does IE models.
For DE models, the solution space includes the object's surroundings, the
radiation condition is not enforced in exact sense, thus leading to certain error
in the solution. For the IE solution, the solution integral is confined to the
object and the radiation condition is automatically enforced.
The IE solutions are generally more accurate and efficient.
Spurious solutions exist in DE methods, whereas such solutions are absent in
IE methods.
In terms of numerical efficiency, DE methods generate a space matrix, while
the IE methods generate full dense matrices.
9
In IE numerical implementation, discretization is applied only for the volume
of space occupied by the source or the surface of the boundary. Whereas in
DE models, discretization is applied to the whole solution domain. Thats why
DE methods are also called domain methods, while IE methods are called
boundary methods.


10
CHAPTER 3
FREQUENCY-DOMAIN ANALYSIS

3.1 Introduction
The study in this thesis is confined to the integral equation model in modeling
electromagnetic problems. Frequency-domain integral equation models are considered
to be the most widely studied and used models. They were also the first to receive
detailed development. Frequency-domain models were favored because they are
generally more tractable analytically.
The chapter starts by a section that represents the field equations and the equations
governing the vector and scalar potentials in the frequency-domain. Expressing the
solution of Maxwells equations as a Greens function integral is considered as the
first step in developing an integral equation model in frequency-domain. Thus, the
second section is concerned in seeking a free space solution for Maxwells equations
using the Greens function method. Also, a vector potentials approach to the solution
is presented. The vector potentials approach yields the same Greens function integral
obtained before.
The represented solution is shown to be limited to find fields that are outside the
source region. That is why the next section is devoted to tackle the problem of finding
the fields inside the source region. Such concern about the fields inside the source
region arises in some applications such as the evaluation of an antenna impedence, the
induced current on a scatterer, and other situations [2][5]. The section reviews the
results of the extensive studies by Yaghjian and Van Bladel, among others.

3.2 Field Equations and Associated Potentials in Frequency-Domain
In this section, we express the electric and magnetic field equations in the
frequency-domain. Next, We represent the equations governing the vector and scalar
potentials in frequency-domain. We also show how can the electric and magnetic
fields be recovered from the vector potentials if the potentials were known.
3.2.1 Electric and Magnetic Fields in Frequency-Domain
When the electromagnetic sources vary arbitrarily with time in a narrow-band, it is
often convenient to work in the frequency-domain. The Fourier transform pair is
given as

{ }
{ }

= =
= =

d e t
dt e t t
t j
t j
) , (
2
1
) , ( ) , (
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
1
r K r K r K
r K r K r K
(3.1)
11
To show how Maxwell's equations are Fourier-transformed, consider Faraday's
law. Assuming each field quantity is Fourier- transformable and substituting the
various transforms into Faraday's leads to

. ) , (
2
1
) , (
2
1
) , (
2
1

d e
d e
t
d e
t j
m
t j t j
r J
r B r E

Assuming the differential and integral operators can be interchanged, we have
{ } 0 r J r B r E = + +

d e j
t j
m
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
Hence, we obtain ) , ( ) , ( ) , ( r J r B r E
m
j = . Similarly, for all equations we
have

) , ( ) , (
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
) , ( ) , (
) , ( ) , (
) ( ) (





r r J
r J r D r H
r J r B r E
r r B
r r D
m e m e
e
m
m
e
j
j
j
=
+ =
=
=
=

(3.2)


Complex Constitutive Parameters

A great advantage of working in the frequency domain is that it becomes
particularly easy to separate applied quantities from induced effects. In (3.2) the field
quantities represent the total fields at a point in space. Assume that an impressed
current density 0 r J ) (
i
e
maintains 0 H B D E , , , , which, in turn, results in
0 r E r J = ) ( ) (
e
c
e
, where
c
e
J is an induced current density. The total electrical
current is
) ( ) ( ) ( r J r J r J
c
e
i
e
+ = , (3.3)
and Faraday's law becomes

). ( ) (
~
) ( ) ( ) (
~
) (
r J r E
r E r J r E r H
i
e e
e
i
e
j
j
j
+ |

\
|
=
+ + =

(3.4)
Defining a new complex permittivity tensor as

|

\
|
=
e
j

~
(3.5)
leads to
) ( ) ( ) ( r J r E r H
i
e
j + = (3.6)
12
where we have separated the induced effects from the applied source. Repeating
for ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( r J r J r H r J r J
c
m
i
m m
i
m m
+ = + = and noting that
0
) ( ) (
= +
i
m e
i
m e
j J (3.7)
we have

( )
( )
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
r J r E r H
r J r H r E
r r H
r r E
i
e
i
m
i
m
i
e
j
j
+ =
=
=
=




(3.8)
where,

|

\
|
=
m
j

~
.
For later convenience it is useful to relax our notation in (3.8) and simply work
with,

( )
( )
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
r J r E r H
r J r H r E
r r H
r r E
e
m
m
e
j
j
+ =
=
=
=




(3.9)

3.2.2 Vector Wave and Vector Helmholtz Equations
We start with Maxwells curl equations (3.9)

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
r J r E r r H
r J r H r r E
e
m
j
j
+ =
=



In order to decouple above equations, we take the curl of ) ( ) (
1
r E r

and of
) ( ) (
1
r H r

which leads to

), ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1
2 1
r J r r J
r E r r E r
m e
j =

(3.10)

), ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1
2 1
r J r r J
r H r r H r
e m
j + =

(3.11)



13
where (3.11) could also be obtained from (3.10) using duality. These are the vector
wave equations for the fields. Either (3.10) or (3.11) may be solved, with the
undetermined field quantity found via the curl equations.
Various simplifications to the above can be found. For instance, if the medium is
isotropic and homogeneous, we have

). ( ) ( ) ( ) (
), ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2
2
r J r J r H r H
r J r J r E r E
e m
m e
j
j
+ =
=


(3.12)
Of course (3.12) also applies to individual homogeneous subregions within an
isotropic inhomogeneous region.
Noting that ( ) V V V
2
= , we also have for isotropic homogeneous
media

. ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
, ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2
2 2

m
e m
e
m e
j
j

+ = +

+ + = +
r J r J r H r H
r J r J r E r E
(3.13)
These are known as vector Helmholtz equations. Yet another form can be obtained
using the continuity equations, leading to

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
), ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2
2 2
2
2 2
r J r J I r H r H
r J r J I r E r E
e m
m e
j
j

(

+ = +
+
(

+ = +




(3.14)
where I is the identity dyadic and is the second partial derivatives dyadic. They
can be equivalently presented in the matrix forms

(
(
(

=
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
I (3.15)
and

(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
2
2 2 2
2
2
2 2
2 2
2
2
z y z x z
z y y x y
z x y x x
(3.16)
.
3.2.3 Vector and Scalar Potentials and Associated Helmholtz Equations
The source terms on the right side of (3.13) and (3.14) are quite complicated.
Introducing a potential function can simplify the form of the source term, which in
14
turn leads to a reduction of many vector problems to scalar ones. Another benefit of
the potential approach is that the integrals providing the potentials from the sources
are less singular than those relating the electric and magnetic fields to the sources.
For simplicity we proceed assuming homogeneous isotropic media.
Consider first the case of only electric sources in (3.9). By virtue of the identity
0 = V , Maxwell's equation 0 = B leads to the relationship
A B = , (3.17)
where Ais known as the magnetic vector potential ) m / Wb ( . Substitution of this into
Faraday's law results in ( ) 0 A E = + j . From the vector identity 0 = we
obtain

e
j = A E (3.18)
where
e
is known as the electric scalar potential ) V ( .Hence, Ampere's law then
becomes

( )
( ) ), ( ) ( ) (
1 1
) (
2
r J A r J r E
A A A r H
e e e
j j j + = + =
= =

(3.19)
leading to
( ) ) (
2 2
r J A A A
e e
j k + = + (3.20)
where
2 2
= k .
So far only the curl of A has been specified. According to the Helmholtz theorem,
a vector field is determined by specifying both its curl and its divergence. We are at
liberty to set A such that the right side of (3.20) is simplified. Accordingly, we
let
e
j = A , which is known as the Lorenz gauge, resulting in
) (
2 2
r J A A
e
k = + (3.21)
Because we also have /
2
e e
j = = A E , then
/
2 2
e e e
k = + (3.22)
Now consider only magnetic sources. Maxwell's equation 0 = E leads to
F E = (3.23)
where F is known as the electric vector potential ( V). Substituting into Ampere's
law leads to 0 F H = + ) ( j , while the vector identity 0 = results in
,
m
j = F H (3.24)
where
m
is known as the magnetic scalar potential. Faraday's law is then

), ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) (
2
r J F r J r H
F F F r E
m m m
j i j = =
= =

(3.25)
leading to
15
) ( ) (
2 2
r J F F F
m m
j k + = + (3.26)
Accordingly, let
m
j = F , resulting in
) (
2 2
r J F F
m
k = + (3.27)
Because we also have /
2
m m
j = = F H , then
/
2 2
m m m
k = + (3.28)
In summary, the various potentials in the Lorenz gauge satisfy Helmholtz
equations as
.
/
/
) (
2 2
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
=
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
+

m
e
m
e
m
e
k
J
J
F
A
(3.29)
We note that the Helmholtz equations for the potentials have much simpler source
terms than those for the fields, in particular, in a homogeneous space the vectors
Aand F will be collinear with the source terms
e
J and
m
J respectively, often
reducing the vector problem to a simpler scalar one.
Using superposition we obtain the fields from the Lorenz-gauge potentials as

.
1
,
1
F A A E
F F A B
+ =
+ =

j
j
j
j
(3.30)



3.3 Solution of Field Equations Outside the Source Region
This section is devoted to find a free space solution of Maxwells equations. The
presented solution is confined to find the fields outside the source region. The
problem of finding the fields inside the source region is discussed later in sec(3.4). In
the first subsection we describe the method of Greens function and use the method to
find the solution of the scalar Helmholtz equation. Then, in the second subsection, the
method is generalized to find the solution of the combined-source vector Helmholtz
equation. The generalized method introduces a dyadic Greens function instead of a
scalar one. Since the results of the combined-source solution seem to be inapplicable,
the next subsection presents a compact explicit-source form for the solution. The
solution is obtained by the frequency-domain analog of an approach conducted by
Felsen and Marcuvitz in their book [6]. The last subsection describes a vector
potentials approach that yields the same results of the approach of Felsen and
Marcuvitz.
16
3.3.1 Solution of Scalar Helmholtz Equation Using Green's Function
Method
The scalar Helmholtz equation is defined as
) ( ) ( ) (
2 2
r r r = + k (3.31)
where ) (r is the source term, and the solution is assumed to satisfy certain
boundary conditions on a closed surface S .
The solution of (3.31) is expected to include the influence of both the source term
and the boundary conditions of the problem. One way to find an expression of such a
solution is by using the method of Green's function. The method of Green's function
depends, basically, on a simple physical principle; to obtain the field caused by a
distributed source (charge or heat generator or whatever it is that causes the field) we
calculate the effects of each elementary portion of the source and add them all (as
long as the problem is linear). If ) ( r r, g is the field at the observer's point r caused by
a unit point source at the source point r , then the field at r caused by a source
distribution ) (r is the integral of the ) ( r r, g weighted by the source distribution
over the whole range of r occupied by the source. The function g is called the
Green's function. Boundary conditions can be treated as sources (whether they are
Dirichlet or Neumann conditions) which enables us to include their effect in the
solution in a similar way as we did for .
The Greens function method involves two main steps:
I. Finding the Green's function of the problem.
II. Expressing the solution in terms of the Green's function.
The first step is done by solving the partial differential equation of the problem, but
with a point-source ) ( r r instead of the source distribution ) (r . This leads to a
partial differential equation which is homogeneous except at r r = . The obtained
equation is called the Green's function differential equation. It is usually solved
subject to homogeneous boundary conditions to give the Greens function of the
problem.
The second step is based on the application of Green's theorem and the reciprocity
property of Green's functions. These are discussed in detail later in the section.
I. Finding the 3D Green's Function of the Scalar Helmholtz Equation
For the scalar Helmholtz equation defined by (3.31), the Green's function
differential equation is
) ( ) , ( ) , (
2 2
r r r r r r = + g k g . (3.32)
Without loss of generality, the source is assumed to be at the origin of the coordinates.
Hence, equation (3.32) becomes
) ( ) ( ) (
2 2
r r r = + g k g (3.33)
17
Since the free space is assumed, ) (r g is only a function of r = r due to symmetry.
By using the Laplacian in spherical coordinates, (3.33) is rewritten as
) ( ) (
) ( 1
2 2
2
r r g k
dr
r dg
r
dr
d
r
= + |

\
|
(3.34)
The right-hand side of (3.34) is zero except at the origin. Hence, for 0 r (3.34) can
be rewritten as
( ) ( ) 0 ) ( ) (
2
2
2
= + r rg k r rg
dr
d
(3.35)
yielding the solution

r
e
M r g
jkr
= ) ( (3.36)
where M is an arbitrary constant, and only the traveling wave is assumed (for an
t j
e
+
time dependence).
The arbitrary constant M is determined by substituting (3.36) into (3.33), and then
integrating within a small sphere including the origin as follows

( )

=
)
`

= =
|
|

\
|
+ =
=
=


V
jkr jkr
V
jkr jkr
V S
dV
e
k
re
jk
M k dV g k
r
e
jk
r
e
Mr
g r
d g dV g
. 1 ) (
1
1 1
4
4
4
2
2 2
2
2
2
2

r
S


By taking the limit 0 r , we obtain
4
1
= M .
When the source is located at an arbitrary position r , the Green's function is
expressed as

r r
r r,
r r

=

4
) (
jk
e
g (3.37)
which is recognized as the usual free-space 3D scalar Green's function of Helmholtz
equation.
II. Expressing the Solution in Terms of the Greens Function
To express the solution ) (r in (3.31) in terms of the Green's function, Green's
theorem and the reciprocity property of the Green's function are applied. Before we
derive the formula of the solution integral, we give a short description and a
derivation of both the Green's theorem and the reciprocity property.
18
Green's Theorem
Green's theorem is a variant of Gauss' divergence theorem (2.9). Greens theorem
is stated as a relation between surface and volume integrals given by


=
S V
d u v v u dV u v v u S ) ( ) (
2 2

(3.38)
Derivation
For a closed surface S , Gauss' divergence theorem is


=
S V
d dV S F F
(3.39)
Consider two scalar fields ) (r u and ) (r v . By taking u v v u = F and using the
vector identity F F F + = f f f ,we obtain

.
2
2
u v u v
v u v u
+
+ = F
(3.40)
When substituted in (3.39), it directly yields Greens theorem
Reciprocity of Green's Functions
Reciprocity of Green's functions or sometimes called Maxwell's reciprocity is the
property that ) ( ) ( r , r r r, = g g . That means that the response at r due to a
concentrated source at r is the same as the response at r due to a concentrated source
at r . It worth noting that this is not physically obvious. It is purely a mathematical
property.
Derivation
Green's theorem is used to prove the reciprocity property. Taking ) (
1
r r, = g u and
) (
2
r r, = g v with both satisfying the same homogeneous boundary conditions , leads to

{ }
{ }
). ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1 2 2 1
1 1
2
2
2 2
2
1
1
2
2 2
2
1
2 2
r r r r, r r r r,
r r r r, r r,
r r r r, r r,
r r, r r, r r, r r,
+ =

=
=

g g
g k g
g k g
g g g g u v v u

Substitution in Green's theorem (3.38) leads to

{ }
) conditions boundary s homogeneou same e satisfy th both since ( 0
, ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) side hand right (
), ( ) ( ) side hand left (
1 2 2 1
2 1 1 2
=
=
+ =

S r , r r , r r , r r , r
r , r r , r
d g g g g
g g
S


By rewriting the variables as r r r r = =
2 1
, ,we finally obtain,
). ( ) ( r , r r r, = g g (3.41)

19
Formulation of the Solution
In the following we derive the formula expressing the solution in terms of the
Green's function. This is done by taking ) (r = u and ) ( r r, = g v , then applying
Green's theorem (3.38). So, the integrand of the left-hand side is written as

{ } { }
). ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2
2 2 2 2
r r, r r r r
r r r r, r r r r, r
r r r, r r, r
+ =
=
=
g
k g g k
g g u v v u





Therefore, applying Green's theorem (3.38) yields
{ }

= +
S V
d g g dV g S r r r, r r, r r r r, r ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (

By interchanging the variables r and r , and using the reciprocity of the Green's
function (3.41),we obtain
[ ]

+ =
S V
d g g V d g S r r r, r r r, r r r, r ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
(3.42)
Equation (3.42) represents the solution of the scalar Helmholtz equation expressed
in terms of the Greens function. V is the volume under consideration, S is the
surface of V , and S d is the outward normal vector of S .
As can be seen, the volume integral in the right-hand side of (3.42) corresponds
to the superposition of the contribution of the source while the surface integral
corresponds to the superposition of the contribution from the equivalent sources on
the boundary.
3.3.2 Combined-Source Solution of Maxwells Equations
As was shown, decoupling of Maxwell's equations in frequency domain have led to
equations (3.14). These can be written as

m
e
k
k
i H(r H(r
i E(r E(r
= +
= +
) )
, ) )
2 2
2 2
(3.43)
where

). ( ) (
), ( ) (
2
2
r J r J I i
r J r J I i
e m m
m e e
j
j
+
(

+ =

(

+ =

(3.44)
Dyadic Greens Function
In the previous subsection, the concept of Green's function was confined to the
scalar case; i.e. , when a scalar field is excited with a scalar field. Clearly, in such a
case, the mediating function, called the Green's function is then a scalar quantity too.
For vector problems, however, the idea of a Green's function becomes more involved.
20
To retain full generality, the propagator or the inverse operator between a vector
source and a vector field must be a dyadic (a second rank tensor). This distinction
provides the main difference in the interpretation of the Green's function in the scalar
and vector cases. For a scalar problem, one essentially has to solve the same scalar
differential equation for the scalar Green's function as for the original fields (with a
delta function term replacing the source term). In the vector problem, however, the
vector differential equation for the original vector fields are replaced by a dyadic
differential equation in terms of the dyadic Green's function.
The dyadic Green's function makes the formulation and solution of
electromagnetic problems more compact. Even though many problems may be solved
without using dyadic Green's functions, the symbolic simplicity offered by them
makes its use attractive. This is especially true in multiple scattering problems, in
which complex physics of a vector field is compactly accounted for using the dyadic
Green's function. [7]
I. Finding the Dyadic Greens Function of the Problem
For the electric and magnetic vector Helmholtz equations (3.43) the dyadic Green's
function is defined to satisfy the dyadic differential equation
) ( ) , ( ) , (
2 2
r r I r r G r r G = + k (3.45)
One way to solve the above dyadic equation is by means of the scalar Green's
function which satisfy (3.32). Eliminating the delta functions from both the scalar and
the dyadic equations, leads to
) , ( ) ( ) , ( ) (
2 2 2 2
r r I r r G + = + g k k
or
( ) 0 r r I r r G = + ) , ( ) , ( ) (
2 2
g k
A particular solution to the above is
) , ( ) , ( r r I r r G = g (3.46)
That means that, in free space, the dyadic Greens function of the vector Helmholtz
equations (3.43) is

r r
I r r G
r r

=

4
) , (
jk
e
(3.47)
II. Expressing the Solution in terms of the Dyadic Greens Function
In order to express the solution in terms of the dyadic Green's function, a vector-
dyadic variant of the Greens theorem is used. It is called the vector-dyadic Greens
second theorem [8]. It is given by

( ) [ ]
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] { }

+ + =

S
V
dS
dV
A B n B A n B A n B A n
B A B A
2 2

(3.48)
21
Taking ) r (r, G B = and E(r) A = or H(r) yields,

( ) ( )
( ) [ ] { }
( ) ( )
( ) [ ] { }

+ +
+ =
+ +
+ =
S
S V
m
S
S V
e
dS
dS dV
dS
dS dV
. H(r) ) r (r, G n ) r (r, G H(r) n ) r (r, G H(r) n
) r (r, G H(r) n ) r (r, G (r) i ) r H(
, E(r) ) r (r, G n ) r (r, G E(r) n ) r (r, G E(r) n
) r (r, G E(r) n ) r (r, G (r) i ) r E(

(3.49)
By interchanging the roles of r and r , and using the reciprocity property , we
obtain

( ) ( )
( ) [ ] { }
( ) ( )
( ) [ ] { }

+ +
+ =
+ +
+ =
S
S V
m
S
S V
e
S d
S d V d
S d
S d V d
. ) r H( ) r (r, G n ) r (r, G ) r H( n ) r (r, G ) r H( n
) r (r, G ) r H( n ) r (r, G ) r ( i H(r)
, ) r E( ) r (r, G n ) r (r, G ) r E( n ) r (r, G ) r E( n
) r (r, G ) r E( n ) r (r, G ) r ( i E(r)


(3.50)
The equations given above for H E and may be further simplified if free space is
considered. This means that we let the surface S recede to infinity, and
G H E and , will satisfy the Sommerfeld radiation condition [8]

( )
( )
( ) . lim
, 0 lim
, 0 lim
0 G r G
H r H
E r E
= +
= +
= +



ik r
ik r
ik r
r
r
r

(3.51)
In such a case, the surface integrals in (3.50) vanish, leading to the simple intuitive
formulas for H E and ,

.
,

=
=
V
m
V
e
V d
V d
) r (r, G ) r ( i H(r)
) r (r, G ) r ( i E(r)
(3.52)
Applicability
Unfortunately, the equations given above for H E and are still unsatisfactory due
to the complicated form of the physical source densities
) (m e
J appearing in
) (m e
i . In
22
typical situations, the source densities are numerically determined or approximated.
That means that the subsequent differentiation can introduce large errors. That is why
it is better to move the derivative operators onto the known Green's function rather
than the sources. Also, from an analytical standpoint it is more convenient to work
with terms involving a Green's dyadic and an undifferentiated current density [8].
3.3.3 Separated-Source Solution of Maxwells Equations
In this section, we derive the solution for the electric and magnetic fields in a
compact separated-source form. Consider the vector wave equations (3.12) of the
electric and magnetic fields, given by

. ) )
, ) )
2
2
m e
m e
j k
j k
J J H(r H(r
J J E(r E(r

=
=
(3.53)
As obvious from these equations, both
e
J and
m
J has an influence on the value of
the electric field E.The same can be said for H. From the linearity of the problem,
one can separate the effects from
e
J and
m
J for each equation. Hence, it is expected
that four dyadic Green's functions are needed, namely,
mm me em ee
G G G G and , , . The
dyadic
ee
G , for example, accounts for the influence of
e
J on E,
em
G for the
influence of
m
J on E, and so on.
In terms of the four dyadic Green's functions, the solution for Eand H in free
space is

. ) (
, ) (


+ =
+ =
V
m mm
V
e me
V
m em
V
e ee
V d V d
V d V d
) r ( J ) r (r, G ) r ( J ) r (r, G r H
) r ( J ) r (r, G ) r ( J ) r (r, G r E
(3.54)
where no surface integrals are accounted here because, in free space, surface
integrals vanish due to radiation conditions [8].
A more compact formulation is given by
V d
m
e
V mm me
em ee

=
(

J
J
G G
G G
H
E
(3.55)
Let [ ]
T
H E F = to be the field vector, [ ]
T
m e
J J J = to be the source vector, and
let
(

=
mm me
em ee
G G
G G
G to be the Maxwell's equations dyadic Green's function. Hence,
equation (3.55) is rewritten as
V d
V
=

) ( ) ( ) ( r J r r, G r F
(3.56)
This gives a single compact expression of radiation from both the electric and
magnetic sources in free space. One great advantage of this form over the form (3.52),
is that the source densities are undifferentiated. This allows a way for applying
approximated source densities or those numerically determined without expecting
large numerical errors.
23
Finding G
The goal now is to determine the Green's function G for Maxwell's equations with
its four components
mm me em ee
G G G G and , , . First, we find the dyadic differential
equations governing those four dyadic Green's functions. And second, by solving
those dyadic equations, we obtain the expressions of the four dyadic Green's
functions.
1. Finding the dyadic equations of components of G
Consider the dyadic
ee
G , for example, which is known in literature as the electric
field dyadic Green's function. It accounts for the influence of the electric source
e
J on
the electric field E. It is known that E, in the case when
e
J is the only effective
current source, satisfies

e
j k J E E =
2
(3.57)
Hence,
ee
G will satisfy the dyadic wave equation
) (
2
r r I G G = j k
ee ee
(3.58)
With a close look in the form of the source terms in (3.53) we can construct the
dyadic equations of the other dyadic Green's functions as
) (
2
r r I G G =
em em
k (3.59)
) (
2
r r I G G =
me me
k
(3.60)
) (
2
r r I G G = j k
mm mm

(3.61)
From the above equations, some interrelations between the four dyadic Green's
functions can be deduced. These are

.
me em
mm ee
G G
G G
=
=
(3.62)
It is worth noting that we can find an equivalent set for the equations governing the
four dyadic Green's functions derived directly from Maxwell's curl equations before
decoupling. This is done as follows.
Maxwell's curl equations before decoupling are

m
e
j
j
J H E
J H E
= +
=

(3.63)
Assuming the case of an electric source where 0 =
m
J ,
ee
G and
me
G will be the
influence functions of the electric current source
e
J on the electric and magnetic
fields respectively. Hence, to find the dyadic equations of
ee
G and
me
G , we replace
Ewith
ee
G , and H with
me
G and a unit dyadic delta source instead of
e
J in
Maxwell's curl equations, leading to
) ( r r I G G =
me ee
j (3.64)
0 G G = +
me ee
j
(3.65)
24
The same can be done for
mm
G and
em
G , in the case of a magnetic source where
0 =
e
J . This leads to
0 G G =
mm em
j (3.66)
) ( r r I G G = +
mm em
j
(3.67)
Simple mathematical manipulations on the set of equations (3.64)-(3.67) shows a
complete equivalence with the set of equations (3.58)-(3.61).
2. Finding expressions for the four dyadic Green's functions Felsen's Approach
As shown by Felsen and Marcuvitz in [6], expressions for the four dyadic Green's
functions can be derived by a simple set of operations on the scalar Green's function.
The procedure is as follows.
We start with
ee
G .Applying the dyadic identity C C C
2
= in (3.58)
leads to
( ) ) (
2 2
r r I G G G = j k
ee ee ee
(3.68)
The divergence of
ee
G can be found from (3.64) by taking the divergence both sides
and making use of the dyadic identities 0 C and I I f f = . This yields
) ( ) ( r r I r r I G = =
ee
j (3.69)
Substituting in (3.68) leads to
) ( ) (
1
2 2
r r I G G r r =

j k
j
ee ee


Hence,
) (
1
2
2 2
r r I G G |

\
|
+ = +
k
j k
ee ee
(3.70)
which is a dyadic Helmholtz equation. However, since the scalar Green's function
g satisfies
) (
2 2
r r = + g k g , (3.71)
the delta function can be eliminated between (3.70) and (3.71) to obtain
( ) ( ) g
k
k j k
ee
|

\
|
+ + = +
2
2 2 2 2
1
I G
or
( ) 0 I G =
(

\
|
+ + + g
k
j k
ee
2
2 2
1

A particular solution of the above is
g
k
j
ee
|

\
|
+ =
2
1
I G (3.72)
25
From equation (3.65) it is easy to find
me
G in terms of
ee
G . Applying the dyadic
identity 0 , we obtain
I I G = = g g
me
(3.73)
Also, similar procedures yield
g
k
j
mm
|

\
|
+ =
2
1
I G , (3.74)
and
I I G = = g g
em
(3.75)
Hence, the results can be summarized as
g
k
j
mm ee
|

\
|
+ = =
2
1
I G G (3.76)
I I G G = = = g g
me em

(3.77)
where
r r
r r,
r r

=

4
) (
jk
e
g .
When expressions (3.76) and(3.77) are applied in (3.54), we obtain the free space
solution of Maxwells equations in frequency domain,

{ }

+
)
`

+ =
V
m
V
e
V d g V d g
k
j ) ( ) (
1
) (
2
r J I r J I r E
(3.78)

{ }


)
`

+ + =
V
m
V
e
V d g
k
j V d g ) (
1
) ( ) (
2
r J I r J I r H
(3.79)

3.3.4 Vector Potentials Approach
An alternative approach to derive (3.78) and (3.79) is by using the vector electric
and magnetic potentials Aand F defined in sec (3.2.3). An attractive property of
vector potentials is that they satisfy vector Helmholtz equations with simple collinear
source terms. Referring to (3.29), the equations of Aand F are given by

( )
( ) .
,
2 2
2 2
m
e
k
k
J F
J A
= +
= +
(3.80)
The dyadic Green's function of the vector Helmholtz equation was shown before to
be g I G = (see sec(3.3.2)). Hence , the solutions of (3.80) for Aand F in free space
simply are
26

. ) ( ) , ( ) (
, ) ( ) , ( ) (

=
=
V
m
V
e
V d g
V d g
r J r r I r F
r J r r I r A
(3.81)
The relations between the fields Eand H and the vector potentials Aand F,
respectively, were depicted in equations (3.30). Thus solutions for Eand H can be
formed by simple substitution yielding



(

+ =
V
m
V
e
V d g V d g
j
j ) ( ) (
1
) ( r J I r J I r E

(3.82)



(

+ + =
V
m
V
e
V d g
j
j V d g ) (
1
) ( ) ( r J I r J I r H

(3.83)
Interchanging the order of the differential and integral operators yields,

{ }

+
)
`

+ =
V
m
V
e
V d g V d g
k
j ) ( ) (
1
) (
2
r J I r J I r E
(3.84)

{ }


)
`

+ + =
V
m
V
e
V d g
k
j V d g ) (
1
) ( ) (
2
r J I r J I r H
(3.85)
which is the same result obtained by using Felsen's approach (3.78) and (3.79).


3.4 Solution of Field Equations Inside the Source Region
It has been shown in the last section that the electric and magnetic fields E and H
outside a current-carrying volume can be given by equations (3.54) or equations
(3.78) and (3.78). One is normally interested in finding the fields in points outside the
source region (i.e., r is outside V ). This is the case particularly when computing the
radiation pattern of a current distribution. However, it is not without practical interest
to inquire whether (3.54) are still valid when r is inside V . In other words, when we
are interested in finding the fields inside the source region, can we validly use (3.54)?
From the practical point of view, such an interest arises in the evaluation of an
antenna impedance, the power radiation, the induced current on a scatterer, and other
situations[2][5].
Clearly, the dyadic Green's functions become infinite when r approaches r ,
hence, the integrals appearing in (3.54) become improper ones. The singularities of
ee
G and
mm
G are of the order
3
R , and the singularities of
em
G and
me
G are of the
order
2
R . That means that for a typical source current distributions, equations (3.54)
would lead to divergent integrals. Such a feature has been extensively studied by
Yaghjian and Van Bladel, among others. Their work in [2] and [3] has shown that the
principle value of the integrals involving the current element and the dyadic Green's
27
function should be carefully defined. Also, a correction term should be added to the
integrals involving
ee
G or
mm
G [9].
In the following, we will start tackling carefully the derivations for the solutions,
with the source region in consideration.

3.4.1 Source Region Solution of Scalar Helmholtz Equation
The problem of the scalar Helmholtz equation was solved in sec (3.3.1). In this
subsection we treat the problem again but with taking the source region into
consideration. Actually the derivation of the solution of scalar Helmholtz equations
depicted in (3.3.1) would not now be rigorously valid. That is because Green's
theorem (3.38) requires the involving functions to be continuous in the region. The
substitution ) ( r r, = g v violates the conditions of Green's theorem when r
approaches r . We can alleviate this difficulty by following the usual procedure of
excluding the point r r = from the integration. We exclude the point r from the
volume V by containing it within an arbitrary volume

V bounded by the smooth

surface

S . The application of Green's theorem to the region

V V , with the
substitution ) (r = u and ) ( r r, = g v , is now rigorously valid, leading to

[ ]
[ ]

S S
V V
d g g
dV g g
. ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2
S r r, r r r r,
r r r, r r, r
(3.86)
We write this as

[ ]
[ ] . ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (

S
V V S
d g g
dV s g d g g
S r r, r r r r,
r r r, S r r, r r r r,




When taking the limit as 0 , the left side becomes

( )( )
( )
.

4
) ( lim

4
) ( lim ) (
4
lim
2
0
0 0

S
jkR
S
jkR
S
jkR
dS
R
e
dS ik
R
e
dS
R
e
n R
r
n R r n r

The first term vanishes since R ( is the maximum chord of

V ) so that the
integrand is ( ) / 1 O , while the surface element is ( )
2
O . The second term vanishes
for the same reason, while the third term leads to ) (r . In evaluating the third term
we assume ) (r is well behaved for r near r , so that it can be brought outside the
integral as a constant on

S . The solid-angle formula

2
=

S
dS
R
n R

(3.87)
28
where both unit vectors point outward from

S and the point 0 = R is contained inside

S then leads to the desired result. We therefore get

{ }

=

S V V
d g g dV g S r r r, r r, r r r r, r ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( lim ) (
0

(3.88)
By interchanging the variables r and r , and using the reciprocity of the Green's
function (3.41), we obtain

{ }

+ =

S V V
d g g V d g S r r r, r r r, r r r, r ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( lim ) (
0

(3.89)
which is the solution when r is inside the source region. As obvious, (3.89) has just
the same form as (3.42) except that an infinitesimal volume containing the singularity
is excluded.
The above form raises some questions about exclusion volume

V . Does

V has a
certain shape, or can we arbitrarily chose its shape? If the shape can be arbitrarily
chosen, would that mean that the volume integral in (3.89) does not have a unique
value? The theory of improper integrals gives us the answers.
According to the theory of improper integrals [8], if a function ) ( r r, f is
piecewise continuous everywhere in a region V , except at r r = where it becomes
unbounded, then the improper integral dV f
V

) ( r r, is, classically, said to exist

(converge to a unique function of r ) and is equal to
dV f
V V

) ( lim
0
r r,

if the latter integral exists. In the latter expression

V is a small volume containing the

singular point r , and so

V is a function of r (i.e., ) (r =

V V ). The only restrictions
on

V are that the point r is interior to

V and that the maximum chord of

V does
not exceed . As the limit is taken, the shape position, and orientation with respect to
r are maintained. The integral is said to exist (converge) if the limiting integral
converges to a finite value independent of the shape of the exclusion region. Such a
case occurs, for instance, for the improper volume integral
[ ]

V
n
dV R 1

when 2 0 < n . Since the volume element is ( )
2
O , the singularity is considered to
be removable, and the singularity is integrable in the sense described above. For a
more general type of integral is given as
dV u
R
k
V
n
) (
) (
r
r r,

with similar conditions on n . As long as k and u are reasonably well behaved at
r r = , the integral will be convergent in the sense described above.
29
The singularity in (3.89) is ( ) R O 1 , hence ) (r converges to a unique value
independent of the shape of the exclusion volume.
Now we can state the whole-region (inside and outside the source region) solution
of the scalar Helmholtz equation by
[ ]

+ =
S V
d g g V d g S r r r, r r r, r r r, r ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (

where it is implicitly known that when r approaches r , the volume integral will have
the form

V V
V d g ) ( ) ( lim
0
r r r,

where

V is a volume excluding the singularity. The shape of

V can be arbitrarily
chosen, always leading to a unique result. That is because the singularity here is
removable according to the theory of improper integrals.
3.4.2 Source Region Solution of Maxwell's Equations
In order to account for the fields in the source region using the dyadic Green's
function of Maxwell's equations G, it is useful to use the results of the vector
potentials approach depicted in sec(3.3.4). The solutions for Eand H were expressed
in (3.82) and (3.83) as



(

+ =
V
m
V
e
V d g V d g
j
j ) ( ) (
1
) ( r J I r J I r E

(3.90)


(

+ + =
V
m
V
e
V d g
j
j V d g ) (
1
) ( ) ( r J I r J I r H

(3.91)
In those equations, the singularities inside the integrations are ( ) R O 1 , which are
removable singularities. Hence, in the same manner as described in sec(3.2.2), if we
are interested in finding the fields inside the source region, the integrals will be
performed as

+ =

V V
m
V V
e
V d g V d g
j
j ) ( lim ) ( lim
1
) (
0 0
r J I r J I r E
(3.92)

+ + =

V V
m
V V
e
V d g
j
j V d g ) ( lim
1
) ( lim ) (
0 0
r J I r J I r H
(3.93)
where

V is a volume excluding the singularity of each integral separately, leading to

a unique value for the fields whatever was the shape of

V for each integral.

However, these forms will still be impractical as long as the differential operators
are operating on the integrals from outside. That might lead to the use of numerical
differentiation which is expected to give large errors. Alternatively, if the differential
30
and integral operators are interchanged, we obtain a form with the differential
operator acting on the Greens function directly which has an analytical expression.
In sec(3.3.4) differential and integral operators were validly interchanged since no
singularity occurs in the domain of interest which was the volume outside the source
region. However, when the source region is considered, the interchange of operators
must be treated carefully. To study the validity of such an interchange between
operators it is convenient to find the first and second derivatives of integrals of the
form




= =

V
jk
V
V d
e
s V d g s
r r
r r r, r r
r r

4
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( (3.94)
where we assume the source density ) (r s is at least piecewise continuous.
First Derivatives of

V
V d g s ) ( ) ( r r, r
It is known that for the case of V r (i.e., outside the source region), r r = cannot
occur. Hence, (3.94) represents a proper convergent integral over fixed limits. As such
it can be differentiated arbitrarily often, with derivatives brought under the integral
sign, i.e. ,
V V d g
x
s V d g s
x
V i V i

r r r, r r r, r : ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
(3.95)
We now consider the case of V r (i.e., inside the source region) where the
volume integral is to be interpreted as ( )

V V
V d
0
lim after excluding the
singularity by the volume

V . Because ) (r

V V = , the validity of passing
i
x through the limiting integral needs to be established carefully. As reported in
[8], it can be shown that the volume integral (3.94) uniformly converges to a
continuous function ) (r which is differentiable with the derivatives allowed to be
taken under the integral sign, i.e.,

V V d g
x
s V d g s
x
V V i V V i

r r r, r r r, r : . ) ( ) ( lim ) ( ) ( lim
0 0



(3.96)
This interchange of operators can also be accomplished through the use of
Leibnitz's theorem which, in the one-dimension case, is stated as

x
x g
x g x f
x
x g
x g x f dy y x f
x
dy y x f
x
x g
x g
x g
x g

) (
)) ( , (
) (
)) ( , ( ) , ( ) , (
1
1
2
2
) (
) (
) (
) (
2
1
2
1

(3.97)
When (3.96) holds, one can see that the "extra terms" given in the three-dimensional
Leibnitz's theorem, generated by the rigorous interchange of operators, vanish. The
validity of this interchange for the curl operator and the type of integrand of interest
here is described in detail in [10].
31
Using (3.96), one can see that for first derivatives (usually
i
x and in the
scalar potential case, and A and A in the case of the vector potential) the final
result is the same as if the derivative was formally passed through the integral without
regard for either the limiting operation or the integration limits depending on the
differentiation variable. Thus we obtain (see [8]).

. ) ( ) ( lim ) ( ) ( lim
, ) ( ) ( lim ) ( ) ( lim
, ) ( ) ( lim ) ( ) ( lim
, ) ( ) ( lim ) ( ) ( lim
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0

=
=

=








V V V V
V V V V
V V i V V i
V V V V
V d g V d g
V d g V d g
V d g
x
V d g
x
V d g s V d g s
r r, r s r r, r s
r r, r s r r, r s
r r, r s r r, r s
r r, r r r, r
(3.98)

Second Derivatives of

V
V d g s ) ( ) ( r r, r
Second derivatives of (3.94) may not necessarily exist when V r , but if the
source density is piecewise continuous in V , then at any point in V (the bounding
surface S is not part of V ) where the source density ) (r s satisfies a Hlder condition

r r r r k s s ) ( ) ( (3.99)
where 0 > k and 1 0 < , then the second-order partial derivative

V V i j i j
V d g s
x x x x
) ( ) ( lim ) (
0
2 2
r r, r r
(3.100)
exists as well [8]. If the source density satisfies the same Holder condition everywhere
in V , then the second partial derivatives are (Holder) continuous in V , although they
will not, in general, be continuous on the boundary S .
Even if existence of the second- derivative is established, second derivative
operators may not generally be brought under the integral sign without careful
consideration of the source-point singularity. If the integral and second-derivative
operator are formally interchanged, i.e.,

V V i j
V d g
x x
s ) ( ) ( lim
2
0
r r, r
(3.101)
the integral of the resulting differentiated integrand is often no longer convergent in
the classical sense (the differentiated integrand being singular, ) 1 (
3
R O ). However,
according to [8], the concept of convergence can be broadened to say that an integral
is convergent in the principle value (P.V.) sense named conditionally convergent (i.e.,
exists in a conditional sense) if the limiting integral converges to a finite value that is
dependent on the shape of the exclusion region.
An example of a conditionally convergent improper integral in one dimension is [8]
32
( ) ( ) [ ]

ln ln lim
1 1
lim
1
0
0
0
0
=
(

+ = =
|
|

\
|

|
|

\
|

dx
x
dx
x
dx
x
I
a
a
a
a


If the limit variables are related, say = , then ( ) ln = I and the integral
converges (conditionally) to a number for a given , but that number is not unique.
Note that if , are unrelated then the integral is not even finite. So it is seen that in
this instance the value of the integral depends on the "shape" of the exclusion region.
A similar situation occurs in (3.101), leading to a contradiction between (3.100)
and (3.101). In (3.101) the result is not unique and dependent on the shape of the
exclusion volume unlike the result of (3.100) which has a unique value independent of
the shape of the exclusion volume.
One procedure to correctly evaluate (3.100) is presented and proved in [8]. It states
that

[ ] , ) ( ) ( ) ( lim
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( lim
2
0
0
2

V V j i
S
i
j
V V i j
V d g
x x
s s
S d g
x
s
V d g s
x x
r r, r r
n x r r, r
r r, r

(3.102)
where S is the boundary surface of V , nis an outward unit normal vector on S , and
V r r, . This equation holds for s being Holder continuous. The form (3.102) can be
used to pass various second-order derivative operators ( , , ,
2
etc.)
through integrals of the form (3.94), scalar or vector case as appropriate.

Alternative Method for Evaluating Second Derivatives of

V
V d g s ) ( ) ( r r, r
Another method for evaluating the second partial derivatives of (3.94) was
developed in [5] and [11] with regards to the electric dyadic Green's function
singularity. Using concepts from generalized function theory, it is shown that,
operationally,

( )( )
.
4

lim ) (
4
) ( lim
4
) (
2
0
2
0
2

S
i j
V V
jk
i j
V
jk
i j
S d s
V d
e
x x
s
V d
e
s
x x
r r
R x n x
r
r r
r
r r
r
r r
r r

(3.103)
This can also be written in the operational form
33


=

V
ji
V
jk
i j
V d g s V d
e
s
x x
) ( ) (
4
) (
2
r r, r
r r
r
r r

(3.104)
where
) ( ) ( ) ( P.V. ) (
2
r r r r r, r r,

ji
i j
ji
L g
x x
g
(3.105)
with

( )( )

S
i j
ji
S d L
2
0
4

lim ) (
r r
R x n x
r
(3.106)
and P.V. indicates the integral for that term should be performed in the principle value
sense. Although the singularity in the volume integral in the right side of (3.103) is
) 1 (
3
R O , which means that the integral is not convergent in the classical sense. The
integral is only conditionally convergent meaning that the integral will converge to a
value which is dependent on the shape of the exclusion volume. However, under the
conditions specified for (3.100), the integral in the left side of (3.103) will converge to
a unique value independent of the shape of the exclusion volume. That means that, as
described in [3], the volume and surface integrals in the right side of (3.103), which
are both dependent on the shape of the exclusion volume, just add up in a way to
cancel the shape dependency of each other.
In order to give a more compact formulation of (3.106), a dyadic L is defined as

S
S d
2
4

) (
r r
R n
r L
(3.107)
Using the this definition,
ji
L can be written as

i j ji
L x r L x r ) ( ) ( =
(3.108)
Also the second derivative of g can be written in the dyadic form

i j
i j
g g
x x
x r r, x r r, ) ( ) (
2
=

(3.109)
Hence, operationally, (3.103) can be rewritten as

. ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( lim
4
) (
0
2
i j
V V
i j
V
jk
i j
s
V d g s
V d
e
s
x x
x r L x r
x r r, x r
r r
r
r r

=

(3.110)
We now move on to apply (3.98) and (3.110) to correctly interchange the
differential and integral operators in (3.82) and (3.83).

34
Interchange of Operators in Field Equations
Consider the electric field. From (3.98), the curl operator in the second term in
(3.90) can be interchanged with the integral operator resulting in

{ }

= =

V V
m
V V
m
V V
m
V d g V d g
V d g
) ( lim ) ( lim
) ( lim
0 0
0
r J I r J
r J I
(3.111)
To interchange the operators in the first term in (3.90) we use (3.110) to obtain

= =

= =

+
=

(

+
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
0
0
0
, ) ( ) (
1
) ( ) ( lim
1
) ( ) ( lim
) ( lim
1
i j
i j
e
j i
V V
j
i j
e
j
i
i
e
V V
V V
e
J
j
V d g J
j
V d g j
V d g
j
j
x r L x r x
x r r, x r x
r J r r,
r J I

which can be shown to be equal to the compact dyadic form
.
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
1
lim
2
0

j
V d g
k
j
e
e
V V
r J r L
r J r r, I


)
`

(3.112)
Adding the two terms (3.111) and (3.112) yields

{ } . ) ( lim
) ( ) (
) (
1
lim ) (
0
2
0

)
`

+ =

V V
m
V V
e
e
V d g
j
V d g
k
j
r J I
r J r L
r J I r E
(3.113)
Similar manipulations, or duality, lead to the magnetic field equation

{ }
.
) ( ) (
) (
1
lim
) ( lim ) (
2
0
0

)
`

+ +
=

V V
e
m
V V
e
j
V d g
k
j
V d g
r J r L
r J I
r J I r H
(3.114)
In order to write (3.113) and (3.114) in the form given in (3.54) or (3.55), it is
customary to take

) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) (
1
P.V. ) (

) ( ) (
) (
1
P.V. ) (

2
2
r r, I r r, G r r, G
r r r L
r r, I r r, G
r r r L
r r, I r r, G
= =

)
`

+ =

)
`

+ =
g
j
g
k
j
j
g
k
j
me em
mm
ee

(3.115)
35
where P.V. indicates that the associated term is to be integrated in the principle value
sense. This leads to the simpler form

.

) (
,

) (


+ =
+ =
V
m mm
V
e me
V
m em
V
e ee
V d V d
V d V d
) r ( J ) r (r, G ) r ( J ) r (r, G r H
) r ( J ) r (r, G ) r ( J ) r (r, G r E
(3.116)

The Depolarizing Dyadic L
The dyadic L is known as the depolarizing dyadic [3]. It arises mathematically
from the careful consideration of the strong-point singularities in
ee
G and
mm
G . As
was previously shown, L arises when the interchange between the differential and
integral operators is done correctly.
Actually, if the electric field was found only by the principle value integral, that
would cause the electric field to have a non-unique value which is dependent on the
shape of the exclusion volume. It is the depolarizing dyadic L that solves the
problem. The depolarizing dyadic term, which is also dependent on the shape of the
exclusion volume, is added in just the right way to cancel the shape dependence of the
principle value integral, resulting in a unique value for E independent of the shape of
the exclusion volume.
Physical Interpretation
Physically [7], the principle value integral corresponds to putting the observation
point r inside a cavity excavated in the current source region. Since the current is
discontinuous on the surface of this cavity, charges build up on the surface of the
cavity. When the cavity size is very small, the field due to the charges is essentially
electrostatic in nature inside the cavity. Since the electrostatic field satisfies Laplace's
equation which is scale invariant, this field persists even in the limit when the
exclusion volume tends to zero. This electrostatic field is a function of the shape of
the cavity, no matter how small it is. These charges give rise to a field which should
not have been there since the exclusion volume is absent in the actual case. Hence, to
obtain a correct answer, the term of Lis added to remove the effect of the surface
charges around the exclusion volume.
The form of the symmetric dyadic Lfor various exclusion volumes is presented in
a table in [3]. For a sphere, 3 I L = is independent of the position of the origin within
the sphere. For a cube with origin at the center of the cube, 3 I L = as well. For a
pillbox of arbitrary cross-section
i i
x x L = , where
i
x is the unit vector in the direction
of the axis of the pillbox. The same dyadic is found for the "slice" exclusion volume,
which is the natural form of the pillbox for laterally infinite layered-media
geometries.
36

CHAPTER 4
TIME-DOMAIN ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction
During the past era, frequency domain dyadic Green's functions in
electromagnetics have appeared regularly in the literature. On the other hand, time
domain forms were much less common [1]. A principle reason for favoring the
frequency domain over the time domain had been that the frequency-domain approach
was generally more tractable analytically. Furthermore, the experimental hardware
available for making measurements in past years was largely confined to frequency
domain.
However, the recent increasing use of short pulses with wide band bandwidths in
communication and radar systems has made time-domain methods more attractive.
Some variants of which has received widespread attention in the literature, mainly
owing to their superiority for solving wide-band problems and studying transient
fields in comparison with frequency domain methods. In the numerical
implementation of time domain methods, the response of the system over a wide
range of frequencies can be obtained with a single simulation.
The chapter starts by a brief overview of the field equations and the associated
vector and scalar potentials in time domain. The following section seeks the solution
of the time-domain Maxwells equations in free space. However, the section is limited
to find solutions only outside the source region. A time-domain Greens function
method is used to find the complete solution of the scalar wave equation including the
influences of the initial conditions and the nonhomogeneous boundary conditions.
Then, using the approach described by Felsen and Marcuvitz in their book [6], we
find the solution of Maxwells equations as an influence of source currents only.
Limitations of the described solutions are pointed out. The following section describes
two approaches that give a complete form of the solution of time-domain Maxwells
equations in free space. By a complete form we mean that the solution includes the
influence of the initial fields, and the solution covers the whole space region including
the source region. The first approach is the one recently described by Nevels and
Jeong in their paper [1]. Unfortunately, we think that the formula of the solution
conducted by Nevels and Jeong does not present the complete picture since it seems
to be inconsistent with the frequency-domain results known in literature and described
in equations (3.115) and (3.116). Alternatively, we propose another approach based
on vector potentials. Although known in frequency-domain analysis, we think, to our
knowledge, that it is the first time to apply a vector potentials approach in time
domain. The proposed approach yields results that are completely consistent with the
frequency-domain well-known formulations. It also shows that there are some
unnecessary terms in Nevels form, thus, an extreme reduction of the calculation
effort is yielded.

37
4.2 Field Equations and Associated Potentials in Time Domain
4.2.1 Wave Equations
For an isotropic and homogeneous medium the time domain Maxwell's curl
equations are given by

). , ( ) , ( ) , (
), , ( ) , ( ) , (
t t
t
t
t t
t
t
e
m
r J r E r H
r J r H r E
+

(4.1)
Decoupling the electric and magnetic fields yields

), , ( ) , ( ) , (
1
) , (
), , ( ) , ( ) , (
1
) , (
2
2
2
2
2
2
t t
t
t
t c
t
t t
t
t
t c
t
e m
m e
r J r J r H r H
r J r J r E r E
+

(4.2)
where
2 1
) (

= c is the speed of light in the medium. Of course (4.2) also applies to
individual homogeneous subregions within an isotropic inhomogeneous region.
Noting that ( ) V V V
2
= ,equations (4.2) can be put in the form,

. ) , ( ) , ( ) , (
1
) , (
, ) , ( ) , ( ) , (
1
) , (
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

m
e m
e
m e
t t
t
t
t c
t
t t
t
t
t c
t

+ +

r J r J r H r H
r J r J r E r E
(4.3)
Yet another form can be obtained using continuity equations leading to

) , ( ) , ( ) , (
1
) , (
), , ( ) , ( ) , (
1
) , (
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
t t
t t
t
t c
t
t t
t t
t
t c
t
e m
m e
r J r J r H r H
r J r J r E r E

(

+
(

(4.4)
where ( ) dt
t
t

1
.
4.2.2 Vector and Scalar Potentials
Using the Lorenz gauge and following the same procedures used in sec(3.2.3) but
in the time domain leads to
38

|
|
|
|
|

\
|
=
|
|
|
|
|

\
|

/
/
)
1
(
2
2
2
2
m
e
m
e
m
e
t c
J
J
F
A
(4.5)
which is the time domain analog of (3.29). And the fields can be obtained from the
Lorenz gauge potentials by

.
,
1 1
2
2
F A A E
F F A B


+

=


+

=
t
c
t
t t c
(4.6)


4.3 Solution of Field Equations Outside the Source Region
4.3.1 Solution of Scalar Wave Equation Using Green's Function
In this section we solve the scalar wave equation with a time dependent source,
) , ( ) , (
1
) , (
2
2
2
2
t t
t
u
c
t u r r r =

(4.7)
subject to the two initial conditions,
) ( ) 0 , ( r r f u = (4.8)
) ( ) 0 , (
2
2
r r g
t
u
=

(4.9)
.
Green's Function for the Scalar Wave Equation
We introduce the Green's function ) , , ( t t G r r as a solution, due to a concentrated
source at r r = acting instantaneously only at t t = , of the differential equation
) ( ) ( ) , , (
1
) , , (
2
2
2
2
t t t t
t
G
c
t t G =

r r r r r r (4.10)
where ) ( r r is the Dirac delta function of the appropriate dimension.
The Green's function is the response at r at time t due to a source located at r at
time t . Since we desire the Green's function G to be the response only due to this
source acting at t t = ( not due to some nonzero earlier conditions ), we insist that the
response G will be zero before the source acts ( t t < ) :
t t t t G < = for 0 ) , , ( r r (4.11)
39
known as the causality principle.
The Green's function ) , , ( t t G r r only depends on the time after occurrence of the
concentrated source. If we introduce the elapsed time, t t = ,

, 0 for 0
) ( ) (
1
2
2
2
2
< =
=

G
G
c
G r r
(4.12)
then G is also seen to be the response due to a concentrated source at r r = at 0 = .
This is called the translation property,
) 0 , , ( ) , , ( r r r r = t t G t t G (4.13)

Application of Green's Theorem
Before solving for the Green's function, we show how the solution of the
nonhomogeneous wave equation (4.7) is obtained using the Green's function.
We introduce the linear differential operator

2
2
2
2
1
t c
L

= (4.14)
Using this notation, the nonhomogeneous wave equation (4.7) satisfies
) , ( ) ( t u L r = (4.15)
while the Green's function (4.10) satisfies
) ( ) ( ) ( t t G L = r r (4.16)
Now we find the integral
[ ]

V
dV u vL v uL ) ( ) ( ,
(4.17)
which is analogous to the volume integral in the conventional Green's theorem, but
with the wave equation operator L instead of the Laplacian
2
. We have,
( )
|
|

\
|

=
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
1
) ( ) (
t
u
v
t
v
u
c
u v v u u vL v uL (4.18)
Hence, using Green's theorem, the volume integral (4.17) is

[ ]
|
|

\
|

=
V S V
dV
t
u
v
t
v
u
c
d u v v u dV u vL v uL
2
2
2
2
2
1
) ( ) ( ) ( S
(4.19)
Since the delta functions in (4.16) are functions of both space and time , we need to
integrate (4.19) with respect to time as well, yielding to a new "Green's formula" ,

[ ]

|

\
|

=
V
t
t
t
t S
t
t V
dV
t
u
v
t
v
u
c
dt d u v v u dt dV u vL v uL
f
i
f
i
f
i
2
1
) ( ) ( ) ( S
(4.20)
40
The terms on the right side represent contributions from the boundaries: the spatial
boundaries for all time, and the temporal boundaries (
i
t t = and
f
t t = ) for all space.
Reciprocity
For the scalar Helmholtz equation, we have shown that the Green's function is
symmetric, ) ( ) ( r , r r r, = g g . We proved this result using Green's theorem for two
different Green's functions ) ( and ) (
2 1
r r, r r, g g . The result followed because the
boundary terms in Green's theorem vanished.
For the wave equation there is a somewhat analogous property. However, it is not
) , , ( ) , , ( t t G t t G r r r r = . Indeed if t t > the second of these is zero. In order to
obtain a reciprocity relation the following approach is used.
The Green's function ) , , ( t t G r r satisfies
) ( ) (
1
2
2
2
2
t t
t
G
c
G =

r r (4.21)
subject to the causality principle,
t t t t G < = for 0 ) , , ( r r (4.22)
G is nonzero for t t > . To utilize the Green's formula (4.20) to prove reciprocity, we
need a second Green's function. If we choose it to be ) , , (
A A
t t G r r , then the
contribution


f
i
t
t S
dt d u v v u S ) ( on the spatial boundary vanishes, but the
contribution

\
|

V
t
t
dV
t
u
v
t
v
u
f
i

on the time boundary will not vanish at both
i
t t = and
f
t t = . However, if we let
t t
i
in Green's formula, the "initial" contribution will vanish.
For a second Green's function we are interested in varying the source time t ,
) , , (
1 1
t t G r r , what is called the source- varying Green's function [12]. From the
translation property,
) , , ( ) , , (
1 1 1 1
t t G t t G = r r r r (4.23)
since the elapsed times are the same [ ] t t t t =
1 1
) ( . By causality these are zero if
t t <
1
(or equivalently
1
t t < )

1 1 1
for 0 ) , , ( t t t t G > = r r (4.24)
which is called the source-varying causality principle. By introducing this Green's
function, we will show that the "final" contribution from Green's formula may vanish.
To determine the differential equation satisfied by the source-varying Green's
function, we let T t = , in which case, from (4.23),
41
) , , ( ) , , (
1 1 1 1
t T G t t G = r r r r
This is the ordinary (variable response position) Green's function with T being the
time variable. It has a concentrated source located at
1
r r = when ) , i.e. (
1 1
t t t T = =
) ( ) ( ) , , (
1
1 1 1 1 2
2
2
2
t t t t G
T c
=
|
|

\
|

r r r r
Since t T = , from the chain rule t T = , but
2 2 2 2
t T = . Thus, the
wave operator is symmetric in time, and therefore,
[ ] ) ( ) ( ) , , ( ) , , (
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 2
2
2
2
t t t t G L t t G
t c
= =
|
|

\
|

r r r r r r (4.25)
A reciprocity formula results from Green's formula (4.20) using two Green's
functions, one with varying response time,
) , , (
0 0
t t G u r r =
and one with varying source time,
) , , (
1 1
t t G v r r =
Both satisfy partial differential equations involving the same wave operator,
2 2
2
2
1
t
c
L = . We integrate from = t to + = t in Green's formula (4.20)
(i.e., =
i
t and + =
f
t ). Since both Green's functions satisfy the same
homogeneous boundary conditions, Green's formula (4.20) yields

[ ]

\
|

=
V V
dV
t
u
v
t
v
u
c
dt dV t t v t t u
2 0 0 1 1
1
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( r r r r
(4.26)
From causality principles, u and t u vanish for
0
t t < , and v and t v vanish
for
1
t t > . Thus the right hand side of (4.26) vanishes. Consequently, using the
properties of the Dirac delta function, u at
1 1
and t t = =r r equals v at
0 0
and t t = =r r
leading to
) , , ( ) , , (
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
t t G t t G r r r r =
Replacing
1
r by r ,
1
t by t ,
0
r by r , and
0
t by t leads to
) , , ( ) , , ( t t G t t G = r r r r (4.27)
which is the reciprocity formula for the Green's function for the wave equation.
Interpretation of (4.27) is that, under the assumption that t t > , the response at r (at
time t ) due to a source at r (at time t ) is the same as the response at r (at time t )
due to a source at r as long as the elapsed times from the sources are the same. Thus,
interchanging the source and location points has no effect on the Green's function of
the scalar wave equation.

42
Expressing the solution in terms of Greens Function
In the Green's formula (4.20) we let
) , ( t u u r = (4.28)
) , , ( ) , , ( t t G t t G v r r r r = = (4.29)
where ) , ( t u r is the solution of the scalar wave equation satisfying,
) , ( ) ( t u L r =
subject to the given initial conditions for ) 0 , (r u and ) 0 , (r t u , and where
) , , ( t t G r r is the source-varying Green's function satisfying (4.25):
[ ] ) ( ) ( ) , , ( t t t t G L = r r r r
subject to the source-varying causality principle
t t t t G > = for 0 ) , , ( r r
We use the new Green's formula (4.20) with 0 =
i
t and
+
= t t
f
; i.e., we integrate
just beyond the appearance of a concentrated source at t t = :

[ ]
. ) (
1
) , ( ) , , ( ) ( ) ( ) , (
0 0
2
0


+ +
+

\
|

=

t
S V
t
t
V
dt d u v v u dV
t
u
v
t
v
u
c
dt dV t t t G t t t u
S
r r r r r r


At
+
= t t , 0 = v and 0 = t v , since we are using the source-varying Green's
function. Hence, using the reciprocity formula (4.27), we obtain,

. )) , ( ) , , ( ) , , ( ) , ( (
) 0 , , ( ) 0 , ( ) 0 , , ( ) 0 , (
1
) , ( ) , , ( ) , (
0
2
0

+
+

+
=
t
S
V
t
V
dt d t u t t G t t G t u
dV t G
t
u t G
t
u
c
dt dV t t t G t u
S r r r r r r
r r r r r r
r r r r


It can be shown that
+
t may be replaced by t in these limits. If the roles of r and
r are interchanged (as well as t and t ), we obtain a representation formula for
) , ( t u r in terms of the Green's function ) , , ( t t G r r :

+
=
t
S
V
t
V
t d d t u t t G t t G t u
V d t G
t
u t G
t
u
c
t d V d t t t G t u
0
2
0
)) , ( ) , , ( ) , , ( ) , ( (
) 0 , , ( ) 0 , ( ) 0 , , ( ) 0 , (
1
) , ( ) , , ( ) , (
S r r r r r r
r r r r r r
r r r r

(4.30)
43
where means a derivative with respect to the source position. This formula can
transformed to start with the initial time
0
t instead of zero to give the formula,

. )) , ( ) , , ( ) , , ( ) , ( (
) , , ( ) , ( ) , , ( ) , (
1
) , ( ) , , ( ) , (
0
0
0 0 0 0 2

+
=
t
t S
V
t
t V
t d d t u t t G t t G t u
V d t t G
t
t u t t G t
t
u
c
t d V d t t t G t u
S r r r r r r
r r r r r r
r r r r

(4.31)
Equation (4.31) expresses the response due to the three kinds of nonhomogeneous
terms: source terms, initial conditions, and nonhomogeneous boundary conditions. In
particular, the initial position ) , (
0
t u r has an influence function
) , , (
0
t t G
t
r r

while the influence function for the initial time derivative ) , (
0
t
t
u
r

is ) , , (
0
t t G r r .
Form of the Green's Function
Knowledge of G is necessary to make (4.31) usable. As in the case of the scalar
Helmholtz equation we shall find G for the infinite domain. The method involves
assessing the relative strength of the singularities in the functions G
2
and
2 2
t G in the equation,
) ( ) (
1
2
2
2
2
t t
t
G
c
G =
|
|

\
|

r r (4.32)
It can be argued that G
2
is the more singular than
2 2
t G , since it involves the
second derivative of a three-dimensional delta function. However, such an argument
is not very satisfying. A more rigorous proof of this fact is given in [13]. So it will be
accepted here.
Integrating both sides of the equation over a small spherical volume surrounding
the point r r = , that is 0 = R , and neglecting the time derivative term, one obtains
[13]

R
t t
G
R

4
) (
0

(4.33)
where Gauss' theorem (3.39) have been applied.
Now we proceed to find a solution of the homogeneous equation satisfying this
condition. It is clear that G satisfies the equation
0
1
2
2
2
2
=
|
|

\
|

t
G
c
G
44
when r r and t t . At 0 = R condition (4.33) must be employed. We are dealing
with point sources in an infinite medium, hence due to symmetry, G is a function of
R rather than of r and r separately. Thus, by using Laplacian in spherical
coordinates, one obtains
0
1 1
2
2
2
2
2
=
|
|

\
|

\
|

t
G
c R
G
R
R R

or

( ) ( )
0
1
2
2
2 2
2
=

t
RG
c R
RG
(4.34)
The solution of (4.34) is

( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) [ ]
R
t t c R k
R
t t c R h
G
+
+

= (4.35)
where h and k are arbitrary functions. Comparing with condition (4.33) we see that
two possibilities (or any linear combination of these) occur, ( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) R t t c R 4
or ( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) R t t c R 4 + . The second of these must be eliminated, for it does not
satisfy the condition imposed earlier, which requires that the effect of an impulse at a
time t be felt at a distance R away at a time t t > . Therefore,

( ) ( ) [ ]
R
t t c R
G

4

=
(4.36)
representing a spherical shell impulse spreading out from 0 = R (i.e., r r = ) at a
radial velocity c with "amplitude" diminishing proportional to R 1 .
Since ) ( ) ( x a a x = , G can be written as

R
c R
c G

4
) (
=
(4.37)
where t t = .
Relation between Green's Function of the Scalar Helmholtz Equation and the
Green's Function of the Scalar Wave Equation
Since the Green's function of the scalar Helmholtz equation satisfies
) ( ) , ( ) , (
2 2
r r r r r r = + g k g (4.38)
and the one for the scalar wave equation satisfies
) ( ) ( ) , , (
1
) , , (
2
2
2
2
t t t t
t
G
c
t t G =

r r r r r r , (4.39)
one expects to have an interrelation between g and G .
Taking t t = , then from the translation property
) 0 , , ( ) , , ( r r r r = G t t G .
45
Hence, ) 0 , , ( r r G satisfies ,
) ( ) ( ) 0 , , (
1
) 0 , , (
2
2
2
2

r r r r r r =

G
c
G (4.40)
Consider the Fourier transform pair

{ }
{ }

= =
= =

d e F f F
d e f F f
j
j
) (
2
1
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
1
(4.41)
When we take the Fourier transform of (4.40), we obtain,
) ( ) 0 , , ( ) (
1
) 0 , , (
2
2
2
r r r r r r = G
c
G
Since k c = , the latter equation becomes,
) ( ) 0 , , ( ) 0 , , (
2 2
r r r r r r = + G k G (4.42)
which is exactly the scalar Helmholtz equation satisfied by g (4.38). Hence, we
deduce that,
{ } ) 0 , , ( F ) , ( r r r r =

G g
(4.43)
Since the expressions for both g and G are known, it is useful to verify the relation
(4.43):

. ) , (
4 4
4
) (
F
4
) (
F
r r = = =
)
`

=
)
`

g
R
e
R
e
R
c R
R
c R
c
jkR c R j

Hence, it is proved that the Greens function of the scalar Helmholtz equation is
just the frequency-domain form of the Greens function of the scalar wave equation.

4.3.2 Solution of Maxwells Equations Using Dyadic Green's Function
Felsens Approach
For an isotropic and homogeneous medium the time domain Maxwell's curl
equations are given by,

). , ( ) , ( ) , (
), , ( ) , ( ) , (
t t t
t
t t t
t
e
m
r J r H r E
r J r E r H
=

= +

(4.44)
46
As in the case of the frequency domain, in order to express the fields Eand H in
terms of the source currents
e
J and
m
J , we need the four dyadic Green's functions
ee
G ,
em
G ,
me
G and
mm
G . However, unlike the case in frequency domain, the solution
in time domain is subject to three contributions instead of two. These are; the
contribution of the source currents, the contribution of the initial field, and the
contribution of the boundary conditions. Since the volume considered here is
extended to infinity, the contribution due to boundary conditions will vanish as a
result of Sommerfeld radiation condition. Also, since the initial field occupies the
whole space, its influence will include the source region singularity in the domain of
integration. Such problem will be considered in later sections where the singularity
inside the source region is treated carefully in time domain. Thus, in this section, zero
initial conditions are assumed.
Considering only the contribution of the source currents, the solutions Eand H
can be expressed as,

. , ) , , ( , ) , , ( ) , (
, , ) , , ( , ) , , ( ) , (


+ =
+ =
V
m mm
V
e me
V
m em
V
e ee
V d t t t V d t t t t
V d t t t V d t t t t
) r ( J r r G ) r ( J r r G r H
) r ( J r r G ) r ( J r r G r E

(4.45)

The goal of this subsection is to find the expressions for the four dyadic Greens
functions
ee
G ,
em
G ,
me
G and
mm
G , and apply them in the field integrals to find the
time-domain free space solution of Maxwells equations due to source currents. We
represent the approach used by Felsen and Marcuvitz in their book [6], to find the four
dyadic Greens functions. At the end of the section, we show the consistency of the
obtained time-domain formulas with the frequency-domain analogues.
Felsens Approach
Formula (4.45) can be put in the more compact formulation,
V d
t
t
t t t t
t t t t
t
t
m
e
V
mm me
em ee

=
(

) , (
) , (
) , , ( ) , , (
) , , ( ) , , (
) , (
) , (
r J
r J
r r G r r G
r r G r r G
r H
r E
(4.46)
Moreover, when we let [ ]
T
H E F = to be the field vector, [ ]
T
m e
J J J = to be the
source vector, and
(

=
) , , ( ) , , (
) , , ( ) , , (
) , , (
t t t t
t t t t
t t
mm me
em ee
r r G r r G
r r G r r G
r r G to be the time
domain Maxwell's equations dyadic Green's function, then equation (4.46) can be
rewritten as,
V d t t t t
V
=

) , ( ) , , ( ) , ( r J r r G r F
(4.47)
This gives a single compact expression of radiation from both the electric and
magnetic sources in time domain.
In a procedure analog to that presented in section (3.3.3), we can find the
differential equations satisfied by the four Green's functions. First we assume a case
of an electric source only ( 0 =
m
J ). The dyadics
ee
G and
me
G would be the influence
47
functions of the electric current source
e
J on the electric and magnetic fields
respectively. Hence, to find the dyadic equations of
ee
G and
me
G , we replace Ewith
ee
G , and H with
me
G and a unit dyadic delta source instead of
e
J in Maxwell's curl
equations, leading to
) ( ) ( t t
t
me ee
=

r r I G G (4.48)
0 G G =

+
me ee
t
(4.49)
The same can be done for
mm
G and
em
G , but instead, the case considered is of a
magnetic source only ( 0 =
e
J ). This leads to,
0 G G =

mm em
t
(4.50)
) ( ) ( t t
t
mm em
=

+ r r I G G (4.51)
Decoupling the above four equations yields,
) ( ) (
1
2
2
2
t t
t t c
ee ee

+ r r I G G (4.52)
) ( ) (
1
2
2
2
t t
t c
em em
=

+ r r I G G (4.53)
) ( ) (
1
2
2
2
t t
t c
me me
=

+ r r I G G (4.54)
) ( ) (
1
2
2
2
t t
t t c
mm mm

+ r r I G G (4.55)
Similar to the frequency domain case, interrelations between the four dyadic Green's
functions can be concluded. These are;

me em
mm ee
G G
G G
=
=


Finding G
Now, the goal is to determine the Maxwell's equations Green's function Gwith its
four components
mm me em ee
G G G G and , , satisfying equations (4.52) to (4.55). As
shown by Felsen and Marcuvitz [6], the dyadic Greens functions
ee
G ,
em
G ,
me
G and
mm
G , can be derived by a simple set of operations, shown below, on the time domain
scalar Green's function G .
As a starting point, focus will be set on determining
ee
G which is called the electric
field Green's function and which accounts for the influence of an electric source
e
J on
the electric field E. As depicted in equation (4.52),
ee
G satisfies the dyadic wave
equation,
48
) ( ) (
1
2
2
2
t t
t t c
ee ee

+ r r I G G (4.56)
Applying the dyadic identity C C C
2
= in (4.56) leads to
( ) ) ( ) (
1
2
2
2
2
t t
t t c
ee ee ee

+ r r I G G G (4.57)
The divergence of
ee
G can be found from (4.48) by taking the divergence both sides
and making use of the dyadic identities 0 = C and I I f f = , yielding,
) ( ) ( r r I r r I G = =

ee
t
(4.58)
Substituting in (4.57) leads to
) (
1
) (
1
2
2
2
2
r r I G G r r

+


t t c t
ee ee

Hence,
) ( ) (
1
2
2
2
2
2
t t
t
c
t t c
ee ee

|
|

\
|

r r I G G (4.59)
which is a dyadic wave equation. Since the time domain scalar Green's function
G satisfies,
) ( ) (
1
2
2
2
2
t t
t
G
c
G =

r r (4.60)
The delta function can be eliminated between (4.59) and (4.60) to obtain,
G
t
c
t t c t c
ee
|
|

\
|

|
|

\
|

=
|
|

\
|

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1 1
I G
or
0 I G =
(

|
|

\
|

+
|
|

\
|

G
t
c
t t c
ee
2
2
2
2
2
1

A particular solution of the above is
G
t
c
t
ee
|
|

\
|

=
2
I G (4.61)
From equation (4.49) it is easy to find
me
G in terms of
ee
G . Applying the dyadic
identity 0 , we obtain,
I I G = = G G
me
(4.62)
Similar procedures yield,
G
t
c
t
mm
|
|

\
|

=
2
I G (4.63)
49
I I G = = G G
em
(4.64)
The results are summarized as

I I G G
I G G
= = =
|
|

\
|

= =
G G
G
t
c
t
me em
mm ee
,
2

(4.65)
Putting
R
R c
c G

4
) (
= leads to

I G G
I G G
R
R c
c
R
R c U
R
R c
me em
mm ee

4
) (
4
) (
4
) (

= =

+

= =
(4.66)
which is the free space Maxwells equations dyadic Green's function, according to
Felsen and Marcuvitz [6]. Applying (4.66) in (4.45) or (4.46) yields the free space
solution of Maxwells equations in time domain due to source currents.
Consistency of the Time-Domain Greens Function ) , , ( t t r r G with the
Frequency-Domain Greens Function ) , ( r r G
In the following, the frequency domain dual of (4.66) is found. Consider the
Fourier transform pair defined by,

{ }
{ }

= =
= =

d e F f F
d e f F f
j
j
) (
2
1
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
1
(4.67)
Applying (4.67) on (4.66), where 0 , leads to

{ } { }
R
e
k
j
e
j R
e
c
j
R
jkR
R
c
j R
c
j
mm ee

4
1
1
4
1
4
1
2
2

+ =
+ =
=
I
I
G G

(4.68)

and
{ } { } I G G
R
e
jkR
me em
4

= = (4.69)
Hence, from (4.68) and (4.69), one can say,
{ }
(

= =
mm me
em ee
G G
G G
r r G G
~ ~
~ ~
) , (
~

where
50

I G G
I G G
R
e
R
e
k
j
jkR
me em
jkR
mm ee

4
~ ~
4
1 ~ ~
2

= =
(

+ = =
(4.70)
which is exactly the frequency-domain form (3.76) and (3.77) derived in sec(3.3.3).
Limitations
Felsens formula (4.66) has two limitations. The first is that it is applicable only
when the field outside the source region is required. It cannot be directly applied to
find the field inside the source region. This is due to the irremovable singularity inside
the source region. The second limitation is that Felsens approach is confined to
finding the field as an influence of a source current J . It does not consider the
influence of an initial field. In the following sections, other approaches to the time
domain Maxwells equations Green's function are presented. These approaches give
formulas that take into consideration the field in the source region as well as the
influence of a given initial field on the propagating field.

4.4 Field Inside the Source Region and Propagation of Initial Field
The Complete Time-Domain Solution
The free space time-domain solution of Maxwells equations derived in the last
section is still incomplete. The formula does not consider the propagation of an initial
field occupying the space. Also, due to the singularity, it cannot be applied to find the
field inside the source current region. The purpose of this section is to find a complete
formula for the free space time domain solution of Maxwells equations.
4.4.1 Nevels Approach
In this subsection, we review the approach reported by Nevels and Jeong in their
paper [1]. Also, the verifications and examples of their formula reported in [1], are
reviewed. The obtained formula for the solution overcomes the limitations of Felsens
formula in that it includes the propagation of an initial field and can be applied to find
the field inside the source region. Nonetheless, their approach gives results that seem
to be inconsistent with the frequency-domain source region solution (3.114) and
(3.115). The limitations of the results of their approach are discussed at the end of the
section.
Approach
In their paper [1], Nevels and Jeong had reported a state-space approach to find the
dyadic Green's function. In their approach, they applied the three dimensional Fourier
transform which transforms the spatial space ( r domain) to the phase (or wave
number) space ( k domain). It is defined by the pair
51

{ }
{ }

= =
= =
k k F r F k F
r r F k F r F
r k
r k
d e
d e
j
p p
j
p
) ( ) ( ) (
) (
) 2 (
1
) ( ) (
1
3

(4.71)
where in Cartesian coordinates z y x k
z y x
k k k + + = and the differential
z y x
dk dk dk d = k are in terms of the spatial frequency components
z y x
k k k and , .
The approach starts by expressing Maxwells curl equations,

m
e
t
t
J E
H
J H
E
=

(4.72)
in the dyadic state form,
J F S
F
=

t
(4.73)
which has a vector field F and vector current J , defined by
[ ] [ ]
T
z y x z y x
T
H H H E E E = = H E F
T
m e
(

=

J J
J
and S is a dyadic operator, a 6 6 matrix of differential operators, symbolically
represented by,

( )
( )
(

=
0 1
1 0

S
The goal is to solve (4.73) to find the field ) ,t F(r . To this end a free space dyadic
Green's function ) , , ( t t r r G , a 6 6 matrix of elements, must be found. Once G is
known, the present time field ) ,t F(r , assuming an unbounded space, is determined by

r r F r r G
r r J r r G F(r

=

+
d t t
t d d t t t t
V
t
t V
) ( ) , , (
) , ( ) , , ( ) ,
0 0
0
(4.74)
The first integral above is the contribution to the present time field due to the current
) , ( t r J . Generally the time
0
t is taken to be the turn on time of the current J , but
0
t can be . The second integral is the present time field contribution due to the
initial field ) ( ) , (
0 0
r F r F = t prescribed for a volume of space at
0
t .
The dyadic Green's function Gsatisfies the differential equation,
52
) ( ) ( t t
t
=

r r I G S G (4.75)
Instead of solving the inhomogeneous equation (4.75) directly, Nevels and Jeong
consider only the case of the second integral in (4.74) which gives the time evolution
of a given initial field throughout space. By introducing a dyadic propagator
) , , ( t t r r K , the time evolution of the given initial field will be
r r F r r K F(r =

d t t t
V
) ( ) , , ( ) ,
0 0

(4.76)
Since we now have a case of no current sources, the propagator K can be obtained by
solving the homogeneous equation,
0 K S K =

t
(4.77)
subject to the initial condition,
) at time ( ), ( ) , , ( t t t t = = r r I r r K (4.78)
The relationship between the propagator and the Green's function is [1],
) , , ( ) ( ) , , ( t t t t U t t = r r K r r G (4.79)
where the unit step function enforces causality.
Hence, in order to find G, it is easier to solve (4.77) subject to (4.78) then enforce
causality by (4.79).
Applying the Fourier transform defined by (4.71) on (4.77), results in,
0 K S K =

p p p
t
(4.80)
with the initial condition,
) at time ( ,
) 2 (
1
) , , (
3
t t e t t
j
P
= =
r k
I r k K

(4.81)
The operator
p
S is the phase-domain dual of S, which can be expressed in terms of
algebraic quantities, by

( )
( )
(

=
0 1
1 0
k
k
S

By substitution it can be shown that a solution to (4.80) is

0
K K
S t
p
p
e =
Applying the initial condition (4.81) yields,

r k
S
K

=
j
t
e e
p
3 0
) 2 (
1

Hence, the solution in the phase domain is
53

r k
S
K

=
j
p
e e
p

3
) 2 (
1

(4.82)
where t t = .
Applying the inverse Fourier transform on (4.82) yields the solution in the spatial
domain as
{ }

= = k K K
r r k
S
d e e
j
p
p ) (
3
1
) 2 (
1

(4.83)
The exponential matrix term

p
e
S
can be expanded in the power series
...
! 3 ! 2
3 3 2 2
+ + + + =

p p
p
p
e
S S
S I
S

(4.84)
When the matrices on the right hand side of (4.84) are summed, a new 6 6
evolution operator matrix ) , ( k A
S
t e
p
=

is created. The power series formed by

summing the components of the A matrix yield surprisingly simple closed form
expressions [1],

[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
0
) sin(
) sin(
) sin(
) cos( 1
) cos( 1
) cos( 1
) cos( ) (
) cos( ) (
) cos( ) (
63 52 41 36 25 14
62
2
53
2
35 26
61
2
43
2
34 16
51
2
42
2
24 15
2 65 56 32 23
2 64 46 31 13
2
54 45 21 12
2
2 2 2
66 33
2
2 2 2
55 22
2
2 2 2
44 11
= = = = = =

= = = =
= = = =

= = = =

= = = =

= = = =

= = = =
+ +
= =
+ +
= =
+ +
= =
A A A A A A
k
kc jk
A A A A
k
kc jk
A A A A
k
kc jk
A A A A
k
kc k k
A A A A
k
kc k k
A A A A
k
kc k k
A A A A
k
kc k k k
A A
k
kc k k k
A A
k
kc k k k
A A
x
y
z
z y
z x
y x
y x z
z x y
z y x

(4.85)
where
2 2 2 2
z y x
k k k k + + = .
The goal now is to find K by (4.83), i.e.,

= k k A r r K
r r k
d e t t t
j ) (
3
) , (
) 2 (
1
) , , (

(4.86)
54
which results in

0
) )( ( ) )( ( 3
) )( ( ) )( ( 3
) )( ( ) )( ( 3
) ( 3
1
) ( 3
1
) ( 3
1
63 52 41 36 25 14
62
2
53
2
35 26
61
2
43
2
34 16
51
2
42
2
24 15
2 2
65 56 32 23
2 2 64 46 31 13
2 2
54 45 21 12
2
2
2
66 33
2
2
2
55 22
2
2
2
44 11
= = = = = =

= = = =

= = = =

= = = =
(

+
(

= = = =
(

+
(

= = = =
(

+
(

= = = =
+ |

\
|

+
(

= =
+ |

\
|

+
(

= =
+ |

\
|

+
(

= =
K K K K K K
R
x x
P K K K K
R
y y
P K K K K
R
z z
P K K K K
R
z z y y
S
R
z z y y
L K K K K
R
z z x x
S
R
z z x x
L K K K K
R
y y x x
S
R
y y x x
L K K K K
T
R
z z
S
R
z z
L K K
T
R
y y
S
R
y y
L K K
T
R
x x
S
R
x x
L K K




(4.87)
where

(

=

=
(

=
(

+

=
R
R c
R
R c
P
R
R c
T
R
R R c
S
R
R U R c U
R
R R c
L

4
) (
4
) (
4
) (
4
) ( ) (
4
) ( ) (
4
) ( ) (
2
3 2

as reported in [1].
Equations (4.87) for the propagator K can also be expressed in the compact
dyadic form as

(

=
22 21
12 11
K K
K K
K (4.88)
with
55

[ ]
I K K
I K K
R
R c
R
R U R c U
R
R c

4
) (
4
) ( ) (
4
) (
21
2
12
22 11

= =

+

= =
(4.89)
Hence, from (4.79),

(

=
22 21
12 11
) , , (
G G
G G
r r G t t (4.90)
with

[ ]
I G G
I G G
R
R c
R
R U R c U
R
R c

4
) (
4
) ( ) (
4
) (
21
2
12
22 11

= =

+

= =
(4.91)
and
t t t t < = for 0 ) , , ( r r G
is the free space Maxwells equations dyadic Green's function, according to Nevels
and Jeong [1].
Nevels Contribution
As was mentioned by Nevels and Jeong in [1], the source region term ) ( R U in
(4.91) is a new term that was not reported by Felsen and Marcuvitz in [6] for their free
space Maxwells equations dyadic Green's function. However, as was concluded in
[1], the term ) ( R U is typically not needed if the field is due entirely to a current
source, the case considered in [6] (see sec (4.3.2)). That new term is only needed
when the field is determined from an initial field distribution as in the case of the
second integral in (4.74). It might also seem that the term ) ( R U vanishes because
0 > R . Actually this is not true in (4.91), because of the second derivative . The
source region term [ ] R R U ) ( actually does not vanish in a distributional sense.
As was reported in [1], in the following section we show how such a term is
needed in order for the propagator to satisfy the initial condition (4.78). Also an
example of an initial plane wave is given. The example shows that without that term,
the second integral in (4.74) will give an incorrect propagated field.
Verification and Examples
In the following, we review the verifications and examples reported by Nevels and
Jeong in [1].
Verification of the Initial Condition
In order to verify the initial condition (4.78), we put 0 in (4.91). The result is
I G G
R
R

4
) (
22 11

= =
(4.92)
56
I G G
R
R

4
) (
21
2
12

= =
(4.93)
For (4.92),
I I
2
4
) (
4
) (
R
R
R
R

=



which is equivalent to I r r ) ( since both give the unit dyadic I when integrated
over a spherical volume containing r r = .
For (4.93), assuming any well-behaved function ) , , ( R f , then the integral

0 sin ) , , (
4
) (
) , , (
4
) (
2
= =

V
V
d d dR R R f
R
R
d R f
R
R

I
R I

where r r R = , V is a volume containing r r = , and the property of the validity of
interchanging the integral operator with the first order differential operator (see
sec(3.4.2 )) have been used.
Hence, for (4.93),
0
21 12
= = G G
Combining the above results, we can say that for 0 in (4.91) the result is
) at time ( ) ( ) , , ( t t t t = = r r I r r G

Hence, formula (4.91) does satisfy the initial condition (4.78), and unless the term
) ( R U was there, the initial condition would not have been satisfied.
Example of Propagating an Initial Field
As another verification of the propagator formula (4.91), Nevels and Jeong [1]
assumed a case where there is no source current and the initial field distribution is a
plane wave with unity amplitude given by,
) cos( ) ( ) (
0
0 0
z k t H E
y x
= = r r
(4.94)
It is expected that such initial field will propagate as a plane wave
) cos( ) , ( ) , ( z k t t H t E
y x
= = r r
(4.95)
In the following, the second integral in (4.74) is used to find the field propagated
by such initial field. The second integral becomes,

r r r
r r r r

=

d z H t t K
d z E t t K t E
y
V
x
V
x
) ( ) , , (
) ( ) , , ( ) , (
0
0
0 15
0 11

(4.96)
The above integration can be performed in the spherical coordinates ) , , ( R where
r r = R , therefore the field ) (
0
z E
x
will be written as
57

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

cos cos ) ( cos
) ( ) ( cos cos ) (
0 0
0
R k a z z k a
z z k z k t z k t z E
x
= =
= =
(4.97)
where z k t a =
0
.
Writing the integration (4.96) in spherical coordinates,

( )

d d dR R R k a
R
R c
R
R c
R
R c
R
R R c
R
R U R c U
R
R R c
t E
V
x
sin cos cos cos
4
) (
4
) (
4
) (
cos sin
4
) ( ) (
) cos sin 3 1 (
4
) ( ) (
4
) ( ) (
) , (
2 0
2
0
0
2 2 0
2 2
3
0
2
0

)
`

+

=

r


(4.98)
After some calculations, the result is

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
) cos(
cos
sin sin cos cos
cos sin sin sin
sin sin
sin sin cos sin
cos cos
3
cos sin cos 2 sin 2
3
1
cos
cos sin
cos
sin cos 3 sin 3
cos ) , (
0
0 0
0
0
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
3
0
0
2
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
3
0
0
z k t
a
a a
a a
a
a a
a
a
a
a
a t E
x
=
+ =
=
+
+
+
+
(

+ +
(

+
(

r

(4.99)
The first term in brackets in (4.99) results from evaluating the first delta function in
brackets in (4.98). The delta function and unit step at the origin in (4.98) yield no
contribution to the integral. The terms in the second line on the right hand side (RHS)
of (4.99) arise from the unit step in the first bracketed term of (4.98). The delta
function derivatives in the second bracket in (4.98) contribute the third line on the
RHS of (4.99). The remaining terms in (4.98) contribute the fourth, fifth and sixth
lines in (4.99) respectively.
Similarly, for the magnetic field the result is
58
) cos(
1
) , ( z k t t H
y
=

r
(4.100)
Thus, the application of initial field propagator gives exactly the plane wave
expected to be propagated by the given initial field. It worth noting that although the
unit step ) ( R U and the delta function ) ( R do not contribute to the answer, the
delta function derivative ) ( R does actually contribute a 3 ) (cosa term that cancels
the 3 ) (cos a term produced by ) (
0
R c . Unless the source region term
[ ] R R U ) ( was there, the propagator integral, the second integral in (4.74),
would have given an incorrect result. This shows that the source region terms are a
necessary part of the Green's function in the propagator integral.
Example of an Impulsive Radiating Dipole
As a second application of the Maxwells Green's function, Nevels and Jeong [1]
considered an impulsive electric current density ) ( ) ( t
e
r p J = and no initial field
in the infinite volume of space. This current inserted into (4.74) gives rise to the
space- and time- dependent electric field
p r G r E = ) 0 , 0 , ( ) , (
11
t t (4.101)
where the Green's functions are as given in (4.91) with the replacements r R and
t . ) 0 , 0 , (
11
t r G can be expressed in compact dyadic form as

r
r ct
r
r r ct
r
r U r ct U
r
r r ct
t

4
) (
4
) ( ) (
4
) ( ) (
4
) ( ) (
) ( ) 0 , 0 , (
0 0
3 2
0 0 11

+
(

+

=
I r r
r 3r I r G
(4.102)
where r r r =
0
.
Obviously, all components of the resulting fields are causal, thereby restricting
energy traveling outward from the source to the velocity c as expected. However,
after being turned on at 0 = t , the field due to the source region terms is confined to
the position of the contributing source. In this case it can be said that these terms
interact only with nonradiating currents, that is, currents whose effect is not felt in the
radiated field [1]. In other words, these terms contribute only when the field inside the
source region is considered. As long as only the field outside the source region (i.e.,
the radiated field) is considered, it is not necessary to include the source region terms,
the case considered in [6] by Felsen and Marcuvitz.
Discussion
Considering the source integral current in (4.74) and the Green's function G given
by (4.90) with (4.91), the new term [ ] R R U ) ( can be considered as a source
region correction term. Unfortunately, it seems to be inconsistent with the correction
term (depolarizing dyadic) in the frequency domain formula (3.115). Mainly, it does
not show a shape dependency of the exclusion volume as the depolarizing dyadic in
(3.115) does. The correction term should show a dependence on the shape of the
exclusion volume because of the following. When the field inside the source region is
59
considered, an ) (
3
R O singularity arises in the term [ ] R R c U ) ( . That obligates
us to consider the integration in a principle value (P.V.) sense. Integrating in a P.V.
sense means excluding, from the domain of integration, a vanishing volume with an
arbitrary shape containing the singularity. Integration of [ ] R R c U ) ( in that
sense yields a result that is dependent on the chosen shape of the exclusion volume.
However, in order for the source current integral in (4.74) to give a unique and correct
value of the field, a correction term must be added to the source current integral in
(4.74). That correction term, called the depolarizing dyadic, is dependent on the shape
of the exclusion volume in such a way that cancels the shape dependency of the P.V.
integral. The result is a unique value for the field. Such property of the correction
term is not satisfied in Nevels source region correction term [ ] R R U ) ( .
However, a deep insight of that term gives us a reason for why such a term sometimes
yields the correct result (for example, see integration (4.98)). We explain in the
following.
The unit step ) ( R U is defined by the limit
) ( lim ) (
0
R U R U =

(4.103)
That means that ) ( R U can be considered as a vanishing sphere. That leads to the
following result. As long as the shape of the exclusion volume, in the integral of
[ ] R R c U ) ( , is chosen to be spherical, Nevels Green's function formula,
(4.90) with (4.91), gives correct results for the field inside the source region. In such a
case, the term [ ] R R U ) ( is consistent with the frequency domain depolarizing
dyadic defined in (3.107). The following notes worth mentioning.
1. It might be noticed that, in performing the integral (4.98) of the verification
example, there was no step of excluding the singularity by a vanishing volume.
Actually, that was implicitly done. By choosing the spherical coordinates to perform
the integral, and taking the integration limit 0 R , a vanishing spherical volume was
implicitly excluded from the domain of integration. For that reason (4.98) yielded the
correct result of the field.
2. In mathematical terms, it can be proved that for any typical current distribution
) , ( t r J , the integration
t d d t
R
R U
t
t V

(

+
r r J
0
) , (
) (

(4.104)
always yields the result

+

t
t
t d t
0
) , (
3
1
r J (4.105)
which exactly coincides with the spherical depolarizing correction term. That means
that the source term [ ] R R U ) ( of Nevels formula is mathematically equivalent
to the spherical depolarizing dyadic 3 I L = . Moreover, it interprets why Nevels
formula leads to the correct source region field as long as a spherical volume is used
to exclude the singularity.
60
In summary, Nevels formula for the source current integral gives the correct value
of the field inside the source region only when the shape of the exclusion volume is
chosen to be spherical. Hence, their new source term [ ] R R U ) ( is needed when
the field inside the source region is required and when finding the propagation of an
initial field. In both cases an integration over an irremovable singularity is
encountered. When only the field outside the source region is required, the source
term is not needed. In such a case, Nevels formula (4.90) with (4.91) coincides with
Felsens formula (4.66).
4.4.2 Time-Domain Vector Potential Approach Proposed Approach
In this subsection we propose a time-domain vector potential approach for the
solution of the free space Maxwells equations. To our knowledge, it is only the
frequency-domain vector potential approach that appeared in literature. We show that
by using the time-domain vector potential approach we obtain results that are
perfectly consistent with the frequency-domain source region solution. Compared
with the results of Nevels approach, the proposed approach results in a formula that
gives liberty for the choice of the shape of the volume excluding the singularity. That
overcomes the limitation of Nevels formula for which only spherical exclusion
volumes are allowed (see discussion in sec (4.4.1)). In addition, the proposed
approach shows that there are unnecessary terms in the solution of Nevels and Jeong,
a result that tremendously reduces the calculations of the solution. We also present
some verifications and examples of the obtained formula. At the end of the section,
we give mathematical and physical interpretations of the needless of those terms that
we reported to be unnecessary in the solution of Nevels and Jeong.
Proposed Approach
The magnetic vector potential satisfies

e
t c
J A A =

2
2
2
2
1
(4.106)
The dyadic Greens function G of equation (4.106) satisfies the dyadic differential
equation
) ( ) (
1
2
2
2
2
t t
t c
=

r r I G G (4.107)
The solution of this dyadic equation is
I I G
R
c R
c G

4
) (
= =
(4.108)
where G is the scalar Greens function of the time-domain scalar wave equation
derived in sec (4.3.1).
Expressing Ain terms of G
We use a technique quite similar to that performed on the scalar wave equation
reported in sec( 4.3.1 ). We start with the vector-dyadic identity [8]

61
( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] { }

+ + =
V S
dS dV A B n B A n B A n B A n B A B A
2 2

(4.109)
and choose the vector Ato be the vector potential, and the dyadic B to be the source-
varying dyadic Green's function, i.e.,
) , ( t r A A = and ) , , ( ) , , ( t t t t r r G r r G B = =
where 0 ) , , ( = t t r r G for ) ( t t t t > < . The source-varying dyadic Green's
function is simply ) , , ( t t G r r I , where ) , , ( t t G r r is the scalar source-varying
dyadic Green's function. Such a definition was successively applied in sec (4.3.1) and
lead to the solution of the scalar wave equation in terms of Greens function.
Since we are seeking an expression governing the field in free space, the volume is
extended to infinity. That causes the term in the right hand side to vanish due to the
radiation condition.
Hence, applying (4.106) and (4.107) in (4.109) leads to

0 ) ( ) ( ) , , (
1
) , ( ) , , ( ) , ( ) , (
1
2
2
2 2
2
2
=
)
`

V
e
d t t t t
t c
t t t t t
t c
r r r I r r G r A r r G r J r A


Rearranging and applying the delta function properties,

0 ) , ( ) , , ( ) , ( ) , , (
1
) ( ) , ( ) , ( ) , , (
2
2
2
2
2
=
(

+
+

r r A r r G r A r r G
r A r r J r r G
d t t t
t
t
t
t t
c
t t t d t t t
V
V
e



Hence,

r r A r r G r A r r G
r r J r r G r A
d t t t
t
t
t
t t
c
d t t t t t t
V
V
e

+
=
) , ( ) , , ( ) , ( ) , , (
1
) , ( ) , , ( ) ( ) , (
2
2
2
2
2



(4.110)
We integrate with respect to t from 0 =
i
t to
+
= t t
f
just beyond the appearance of a
concentrated source at t t = . Hence,

r r A r r G r A r r G
r r J r r G r A
d t t t
t
t
t
t t
c
dt d t t t t
V
t
t
V
e

+
+

+
=
0
2
0
) , ( ) , , ( ) , ( ) , , (
1
) , ( ) , , ( ) , (

(4.111)
62
However, at
+
= t t both ) , , ( t t r r G and ) , , ( t t
t
r r G

vanish since t t >

+
. Applying
the limits of integration yields,

r r A r r G r A r r G
r r J r r G r A
d t
t t
t
c
dt d t t t t
V
t
V
e

+
=
+

) 0 , ( ) 0 , , ( ) 0 , ( ) 0 , , (
1
) , ( ) , , ( ) , (
2
0

(4.112)
Interchanging the roles of r and r , also the roles of t and t , we obtain a
representation formula for ) , ( t r A in terms of the Green's function ) , , ( t t r r G given
by


r r A r r G r A r r G
r r J r r G r A

+
=

+
d t
t t
t
c
t d d t t t t
V
t
V
e
) 0 , ( ) 0 , , ( ) 0 , ( ) 0 , , (
1
) , ( ) , , ( ) , (
2
0

(4.113)
The first integral above represents the influence of the source current on the vector
potential A. The second integral represents the time evolution of the initial conditions
of the vector potential A.
Expressing E in terms of A
Now, the goal is to express the electric field ) , ( t r E in terms of ) , ( t r A . Assuming
no magnetic current is present ) 0 ( =
m
J , the electric field Ecan be expressed as
) , ( ) , (
2
t
t
c
t
t r A r E
(

= (4.114)
which is the time-domain analog of (3.30) with 0 = F (no magnetic current), and
( )

t
dt
t
0
1
(4.115)
Applying (4.113) in (4.114) leads to

r r A r r G r A r r G
r r J r r G r E

+
d t
t t
t
t
c
t c
t d d t t t
t
c
t
t
V
t
V
e
) 0 , ( ) 0 , , ( ) 0 , ( ) 0 , , (
1
) , ( ) , , ( ) , (
2
2
0
2

63
Considering first the effect of the operator
(

t
c
t
2
on the source current
integral. It consists of two parts,
1
E which is the effect of t , and
2
E which is the
effect of
t
c

2
, i.e.,
( )
2 1
E E E =
current source to due

(4.116)
where,


+

=
t
V
e
t d d t t t
t
0
1
) , ( ) , , ( r r J r r G E (4.117)
and


+

=
t
V
e
t d d t t t
t
c
0
2
2
) , ( ) , , ( r r J r r G E (4.118)

Finding
1
E
In the expression for
1
E , we are interested in interchanging the order of the
operators
t
1
and ( )

+

t
t d
0
. Since the upper limit of the integration is
+
t not t ,
interchange of the order of the operators is valid, i.e.,



+
+

=
t
V
e
t
V
e
t d d t t t
t
t d d t t t
t
0
0
1
) , ( ) , , (
) , ( ) , , (
r r J r r G
r r J r r G E
(4.119)
where the order of the temporal and the spatial operators is reversed.
Finding
2
E
In the expression for
2
E , we are interested in interchanging the order of the
temporal operators t and ( )

t
t d
0
. To know the result of such a reverse of order, we
consider an integration of the form


t t
dt t d t t f
0 0
) , ( .Taking v t = in the first integral,
and reversing the order of integration, leads to,



(

= = =

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
t t
t
t t
t
t v
t v
t v
v
v t
t
t t
t d dv t v f t d dv t v f dv t d t v f dt t d t t f
0 0 0 0 0 0
) , ( ) , ( ) , ( ) , (

Putting again t v = , the following result is obtained,
64



(

t t
t
t t
t d dt t t f dt t d t t f
0 0 0
) , ( ) , ( (4.120)
Applying the last result in
2
E leads to,



(

t
V
e
t
t
t d d t dt t t c
0
2
2
) , ( ) , , ( r r J r r G E (4.121)
Combining (4.119) and (4.121), results in




(

t
V
e
t
t
t
V
e
current source to due
t d d t dt t t c
t d d t t t
t
0
2
0
) , ( ) , , (
) , ( ) , , (
r r J r r G
r r J r r G
E

(4.122)
Applying the expression (4.108) for G;
I r r G
R
R c
c t t

4
) (
) , , (

=
(4.123)
Hence,
I r r G
R
R c
c t t
t

4
) (
) , , (
2

=

(4.124)
and
[ ] [ ] ) ( ) (
4
) (
4
) , , ( R U R c U
R
R c U
R
dt t t
t
t
t
t
= =

I I
r r G (4.125)
yielding,





+

=
t
V
e
t
V
e
current source to due
t d d t
R
R U R c U
c
t d d t
R
R c
c
0
2
0
2
) , (
4
) ( ) (
) , (
4
) (
r r J I
r r J I
E

(4.126)
At this point, it might seem that that the derivation have lead us to the source term
) ( R U similar to that arose in Nevels approach. Actually, this is not true. The two
forms are mathematically different. In this formula presented here, the second
derivative is operating on the integral, but in Nevels formula (4.74) with (4.91),
the second derivative is operating directly on the source term. Since it is a case of
a source term, the order of the operators is sensitive to the singularity. In order to
study the effect of the term ) ( R U in formula (4.126), we consider the integral

V
e
d t
R
R U
r r J ) , (
4
) (

(4.127)
65
Since ) ( R U can be considered as a vanishing sphere, the above integral can be
written as

V
e
d t
R
R r J ) , (
1

(4.128)
where

V is a vanishing sphere volume, and r r R = .Applying the spherical

differential element, the integrand will be of order R . Putting 0 R leads the above
integral to vanish. That means that the source term ) ( R U is actually ineffective in
our derived formula (4.126).
Hence, the expression for Edue to the source current becomes

=
t
V
e
t
V
e
current source to due
t d d t
R
R c U
c
t d d t
R
R c
c
0
2
0
2
) , (
4
) (
) , (
4
) (
r r J I
r r J I
E

(4.129)
Now, we switch to the other part of E, which is the part due to the initial
condition.

r r A r r G r A r r G
E

d t
t t
t
t
c
t c
V
field initial to due
) 0 , ( ) 0 , , ( ) 0 , ( ) 0 , , (
1
2
2


However, such an expression relates Eto the initial conditions of A(i.e., ) 0 , (r A and
) 0 , (r A

t
). Such initial conditions are typically unavailable. It is actually more
convenient to express Ein terms of the initial fields ) (
0
r E and ) (
0
r H .
Fortunately, it is fairly easy to find such an expression. Since the differential
equation for an electric field due to only the initial conditions has the form
0
1
2
2
2
2
=

E E
t c
(4.130)
which has the same form of the differential equation of A due to only initial
conditions,
0
1
2
2
2
2
=

A A
t c
(4.131)
Hence,

r r E r r G r E r r G
E

d t
t t
t
c
V
conditions initial to due
) 0 , ( ) 0 , , ( ) 0 , ( ) 0 , , (
1
2
(4.132)
From Maxwells equations,
66
) 0 , ( ) 0 , ( r H r E =

t
(4.133)
and applying I I r r G
R
R c
c G t t

4
) (
) , , (

= = yields,

r r E I r r H I
E

+
(

=

d
R
R ct
d
R
R ct
c
c
V V
conditions initial to due
) (
4
) (
) (
1
4
) ( 1
0 0 2

(4.134)
where ) 0 , ( ) (
0
r E r E = and ) 0 , ( ) (
0
r H r H = .
The first integral in (4.134) can be further simplified (see Appendix A) to be,
r r H I
(

d
R
R ct
c
V
) (
4
) ( 1 1
0

(4.135)
Applying the last result in (4.134) yields,

r r E I r r H I
E

+
(

=

d
R
R ct
d
R
R ct
V V
conditions initial to due
) (
4
) (
) (
4
) (
0 0

(4.136)
where = .
Combining both (4.129) and (4.136) to obtain the total electric field on free space
with ( 0 =
m
J ) yields,

r r H I r r E I
r r J I
r r J I r E

+
(

+


=



d
R
R ct
d
R
R ct
t d d t
R
R c U
t d d t
R
R c
t
V V
t
V
e
t
V
e
) (
4
) (
) (
4
) (
) , (
4
) ( 1
) , (
4
) ( 1
) , (
0 0
0
0

(4.137)
In order to complete the above equation, we consider the case of no electric
sources ( 0 =
e
J ) and only magnetic sources that may exist. In such a case , the
electric vector potential satisfies

m
t c
J F F =

2
2
2
2
1
(4.138)
Hence, considering only the contribution due to the magnetic current source, and
omitting the contribution due to initial conditions,
67


=
t
V
m
t d d t G t
0
) , ( ) , ( r r J I r F (4.139)
Thus, applying the relation F E = , one obtains,

=
=
t
V
m
t
V
m
t d d t
R
R c
c
t d d t G t
0
0
) , (
4
) (
) , ( ) , (
r r J I
r r J I r E

(4.140)
Hence, the complete formulation of E is

r r H I
r r E I
r r J I
r r J I
r r J I r E

+


=

d
R
R ct
d
R
R ct
t d d t
R
R c
c
t d d t
R
R c U
t d d t
R
R c
t
V
V
t
V
m
t
V
e
t
V
e
) (
4
) (
) (
4
) (
) , (
4
) (
) , (
4
) ( 1
) , (
4
) ( 1
) , (
0
0
0
0
0

(4.141)
Using the same manipulations, or duality, the equation for the magnetic field H is

r r H I
r r E I
r r J I
r r J I
r r J I r H

d
R
R ct
d
R
R ct
t d d t
R
R c U
t d d t
R
R c
t d d t
R
R c
c t
V
V
t
V
m
t
V
m
t
V
e
) (
4
) (
) (
4
) (
) , (
4
) ( 1
) , (
4
) ( 1
) , (
4
) (
) , (
0
0
0
0
0

(4.142)

Interchanging the order of the second order differential operator and the
integral operator ( ) r

d
V

68
Formulas (4.141) and (4.142) are actually still incomplete. That is because we still
need to interchange the differential and integral operators, and ( ) r

d
V
,
respectively. Since we are seeking a formula for the dyadic Green's function, it is not
convenient to have the differential operator acting either on the source current or
outside the integral. The differential operator should be a part of the Green's function
itself. A similar situation was encountered in finding the dyadic Green's function in
the frequency domain described in sec(3.4.2). Actually, simply interchanging and
( ) r

d
V
is only allowed when the required field is outside the source region. If the
field inside the source region is a case of interest, a singularity of order
3
R must be
excluded from the integration region. In other words, the integration is applied in a
principle value sense. However, as was shown in sec(4.3.2) , in order to have a correct
and unique value for the field inside the source region, a correction term must be
added. That correction term, called the depolarizing dyadic, is dependent on the shape
of the volume excluding the singularity just in a way that makes the sum gives a
unique and correct value for the field inside the source region. Mathematically, the
correction term is a direct result of the interchange of the differential and integral
operators when the region of integration is dependent on the variables the differential
operator is differentiating with respect to.
Depending on the results of sec (3.4.2), a general form of the fields E and H,
including the source region, can be written as

r r H I
r r E I
r r J I
r J (r L r r J I
r r J I r E

|
|

\
|

+


=

d
R
R ct
d
R
R ct
t d d t
R
R c
c
t d t d t
R
R c U
t d d t
R
R c
t
V
V
t
V
m
t
e
V
e
t
V
e
) (
4
) (
) (
4
) (
) , (
4
) (
) , ( ) ) , (
4
) (
P.V.
1
) , (
4
) ( 1
) , (
0
0
0
0
0

(4.143)








69

r r H I
r r E I
r J (r L r r J I
r r J I
r r J I r H

|
|

\
|

d
R
R ct
d
R
R ct
t d t d t
R
R c U
t d d t
R
R c
t d d t
R
R c
c t
V
V
t
m
V
m
t
V
m
t
V
e
) (
4
) (
) (
4
) (
) , ( ) ) , (
4
) (
P.V.
1
) , (
4
) ( 1
) , (
4
) (
) , (
0
0
0
0
0

(4.144)
where S d
R
S
=

2
4

R n
L is the depolarizing dyadic.
Using the translation property of Green's function the initial time may be given any
value
0
t instead of zero, preserving the same form of the above two equations (4.143)
and (4.144). However, ) (
0
r E is denoted to ) , (
0
t r E instead of ) 0 , (r E , and it is a
similar situation for ) (
0
r H . The field equations become,

r r H I
r r E I
r r J I
r J (r L r r J I
r r J I r E

|
|

\
|

+


=

d
R
R c
d
R
R c
t d d t
R
R c
c
t d t d t
R
R c U
t d d t
R
R c
t
V
V
t
t V
m
t
t
e
V
e
t
t V
e
) (
4
) (
) (
4
) (
) , (
4
) (
) , ( ) ) , (
4
) (
P.V.
1
) , (
4
) ( 1
) , (
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

(4.145)

70
r r H I
r r E I
r J (r L r r J I
r r J I
r r J I r H

|
|

\
|

d
R
R c
d
R
R c
t d t d t
R
R c U
t d d t
R
R c
t d d t
R
R c
c t
V
V
t
t
m
V
m
t
t V
m
t
t V
e
) (
4
) (
) (
4
) (
) , ( ) ) , (
4
) (
P.V.
1
) , (
4
) ( 1
) , (
4
) (
) , (
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

(4.146)
where
0 0
t t = .
The above two equations for Eand H can be compactly written in the form,

r r F r r G
r
r J
r J
r r G
r H
r E
r F


(

=
(

d t t
t d d
t
t
t t
t
t
t
V
t
t V m
e
) ( ) , , (
) , (
) , (
) , , (
) , (
) , (
) , (
0 0
*
0

(4.147)
where
(

=
mm me
em ee
t t
G G
G G
r r G ) , , ( is the Maxwells equations source current dyadic
Green's function, where

I G G
r r (r L I I G G
R
R c
R
R c U
R
R c
me em
mm ee

4
) (
) ( )
4
) (
P.V.
4
) (
2

= =

|
|

\
|
+

= =

(4.148)
and

(

=
mm me
em ee
t t
* *
* *
0
*
) , , (
G G
G G
r r G
is the Maxwells equations dyadic propagator of the initial field distribution
[ ]
T
) ( ) ( ) (
0 0 0
r H r E r F = at time
0
t t = , where

I G G
I G G
R
R c
R
R c
me em
mm ee

4
) (
4
) (
0
* 2 *
0
* *

= =

= =
(4.149)

71
Discussion
The above forms for the source current Green's function G and the dyadic
propagator
*
G are believed to be new. In addition, the presented source current
Green's function G is actually fully applicable for finding the field inside and outside
the source region. In Nevels formula (4.91), only a spherical exclusion volume is
allowed when integrating the term [ ] R R c U ) ( inside the source region.
However, here in (4.148), the shape of the exclusion volume is arbitrarily chosen.
Typically, the shape of the exclusion volume is chosen to be consistent with the
geometry of the volume containing the source current J . Every chosen shape for the
exclusion volume has its corresponding depolarizing dyadic L.
Considering the propagator integral in (4.147), expression (4.149) for the field
propagator
*
G totally eliminates the term of the second derivative presented in
Nevels propagator (4.90) with (4.91). It must be noted that such expression for
*
G
was naturally obtained from the mathematical manipulations done in the proposed
vector potential approach. Actually, no such second derivative arose when deriving
the initial field propagator. So, it is believed that the term in Nevels form (4.91)
is not needed as long as the time evolution of a given initial field is required.
In the following, expressions (4.148) and (4.149) are verified. Also mathematical
and physical interpretations of the needless of the term in the initial field
propagator are presented.
Verification and Examples
Verification of the Initial Fields Integral
In order for equation (4.147) to be correct, it is expected that ) , , (
0
*
t t r r G would
approach the identity dyadic ) ( r r I as
0
t t (i.e., as 0
0
) in order to satisfy
the initial condition ) ( ) , (
0 0
r F r F = t . Therefore, putting
0
t t in
*
G leads to the
following,
I I G G
2
* *
4
) (
4
) (
R
R
R
R
mm ee

=

= =
(4.150)
which is unity when integrated over a spherical volume of radius R .
For em
*
G and me
*
G , it can be easily shown that as
0
t t , the integration of their
influence on the initial fields will always vanish. This follows from the property that
the first order differential operator can be validly interchanged with the integral
operator (see equations (3.98) in sec(3.4.2 )).
As a result, for
0
t t , the second integral in (4.147) yields the initial fields as
expected.
As another verification of the initial field integral in (4.147), assume a case where
there is no source current and the initial field distribution is a plane wave with unity
amplitude given by,
72
) cos( ) ( ) (
0
0 0
z k t H E
y x
= = r r
(4.151)
It is expected that such initial field will propagate as a plane wave
) cos( ) , ( ) , ( z k t t H t E
y x
= = r r
(4.152)
In the following, the second integral in (4.147) is used to find the field propagated
by such initial field. The second integral becomes,

r
r r


(

d z H
R
z z
R
R c
R
R c
d z E
R
R c
t E
y
V
x
V
x
) (
4
) (
4
) (
) (
4
) (
) , (
0
0
0
2
0
0

(4.153)
The above integration can be performed in the spherical coordinates ) , , ( R where
r r = R , therefore the field ) (
0
z E
x
is written as

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

cos cos ) ( cos
) ( ) ( cos cos ) (
0 0
0
R k a z z k a
z z k z k t z k t z E
x
= =
= =
(4.154)
where z k t a =
0
.
Writing the integration (4.153) in spherical coordinates leads to
( )

d d dR R R k a
R
R c
R
R c
R
R c
t E
V
x
sin cos cos cos
4
) (
4
) (
4
) (
) , (
2 0
2
0 0

)
`

= r
(4.155)
After some calculations, the result is

( )
( )
( )
) cos(
cos
sin sin cos cos
cos sin sin sin
sin sin
sin sin cos sin
cos cos ) , (
0
0 0
0
0
2
0
0
0 2
0
0
0
0
0
z k t
a
a a
a a
a
a a
a t E
x
=
+ =
=
+
+
=

r

(4.156)
where each line in the RHS of (4.156) is the contribution of each delta function in
(4.155).
Similarly, for the magnetic field,
) cos(
1
) , ( z k t t H
y
=

r
(4.157)
Hence, the application of initial field propagator gives exactly the plane wave
expected to be propagated by the given initial field.
73
Verification of the source current integral
In order to verify the source current integral in (4.147), a time harmonic source
current is assumed. Let

t j
e t

) ( ) , ( r J r J = (4.158)
where [ ]
T
m e
J J J = . The first integral in (4.147) would be




)
`

=

(

=
(

V
t
t j
t
V
t j
m
e
d t d e t t
t d d e t t
t
t
t
r r J r r G
r
r J
r J
r r G
r H
r E
r F
) ( ) , , (
) (
) (
) , , (
) , (
) , (
) , (

(4.159)
where
0
t is taken .
The integral in the parentheses leads to the dyadic,

(

= =

mm me
em ee
t
t j
t d e t t
G G
G G
r r G r r G
~ ~
~ ~
) (
~
) , , (
0

(4.160)
where

I r r G r r G
r r (r L
I r r G r r G
R
e
j R
e
j R c
e
j
jkR
me em
jkR jkR
mm ee

4
) (
~
) (
~
) ( )
4
P.V.
1
4
) (
~
) (
~
2

= =

)
`

+ = =

(4.161)
The above dyadic is exactly what is known in literature to be the free space
Maxwells equations dyadic Green's function in frequency domain applied on a
source current [ ]
T
m e
J J J = (see ,for example, [12] and sec(4.3.2)). Hence,
consistency of formula (4.147) with the frequency domain formulation known in
literature, is verified.
Mathematical and Physical Interpretations
Mathematical Interpretation
In the following, we will prove the needless of the second derivative term
[ ] { } R R U R c U ) ( ) ( in the propagator integral in Nevels form. It is proven
that both the integrals

=
V
d
R
R U R c U
I r r E ) (
) ( ) (
0
0
1

(4.162)

=
V
d
R
R U R c U
I r r H ) (
) ( ) (
0
0
2

(4.163)
vanish for any initial field [ ]
T
0 0 0
H E F = .
74
As a first step, consider the initial field to be a snap shot of a moving plane wave at
0
t t = . In general, the initial field will take the form

) (
0
0
r k
E E

=
t j
e


and
E H =
However, without loss of generality, the coordinates can be chosen such that the
z axis to be directed in the direction of the propagation of the plane wave, and the
x axis to be directed in the direction of the electric field E. In such case the initial
field will take the form
x x E
) (
0
kz t j
x
e A E

= =


and
y y H
) (
0
kz t j
y
e A H

= =


where
0
E = A and k = k .
In such case we are seeking the integral

V
z k t j
d e A
R
R U R c U
r x
) ( ) (
) ( 0 0

,
(4.164)
to find the influence on the initial electric field. The above integration can be
performed in the spherical coordinates ) , , ( R where r r = R , therefore, the
exponential is written as

[ ]
[ ]
[ ]

cos
) (
) ( ) ( ) (
0 0
kR a j
z z k a j
z z k kz t j z k t j
e A
e A
e A e A

=
=
=
(4.165)
where kz t a =
0
.
Writing integration (4.164) in spherical coordinates leads to

( )

d d dR R e
R
R R c
R
R U R c U
R
R R c
A
R k a j
V
sin cos sin
4
) ( ) (
) cos sin 3 1 (
4
) ( ) (
4
) ( ) (
2 cos 2 2 0
2 2
3
0
2
0

)
`

After some calculations the results is
75

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
0
3
sin cos 2 sin 2
cos sin
3
sin cos 3 sin 3
0
0
2
0
0
3
0
0
2
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
3
0
0
= +
(

+
(

+
(

ja
ja
ja
ja
ja
e
e
e
e
e A

















(4.166)
Similarly, the corresponding integration for the influence on the initial magnetic field
will vanish.
Hence, for any plane wave, integrations
1
I (4.162) and
2
I (4.163) vanish.
Expressed mathematically, the integration
0
) ( ) (
) ( 0 0
=
(

V
t j
d e
R
R U R c U
r I
r k

(4.167)
The above result can be generalized for any electromagnetic wave using the
Fourier transform defined by the pair

{ }
{ }

= =
= =
k k F r F k F
r r F k F r F
r k
r k
d e
d e
j
p p
j
p
) ( ) ( ) (
) (
) 2 (
1
) ( ) (
1
3

(4.168)
Hence, for any field E satisfying the conditions of the existence of the Fourier
transform, we have

= k k E r E
r k
d e t
t j
p
) (
0
0
) ( ) , (

(4.169)
where ) (k E
p
is the phase-domain dual of the initial electric field ) , (
0
t r E .
Using (4.169), integration (4.162) can be written as



(

V
t j
p
d d e
R
R U R c U
I r k k E
r k ) ( 0
1
0
) (
) ( ) (

(4.170)
Then, interchanging the orders of integration the above integral becomes

= k r I k E
r k
d d e
R
R U R c U
I
V
t j
p
) ( 0
1
0
) ( ) (
) (

(4.171)
Now, the inside integral vanishes according to (4.167). Hence,
1
I vanishes. Similar
manipulations lead to the same result for
2
I . As a result, for any initial field
0
F , the
following integrals vanish, i.e.,
76

0 ) (
) ( ) (
0 ) (
) ( ) (
0
0
2
0
0
1
=
(

=
=
(

V
V
d
R
R U R c U
I
d
R
R U R c U
I
r r H
r r E

(4.172)
Thus, the needless of the second derivative term [ ] { } R R U R c U ) ( ) ( in the
propagator integral in Nevels form is mathematically proved.
Physical Interpretation
The needless of the second derivative term in the propagator integral can also
be physically interpreted. It is the absence of free charges, in the case of only an initial
field, that makes the second derivative term to have no contribution to the time
evolution of the initial field. That is explained in the following.
There is a mathematical equivalence between the following two expressions (See
Appendix B)

[ ]



)
`

=

)
`

t
t V
t
t V
t d d t
t t R
R c
c
t d d t
R
R U R c U
R
R c
0
0
) , (
4
) (
) , (
4
) ( ) (
4
) ( 1
r r U I
r r U I

(4.173)
Choosing ) ( ) ( ) , (
0 0
t t t = r E r U in both expressions yields, for the first integral,

[ ]
r r E I
)
`

d
R
R U R c U
R
R c
V
) (
4
) ( ) (
4
) (
0
0 0

(4.174)
and



)
`

t
t V V
t d d t t
t R
R c
c d
R
R c
0
) ( ) (
4
) (
) (
4
) (
0 0 0
0
r r E I r r E I

(4.175)
for the second. The first integral is exactly r r E r r K

d t t
V
) ( ) , , (
0 0 11
which is the
part of the propagator integral that represents the contribution of the initial electric
field in the propagating electric field ) , ( t r E . Thus, from the equivalence between
both expressions, we can write




)
`

=
t
t V
V V
t d d t t
t R
R c
c
d
R
R c
d t t
0
) ( ) (
4
) (
) (
4
) (
) ( ) , , (
0 0
0
0
0 0 11
r r E I
r r E I r r E r r K

(4.176)
But,
77
[ ]
e
= = ) ( ) (
0 0
r E r E . (4.177)
Since we are considering a case of only an initial field with no free charges, we have
0 =
e
. Thus, for a given initial field we have 0 ) (
0
= r E , and the second integral
in (4.176) vanishes, leaving the propagator integral to be
r r E I r r E r r K

=

d
R
R c
d t t
V V
) (
4
) (
) ( ) , , (
0
0
0 0 11

(4.178)
which shows no second derivative terms.
78
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS

There are two main contributions of the thesis:
1. The reduction of the Maxwells equations dyadic propagator of an initial field
just to be

(

=
mm me
em ee
t t
* *
* *
0
*
) , , (
G G
G G
r r G (5.1)
where,

.
4
) (
4
) (
0
* 2 *
0
* *
I G G
I G G
R
R c
R
R c
me em
mm ee

= =

= =
(5.2)
The above reduced field propagator differs from the one recently published in
literature [1], and presented in (4.89), in that does not contain the whole second
derivative term . Consequences of such reduction are apparent. By using (4.89),
most of the calculations of a propagating initial field come from integrating terms that
emerge from the second derivative term . Calculations done in (4.99) are an
example. However, with the new presented form (5.1) with (5.2), calculations are
greatly reduced. The needless of the mentioned second derivative term resulted from
seeking the Maxwells equations Greens function by a vector potentials approach.
The vector potentials approach did not yield any second derivative terms in the initial
field propagator. The obtained result was verified by checking satisfaction of initial
conditions and by propagating an initial plane wave. Both verifications were
successful. In addition, it was mathematically proved that the influence of the second
derivative term on any initial field would vanish. The physical interpretation of such
property was also presented.
2. For the Maxwells equations source current dyadic Green's function, we present
the form

(

=
mm me
em ee
t t
G G
G G
r r G ) , , ( (5.3)
where

.
4
) (
) ( )
4
) (
P.V.
4
) (
2
I G G
r r (r L I I G G
R
R c
R
R c U
R
R c
me em
mm ee

= =

|
|

\
|
+

= =

(5.4)

79

The presented form is capable of finding fields originated by a source current
distribution both outside and inside the source current region. Finding the field inside
the source region was extensively studied in literature. However, these studies were
confined to frequency-domain. The presented form, in time-domain, was verified to
be totally consistent with the results of the studies in frequency-domain. A source
region term containing the depolarizing dyadic is added to the Greens function. The
depolarizing dyadic depends on the shape of the volume excluded from the domain of
integration to bypass the singularity emerging in the source region. Whatever was the
geometry of the source current, it is always accessible to chose the shape of the
exclusion volume and the depolarizing dyadic that suits it. Unlikely, that was not the
case in the form recently conducted in [1] (presented in (4.91)). It have been shown,
in the thesis, that the form (4.91) is valid only when the spherical coordinates with a
spherical exclusion volume are used.
Throughout the thesis we have reviewed the frequency-domain analysis done to
obtain the Maxwells equations free-space dyadic Greens function both outside and
inside the source region. The time-domain state-space approach, recently conducted in
[1] to find the Maxwells equations dyadic Greens function and propagator, was
reviewed. A proposed vector potentials approach was conducted and shown to yield
the mentioned results. Verifications and mathematical and physical interpretations
were presented.




















80
APPENDIX A
From (4.4), the equation for the electric field E satisfies
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
1
) , (
2
2
2
2
t t
t t
t
t c
t
m e
r J r J r E r E +
(

(A.1)
Taking 0 =
e
J , the equation of the electric field can be written as
) , ( ) , (
1
) , (
2
2
2
2
t t
t c
t
m
r j r E r E =

(A.2)
where ) , ( ) , ( t t
m m
r J r j = .
The Green's function of equation (A.2) satisfies
) ( ) (
1
2
2
2
2
t t
t c
=

r r I G G (A.3)
A particular solution of (A.3) is
I I G
R
c R
c G

4
) (
= =
(A.4)
Hence, the solution of (A.2) can be written in terms the Green's function (A.4) as


=
t
t V
m
t d d t t t t
0
) , ( ) , , ( ) , ( r r j r r G r E
(A.5)
where zero initial conditions have been assumed.
Substituting for the expressions for G and
m
j given in (A.2) and (A.4) respectively,
leads to

=
t
t V
m
t d d t
R
R c
c t
0
) , (
4
) (
) , ( r r J I r E

(A.6)
with the derivative operating on the source current
m
J .
However, the same electric field could have been found using the electric vector
potential to be


= =
=
t
t V
m
t
t V
m
t d d t G t d d t G
t
0 0
) , ( ) , (
) , (
r r J I r r J I
F r E

(A.7)
where the property that the first order differential operator can be validly
interchanged with the integral operator (see equations (3.98)) is applied. Substituting
the formula of the scalar Green's function G in (A.7) yields,
81

=
t
t V
m
t d d t
R
c R
c t
0
) , (
4
) (
) , ( r r J I r E

(A.8)
Equations (A.6) and (A.8) shows the mathematical equivalence between both
expressions for E, i.e.,

t
t V
t
t V
t d d t
R
c R
c t d d t
R
R c
c
0 0
) , (
4
) (
) , (
4
) (
r r U I r r U I

(A.9)
for any suitable distribution function ) , ( t r U .
Choosing ) ( ) , (
0 0
t t t = (r) H r U leads to

V V
d
R
R c
c d
R
c R
c r ) r ( H I r ) r ( H I
0
0
0
0
4
) (
4
) (

(A.10)
























82
APPENDIX B

From (4.4), the equation for the electric field E satisfies
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
1
) , (
2
2
2
2
t t
t t
t
t c
t
m e
r J r J r E r E +
(

(B.1)
Taking 0 =
m
J , the equation of the electric field can be written as
) , ( ) , (
1
) , (
2
2
2
2
t t
t c
t
e
r j r E r E =

(B.2)
where ) , ( ) , ( t
t t
t
e e
r J r j
(

.
The Green's function of equation (B.2) satisfies
) ( ) (
1
2
2
2
2
t t
t c
=

r r I G G (B.3)
A particular solution of the above equation is
I I G
R
c R
c G

4
) (
= =
(B.4)
Hence, the solution of (B.2) can be written in terms the Green's function (B.4) as


=
t
t V
e
t d d t t t t
0
) , ( ) , , ( ) , ( r r j r r G r E
(B.5)
where zero initial conditions have been assumed.
Substituting for the expressions for G and
e
j given in (B.2) and (B.4) respectively,
leads to



)
`

=
t
t V
e
t d d t
t t R
R c
c t
0
) , (
4
) (
) , ( r r J I r E

(B.6)
with the derivatives operating on the source current
e
J .
However, the same electric field could have been found using Nevels approach (or
equivalently the vector potential approach) to be

[ ]


)
`

+

=
t
t V
e
t d d t
R
R U R c U
R
R c
t
0
) , (
4
) ( ) (
4
) ( 1
) , ( r r J I r E

(B.7)


83
Equations (B.6) and (B.7) shows the mathematical equivalence between both
expressions for E, i.e.,

[ ]



)
`

+

=

)
`

t
t V
t
t V
t d d t
R
R U R c U
R
R c
t d d t
t t R
R c
c
0
0
) , (
4
) ( ) (
4
) ( 1
) , (
4
) (
r r U I
r r U I

(B.8)
for any suitable distribution function ) , ( t r U .

84
REFERENCES

[1] R. Nevels and J. Jeong, The time domain Green's function and propagator for
Maxwell's equations, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol. 52, no .11, pp.
3012-3018, Nov. 2004.
[2] J. Van Bladel, Some remarks on green's dyadic for infinite space, IRE Trans.
Antennas Propagat., vol. AP-9, pp. 563-566, Nov. 1961.
[3] A. D. Yaghjian, Electric dyadic Greens functions in the source region, Proc.
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