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1
AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT - 1
Department of Aerospace Engineering,
SRM University, Kattankulathur,
Chennai.
NAME: P H Abhishek
Aerospace A
REG. NO: 1191110068
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Acknowledgement
Foremost, I would like to thank Mr. Abdur Rasheed and Mr. Mohammed Ariff for
their knowledge and guidance in completing this project. I am also thankful to our
Head of the Department Mr. Vasudevan for his knowledge, insight and experience in
diverse fields. Besides, Im also thankful to the rest of the faculty members of the
department for their expertise and knowledge in various subjects. Finally, I would like
to thank my friends for their continuous motivation and support.
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Abbreviations
= density at cruise altitude
= cruising velocity
= Reynolds number at cruising altitude
= viscosity at cruising altitude
= Aspect ratio of the wing
= span of the wing
= chord of the wing
= Root chord
= Tip chord
= Mean chord
= Thrust required
= density at sea level
= Landing velocity
= Stalling velocity
= Landing distance
):
The crew comprises the people necessary to operate the airplane in flight.
Payload weight (
):
The payload is what the airplane is intended to transport passengers, baggage,
freight etc. If the airplane is intended for military use, the payload includes bombs,
rockets and other disposable ordnance.
Fuel weight(
):
This is the weight of the fuel in the fuel tanks. Since fuel is consumed during flight,
is a variable, decreasing with time during flight.
Empty weight (
):
This is the weight of everything else the structure, engines, electronic equipment,
landing gear, fixed equipment etc.
The sum of these weights is the total weight of the airplane W. The design
take off gross weight
is the weight of the airplane the instant it begins its
mission.
Rewriting the above equation,
Or
Solving for
)
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Estimation of
:
The historical, statistical data on previous airplanes provide a starting point for the
conceptual design of a new airplane. By drawing a graph between
and
, we get the
required value.
Estimation of
:
The amount of fuel required to carry out the mission depends critically on the efficiency of
the propulsion device the engine specific fuel consumption and propeller efficiency. It
depends critically on the aerodynamic efficiency the lift to drag ratio. By the Brequet
Range equation, we have
The mission segment weight fraction is given by,
Mission segment weight fraction =
The mission profile, a conceptual sketch of altitude versus time is shown,
Fig 2.1
From the mission profile, the ratio of the airplane weight at the end of the mission to the
initial gross weight is W
5
/W
0
. In turn,
If, at the end of the flight, the fuel tanks were completely empty, then
Having a 6% allowance, we get,
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(from table 3.1 Airplane Design by Raymer, Ref. Annex. Table 7)
Calculation:
Graph 2.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000 140000 160000 180000
W
e
/
W
0
W
0
W
e
/ W
0
vs W
0
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(from table 2.1 Airplane Design by Dr. Ian Roskam, Ref. Annex. Table 4)
For cruise,
(from table 2.1 Airplane Design by Dr. Ian Roskam, Ref. Annex. Table 5)
For loiter,
(from table 2.1 Airplane Design by Dr. Ian Roskam, Ref. Annex. Table 5)
Therefore,
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Conclusion:
Thus the weight estimation for the cargo aircraft with a payload of 20,000 kg was
done and the gross weight was found to be
Also,
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Selection of airfoil
Introduction:
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Before the design layout can be started, values for a number of parameters which includes
the airfoils must be chosen. The airfoil of a plane is chosen such that there is maximum lift
and minimum drag.
An airfoil is the shape of a wing as seen in cross section. An airfoil-shaped body moved
through a fluid produces an aerodynamic force. The component of this force perpendicular
to the direction of motion is called lift. The component parallel to the direction of motion is
called drag. Subsonic flight airfoils have a characteristic shape with a rounded leading edge,
followed by a sharp trailing edge, often with asymmetric camber.
Importance of airfoil in an aircraft:
The airfoil, in many respects, is the heart of the airplane. The shape of the airfoil affects the
following factors:
Cruising speed
Takeoff and landing distance
Stall speed
Handling qualities (especially near the stall), and
Overall aerodynamic efficiency during all phases of fight.
The P-51 was regarded as the finest fighter of world war 2 in part because of its radial
laminar - flow airfoil.
Schemes have been devised to define airfoils an example is the NACA system. Various
airfoil generation systems are also used. An example of a general purpose airfoil that finds
wide application, and predates the NACA system, is the Clark-Y. Today, airfoils can be
designed for specific functions using inverse design programs such as PROFOIL, XFOIL and
Aerofoil.
The NACA four-digit wing sections define the profile by:
First digit describing maximum camber as percentage of the chord. Second digit describing
the distance of maximum camber from the airfoil leading edge in tens of percents of the
chord. Last two digits describing maximum thickness of the airfoil as percent of the chord.
Next developed, was the five digit series. In NACA 23012, the first digit when multiplied by
3/2, gives the design lift coefficient in tenths. The design lift coefficient is an index of the
amount of camber. The second and third digits together are a number which, when
multiplied by gives the location of the maximum camber. The last two digits give the
maximum thickness in percentage of the chord.
The NACA 6 digit series included the NACA 64 212, in which the first number simply gives
the series designation. The second digit is the location of minimum pressure. The third digit
gives the design lift coefficient in tenths. The last two digits, as usual, give the maximum
thickness in percentage of the chord.
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Fig 3.1
Airfoil nomenclature
Fig 3.2
The front of the airfoil is defined by a leading - edge radius which is tangent to the
upper and lower surfaces.
An airfoil designed to operate in supersonic flow will have a sharp or nearly - sharp
leading - edge to prevent a drag producing bow shock.
The chord of the airfoil is the straight line from the leading edge to the trailing edge.
The camber refers to the curvature characteristic of most airfoils. The mean camber
line is the line equidistant from the upper and lower surfaces. Total airfoil camber is
defined as the maximum distance of the mean camber line to the chord line.
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Calculation:
The Reynolds number at cruise is given by,
From graph, we know that,
Where
Service ceiling = 11,000 m
From gas tables,
We know that,
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S.No Name of the airfoil
1 NACA 66 009 1.01 0.06 66.2
2 NACA 63 015 0.85 0.018 47.22
3 NACA 2414 0.8 0.01 80
4 NACA 2408 1 0.015 66.67
5 EPPLER 520 AIRFOIL 0.75 0.01 75
6 LWK 80 150/K25 0.65 0.015 43.3
7 B737C IL 0.9 0.012 75
Table 3.1
From the above data we can see that NACA 2414 has the maximum Cl and the minimum Cd
for the reynolds number
.
Conclusion:
The airfoil is the best suited airfoil for the calculated reynolds number.
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NACA 2414
Fig 3.3
Coordinates
1.00000 0.00147
0.99739 0.00210
0.98929 0.00396
0.97587 0.00700
0.95729 0.01112
0.93372 0.01620
0.90542 0.02207
0.87267 0.02857
0.83582 0.03552
0.79527 0.04274
0.75143 0.05004
0.70480 0.05723
0.65586 0.06412
0.60515 0.07053
0.55324 0.07629
0.50069 0.08120
0.44808 0.08512
0.39598 0.08787
0.34454 0.08913
0.29482 0.08866
0.24740 0.08645
0.20285 0.08255
0.16169 0.07707
0.12440 0.07014
0.09141 0.06198
0.06310 0.05281
0.03977 0.04289
0.02165 0.03245
0.00892 0.02171
0.00169 0.01085
0.00000 0.00000
0.00379 -0.01031
0.01293 -0.01956
0.02730 -0.02770
0.04669 -0.03471
0.07087 -0.04054
0.09957 -0.04516
0.13246 -0.04858
0.16918 -0.05082
0.20937 -0.05195
0.25260 -0.05208
0.29844 -0.05133
0.34644 -0.04987
0.39611 -0.04787
0.44739 -0.04537
0.49931 -0.04232
0.55129 -0.03886
0.60276 -0.03516
0.65316 -0.03132
0.70194 -0.02745
0.74857 -0.02365
0.79252 -0.01998
0.83331 -0.01650
0.87048 -0.01328
0.90360 -0.01035
0.93230 -0.00776
0.95626 -0.00557
0.97518 -0.00381
0.98886 -0.00252
1.00000 -0.00147
Table 3.1
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Wing parameters
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Sweep angle:
The angle between the lateral arms and the quarter-chord line. It is also referred to as
the leading-edge sweep. Referring to fig 4.2 in A conceptual approach by Raymer the
quarter Chord sweep (in degrees) = 7
Fig 4.1
Fig 4.2
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Taper ratio:
It is the ratio between the tip chord and the centre-line root chord. Most wings of low
sweep have a taper ratio of 0.4-0.6. Most swept wings have taper ratios of 0.2 to 0.4.
For sweep angle= 7 , taper ratio= 0.35 (approx.)
Chord of the wing:
The chord decreases along the length of the wing from wing root to wing tip. The
chord at the root of the wing is called root chord and the chord at the wing tip, the tip
chord.
Root chord:
Position of wing:
Fig 4.3
High wing: It is mounted on the upper fuselage when contrasted to shoulder wing applies to
awing mounted on a projector (carbon roof) above the top of the main fuselage.
Advantages:
Short landing distance
More ground clearance for engines
Easier passenger and cargo loading
Better view
Disadvantages:
Poor visibility towards the top and rear of the aircraft.
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Placement of landing gear
Has more frontal area which increases drag
Applications:
Antonov An-140
ATR-42
Mid-wing:
Fig 4.4
It is mounted approximately half-way up the fuselage.
Advantages:
Structurally efficient
Capable of performing extreme maneuvers and aerobatics
Space for armaments and cargo available
Less interference drag
Disadvantages:
More expensive
Reinforcement at wing root not possible
Used in less aircrafts
Applications:
Milla JM-2
Sawya Skyjacker-II
Low wing:
Fig 4.5
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It is mounted near the bottom of the fuselage.
Advantages:
Easy maintenance
Better visibility
Dihedral configuration makes it stable
Disadvantages:
More interference drag
Susceptible to ground effects
More speed required at approach
Applications:
Airbus A380
Conclusion:
The following are the wing parameters chosen for a 20000 kg cargo aircraft.
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Engine selection
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To select the required engine, a graph between
and
is plotted.
Graph 5.1
From graph,
Now
The closest value we get from literature survey is chosen as the best engine for this aircraft.
Name of the engine No of the engines Thrust( per engine) Kn
By calculation From literature
survey
CFM International
CM 56- 7
2 113.115 121
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
T
/
W
t
a
k
e
o
f
f
Cruising speed
Cruising speed vs T / Wtakeoff
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Table 5.1
Fig 5.1
Engine specifications:
General characteristics:
Type: Twin-spool, high-bypass turbofan
Length: 2.5 m
Diameter: 1.55 m (fan)
Dry weight: 2,366 kg (dry)
Components:
Compressor: Single-stage fan, 3-stage low-pressure compressor, 9-stage high pressure
compressor
Combustors: annular
Turbine: Single-stage high-pressure turbine, 4-stage low-pressure turbine
Performance:
Maximum thrust: 121 kN
Overall pressure ratio: 32.8:1
Bypass ratio: 5.5:1
Thrust-to-weight ratio: 3.7:1
Conclusion:
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The engine chosen for this aircraft from the literature survey was the
which has a thrust of
Fuel Validation
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We know that the fuel weight can be calculated using the following formula,
Where
Substituting in
,
Therefore,
=
Conclusion:
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The weight of fuel at cruise by calculation, for a 20000kg cargo was found to
be
From report 2,
=>
Flap selection, Lift distribution, Lift and drag estimation
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Lift is generated in accordance with the fundamental principles of physics. The most relevant
physics reduce to three principles:
Conservation of Momentum, which is a direct consequence of Newton's laws of
motion, especially Newton's second law which relates the net force on an element of
air to its rate of momentum change,
Conservation of Mass, including the common assumption that the airfoil's surface is
impermeable for the air flowing around, and
Conservation of Energy, which says that energy is neither created nor destroyed.
Fig 6.1
In addition, one needs an expression relating the fluid stresses (consisting of pressure and
shear stress components) to the properties of the flow. The pressure depends on the other
flow properties, such as its mass density, through the (thermodynamic) equation of state,
while the shear stresses are related to the flow through the air's viscosity.
The Prandtl lifting-line theory, is a mathematical model for predicting the lift distribution
over a three-dimensional wing based on its geometry.
The lifting-line theory makes use of the concept of circulation and of the KuttaJoukowski
theorem,
Where T is the circulation over the entire wing (m/s)
so that instead of the lift distribution function, the unknown effectively becomes the
distribution of circulation over the span.
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Flap selection:
When in cases where the
:
The lift coefficient
:
The drag coefficient
At takeoff,
At landing,
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The values of
=
=
Drag estimation:
Drag equation,
)
Calculation:
(
)
At takeoff,
Where
Therefore,
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At landing,
Drag estimation:
At cruise,
For a jet transport the values of
and are given as,
At takeoff,
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At landing,
Result:
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Sizing of aircraft
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Fuselage sizing:
Fuselage length
From table 6.3 as seen in Aircraft design by Raymer, the values of a and c for a cargo
aircraft with a payload of 20,000 kg was found to be a = 0.23 and c = 0.5 (Ref. Annex. Table
2)
Therefore,
Tail sizing:
Vertical tail:
Vertical tail area,
Where
Tail arm of vertical tail
Wing mean chord,
(from report 4)
Wing span,
Wing surface area,
Vertical tail volume coefficient,
(from table 6.4 Aircraft design by Raymer, Ref. Annex. Table 1)
Horizontal tail:
Horizontal tail area,
Where
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Tail arm of horizontal tail
=
Horizontal tail volume coefficient,
(from table 6.4 Aircraft design by Raymer, Ref. Annex. Table 1)
Tail configuration:
It may be characterized by
No. of tailplanes from 0 (tailless or canard ) to 3 ( Roe triplane)
Location of tailplane mounted high, mid, or low on the fuselag.
Fixed stabilizer and moveable elevator surfaces, or a single combined stabilizer.
The major difference between a tail and a wing is that, the wing is designed to carry a
substantial amount of lift, a tail is designed to operate normally at only a fraction of its lift
potential.
Tails provide trim, stability and control. Trim refers to the generation of a lift force that by
acting through some moment about the center of gravity, balances some other moment
produced by the aircraft.
Conventional tails:
Fig 7.1
Provides adequate stability and control at lightest weight.
More than 70% of the aircrafts in service have this arrangement.
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T tail:
Fig 7.2
Heavier than a conventional tail because the vertical must be strengthened in order
to support the tail.
Vertical tail is smaller.
More efficient because it allows size reduction, thus reducing fatigue for the
structure.
V Tail:
Fig 7.3
Intended to reduce wetted area of tail
Reduced interference drag but at the penality in control actuation complexity.
Y Tail:
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Fig 7.4
Similar to v tail, but a third suface is mounted vertically beneath the V.
Reduces interference drag when compared to the conventional tail.
It is used to primarily to keep the horizontal surfaces out of the wing wake at high
angles of attack.
Tail configuration used:
The most suitable tail for a 20000 kg cargo aircraft is the conventional tail. It
provides the following advantages:
Less weight.
Adequate stability.
Some of the aircrafts (from literature survey) had the same type of tail.
Conclusion:
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The following were found from this report.
Landing gear
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The landing gear is the structure that supports an aircraft on the ground and allows it to taxi,
take-off, and land. In fact, landing gear design tends to have several interferences with the
aircraft structural design.
Components:
The landing gear usually includes wheels, but some aircraft are equipped with skis for snow
or float for water. In the case of a vertical take-off and landing aircraft such as a helicopter,
wheels may be replaced with skids. The figure below illustrates landing gear primary
parameters. The descriptions of primary parameters are as follows. Landing gear height is
the distance between the lowest point of the landing gear (i.e. bottom of the tire) and the
attachment point to the aircraft. Since, landing gear may be attached to the fuselage or to
the wing; the term height has different meaning. Furthermore, the landing gear height is a
function of shock absorber and the landing gear deflection. The height is usually measured
when the aircraft is on the ground; it has maximum take-off weight; and landing gear has the
maximum deflection.
Fig 8.1
Thus, the landing gear when it has the maximum extension is still height, but is less
important and application. The distance between the lowest point of the landing gear (i.e.
ground) to the aircraft cg is also of significant importance and will be employed during
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calculations. Wheel base is the distance between main gear and other gear (from side view).
The landing gear is divided into two sections: 1. Main gear or main wheel, 2. Secondary gear
or secondary wheel. Main gear is the gear which is the closest to the aircraft center of gravity
(cg). During the landing operation, the main wheel touches first with the point of contact to
the ground. Furthermore, during the take-off operation, the main wheel leaves the ground
last. On the other hand, main gear is carrying great portion of the aircraft load on the
ground. Wheel track is the distance between two main gears (left and right) from front view.
If a gear is expected to carry high load, it may have more than one wheel. In general, the
landing gear weight is about 3% to 5% of the aircraft take-off weight. For instance, in the
case of a Boeing 747 (Figures 3.7, 3.12 and 9.4), the landing gear assembly weight about
16,000 lb.
Functional Analysis and Design Requirements:
It terms of design procedure, the landing gear is the last aircraft major component which is
designed. In another word, all major components (such as wing, tail, fuselage, and
propulsion system) must be designed prior to the design of landing gear. Furthermore, the
aircraft most aft center of gravity (cg) and the most forward cg must be known for landing
gear design. In some instances, the landing gear may drive the aircraft designer to change
the aircraft configuration to satisfy landing gear design requirements.
The primary functions of a landing gear are as follows:
1. To keep the aircraft stable on the ground and during loading, unloading, and taxi.
2. To allow the aircraft to freely move and maneuver during taxing.
3. To provide a safe distance between other aircraft components such as wing and
fuselage while the aircraft is on the ground position to prevent any damage by the
ground contact.
4. To absorb the landing shocks during landing operation.
5. To facilitate take-off by allowing aircraft acceleration and rotation with the lowest
friction.
In order to allow for a landing gear to function effectively, the following design requirements
are established.
1. Ground clearance requirement.
2. Steering requirement.
3. Take-off rotation requirement.
4. Tip back prevention requirement.
5. Overturn prevention requirement.
6. Touch-down requirement.
7. Landing requirement.
8. Static and dynamic load requirement.
9. Aircraft structural integrity.
10. Ground lateral stability
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11. Low cost
12. Low weight
13. Maintainability
14. Manufacturability
Landing Gear Configuration:
The first job of an aircraft designer in the landing gear design process is to select the landing
gear configuration. Landing gear functions may be performed through the application of
various landing gear types and configuration. Landing gear design requirements are parts of
the aircraft general design requirements including cost, aircraft performance, aircraft stability,
aircraft contact, maintainability, productibility and operational considerations. In general,
there are ten configurations for a landing gear as follows:
1. Single main
2. Bicycle
3. Tail-gear
4. Tricycle or nose-gear
5. Quadricycle
6. Multi-bogery
7. Releasable rail
8. Skid
9. Seaplane landing device
Configuration Selection
As aircraft grow larger, they employ more wheels to cope with the increasing weights. The
earliest "giant" aircraft ever placed in quantity production, the Zeppelin-Staaken R.VI German
World War I long-range bomber of 1916, used a total of eighteen wheels for its
undercarriage, split between two wheels on its nose gear struts, and a total of sixteen wheels
on its main gear units under each tandem engine nacelle, to support its loaded weight of
almost 12 metric tons. The Boeing 747 has five sets of wheels: a nose-wheel assembly and
four sets of four-wheel bogies. A set is located under each wing, and two inner sets are
located in the fuselage, a little rearward of the outer bogies, adding up to a total of eighteen
wheels and tires. The Airbus A380 also has a four-wheel bogie under each wing with two sets
of six-wheel bogies under the fuselage. The enormous Ukrainian Antonov An-225 jet cargo
aircraft has one of the largest, if not the largest, number of individual wheel/tire assemblies
in its landing gear design with a total of four wheels on the twin-strut nose gear units, and
a total of 28 main gear wheel/tire units, adding up to a total of 32 wheels and tires.
Retractable gear:
To decrease drag in flight some undercarriages retract into the wings and/or fuselage with
wheels ar against or concealed behind doors, this is called retractable gear. It was in late
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1920s and 1930s that such retractable landing gear became common. This type of gear
arrangement increased the performance of aircraft by reducing the drag.
Tire Sizing:
Technically, the term wheel refers to a circular metal plastic object around which the rubber
tire is mounted. The brake system is mounted inside the wheel to slow the aircraft during
landing. However, in majority of cases, the entire wheel, tire, and brake system is also
referred to as the wheel. The fundamental materials of modern tires are synthetic or natural
rubber, fabric and wire, along with other compound chemicals. Today, the vast majority of
tires is generally pneumatic inflatable and includes a doughnut-shaped body of cords and
wires encased in rubber. So they consist of a tread and a body. Tires perform four important
functions with the assistance of the air contained within them: 1. Tires support the aircraft
structure off the ground. 2. They help absorb shocks from the runway surface. 3. They help
transmit acceleration and braking forces to the runway surface. 4. They help change and
maintain the direction of motion.
Fig 8.2
As a guideline, the following is the information about tires of a civil transport, a military
fighter, and a GA aircraft. The transport aircraft Boeing 777-200 is employing (8) Goodyear
main tires H49x19-22, and Michelin radial nose wheel tires 44x18-18. The fighter aircraft
McDonnell Dougles F-15 Eagle is utilizing (8) Bendix wheels and Michelin AIR X with nose
wheel tires size 22x7.75-9, and main wheel tires size 36x11-18 where tire pressure is 305 psi.
The main wheel tire of business jet Cessna 650 Citation VII (8) is of size 22x5.75 (pressure of
168 psi), while the nose wheel tire size is 188x4.4 (140 psi).
Generally speaking, for a tricycle configuration, nose tires may be assumed to be about 50-
100% the size of the main tires. For quadricycle and bicycle configurations, the front tires are
often the same size as the main tires.
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Fuselage Design
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Introduction:
The fuselage is an aircrafts main body section that holds crew and passengers or cargo. In
single-engine aircraft it will usually contain an engine, although in some amphibious aircraft
the single engine is mounted on a pylon attached to the fuselage which in turn is used as a
floating hull. The fuselage also serves to position control and stabilization surfaces in
specific relationships to lifting surfaces, required for aircraft stability and maneuverability.
Common practice to modularize layout:
1. Crew compartment, power plant system, payload configuration, fuel volume, landing
gear stowage, wing carry-through structure, empennage etc.
2. Or simply into front, centre and rear fuselage section designs.
Functions of fuselage:
1. Provision of volume for payload.
2. Provide overall structural integrity.
3. Possible mounting of landing gear and power plant.
Once fundamental configuration is established, fuselage layout proceeds almost
independently of other design aspects.
Primary considerations:
Most of the fuselage volume is occupied by the payload, except for:
Single and two-seat light aircraft.
Trainer and light strike aircraft.
Combat aircraft with weapons on outer fuselage & wing.
High performance combat aircraft.
Structure:
The primary concern in the development of a good structural arrangement is the provision
of efficient load paths the structural elements by which opposing forces are connected.
The primary forces to be resolved are the lift of the wing and the opposing weight or the
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major parts of the aircrafts, such as the engines and payload. The size and the weight of the
structural members will be minimized by locating these opposing forces near to each other.
The fighter skin is fastened by a longer or stringer or stiffener which is thin strip of material,
to which the skin of the aircraft is fastened. In the fuselage, stringers are attached to formers
(also called frames) and run the longitudinal direction of the fighter jet. They are primarily
responsible for transferring the loads (aerodynamic) acting on the skin onto the frames/
formers. In the wing or horizontal stabilizer, longerons run span wise and attach between
the ribs. The primary function here also is to transfer the bending loads acting on the wings
onto the ribs and spar.
Fig 9.1
The ring-frame approach relies upon large, heavy bulkhead to carry the bending moment
through the fuselage. The wings panels are attached to fittings on the side of these fuselage
bulkheads. While this approach is usually heavier from a structural viewpoint, the resulting
drag reduction at high speeds has led to the use of the approach for most modern fighters.
The fuselage width for the cargo aircraft would be around 8.38 m (B 747).
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Fig 9.2
Payload includes:
Internal weapons (guns, free-fall bombs, bay-housed guided weapons)
Crew (significant for anti-sub and early-warning aircraft)
Avionics equipment.
Fight test instrumentation (experimental aircraft)
Fuel (often interchangeable with other payload items on a mass basis).
Fuselage Aerodynamics:
Aim to achieve reasonable streamlined form together with minimum surface area to
meet required internal volume.
Both drag and mass heavily influenced by surface area.
Require absence of steps and minimum number of excrescences
Fundamental differences between subsonic and supersonic applications.
Concerned with: cross-section shape, nose shape & length, tail shape/length, overall
length.
Cross-Section Shape supersonic Aircraft:
Not too critical aerodynamically, but should:
Avoid sharp corners
Provide fairings for protuberances
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Constant cross-section preferable for optimized volume utilization and ease of
manufacture.
Nose Shape:
Should not be unduly bluff.
Local changes in cross-section needed to accommodate windscreen panels.
Windscreen angle involves compromise between aerodynamics, bird-strike, reflection
and visibility requirements.
Windscreen panel sizes should be less than 0.5m2 each.
Starting point for front fuselage layout is often satisfactory position for pilots eye.
Reasonable nose length is about:
4 x fuselage diameter (supersonic).
Tail Shape:
Smooth change in section required, from maximum section area to ideally zero.
Minimization of base area especially important for transonic/ supersonic aircraft.
Important parameter for determining tail upsweep angle is ground clearance
required for take-off and landing rotation.
Typically 12 to 15.
Typical tail section lengths are:
6 to 7 x diameter (supersonic)
Centre Fuselage & Overall Length Supersonic Aircraft:
Theoretically minimum drag for streamlined body with fineness ratio (length /
diameter) of 3.
In reality, typical value is around 10, due to:
Need to utilize internal volume efficiently.
Requirement for sufficiently large moment arm for stability / control purposes.
Suitable placement of overall CG.
Wing Location Aerodynamics Considerations:
Mid-wing position gives lowest interference drag, especially well for supersonic
stealth fighter aircraft.
Top-mounted wing minimizes trailing vortex drag, especially well for low speed
aircraft.
Low wing gives improved landing gear stowage & more usable flap area.
From the above given locations of wings, the one chosen is the Low wing
configuration which gives improved landing gear stowage & more usable flap area.
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Empennage Layout:
Vertical Surface:
Single central fin most common arrangement, positioned as far aft as possible.
Horizontal Surface:
Efficiency affected by wing downwash, thus vertical location relative to wing
important.
Usually mounted higher then wing except on high design or with small moment arm
low tail can give ground clearance problems.
Avionics:
1. Three X-band AESA radars located at the front and sides of the aircraft. These will be
accompanied by L-band radars on the wing leading edges. L-band radars are proven
to have increased effectiveness against very low observable, or stealthy, targets which
are optimized only against X-band frequencies, but their longer wavelength reduce
their resolution.
2. Full authority digital engine (or electronics) control (FADEC) is a system consisting of
digital computer, called an electronic engine controller (EEC) or engine control unit
(ECU), and its related accessories that control all aspects of aircraft engine
performance.
Advantages
Better fuel efficiency.
Automatic engine protection against out-of-tolerance operations
After as the multiple channel FADEC computer provides redundancy in ease of
failure.
Care-free engine handling, with guaranteed thrust settings
Ability to use single engine type for wide thrust requirements by just
reprogramming for FADECs
Provides semi-automatic engine starting.
3. An infra-red search and track (IRST) system (sometimes known as infra-red sighting
and tracking) on the nose of fighter which is a method for detecting and tracking
objects which give off infrared radiation such as jet aircraft and helicopters.
4. 3-D thrust vectoring along with all three aircraft axes: pitch, yaw and roll.
Weapon carriage and missiles:
Two internal bays estimated at 4.6-4.7 meters by 1-1.1 meters in an internal missile and
bomb carriage tank.
The missile is launched by ejection launch mechanism.
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The Zvezda Kh-35U (Russian: X-35Y; AS-20 Kayak) is the jet-launched version of a Russian
subsonic anti-ship missile. It is launched by the Ejection launch mechanism. Weight = 520 kg
4 * JDAM: The Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) is a guidance kit that converts unguided
bombs, or dumb bombs into all-weather smart munitions. JDAM-equipped bombs are
guided by an integrated inertial guidance system coupled to a Global Positioning System
(GPS) receiver, giving them a published range of upto 15 nautical miles (28km) = 910 kg.
Fig 9.3
External hardpoint missiles:
The missiles are launched by the rail launch mechanism which is attached to pylons of the
wing.
The M61 Vulcan It a hydraulically or pneumatically driven, six-barreled, air cooled,
electrically fired Gatling-style rotary cannon which fires 20 mm rounds at an extremely high
rate. Weight = 112 kg.
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Performance Characteristics
Take - off Performance:
Take-off distance,
, smooth panel surface
, grass
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(
Climbing performance:
Rate of climb,
Constant Altitude Bank Turn:
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Landing Performance:
Ground roll landing distance,
Where
W is in Newtons
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Result:
The performance characteristics were found to be:
Conclusion
Thus all the design and performance parameters were found to be as follows:.
Geometric parameters Wing parameters Performance parameters
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Aspect ratio = 10.52
Max. Take off weight =
70,000 kgs
Service ceiling = 11,000
m
Length = 36 m
Height = 11.52 m
= 27.252 m
= 9901.439 (By
calculation)
Wing loading = 400
Wingspan = 39.47 m
Wing area = 150.06 m
2
Airfoil selected = NACA 2414
Sweep angle = 7
Taper ratio = 0.35
= 5.707 m
= 4.1496 m
= 1.99 m
Position of wing = High wing
Flap selected = Slotted flap
Range = 4400km
Rate of climb = 770 m/min
Table 11.1
Lift and Drag parameters Tail parameters Engine parameters
Tail selected = Conventional
type
Engine selected = CFM
International CM 56 7
No. of engines = 2
Thrust = 226.23 KN
Table 11.2
Bibliography
Aircraft design: A conceptual approach, Raymer, Daniel P, American Institute
of Aeronautics & Astronautics; 5th Revised edition, ISBN-10: 1600869114
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Theory of wing sections including a summary of airfoil data, Abott, Ira H,
ISBN-10: 0486605868
Airplane Design, Roskam, Ian, Darcorporation; 2nd edition, ISBN-10:
1884885241
Aircraft Performance & Design, Anderson J D, Tata McGraw-Hill Education,
ISBN 0070702454, 9780070702455
Airfoiltools.com
Wikipedia.org
web.mit.edu/drela/Public/web/xfoil/
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Annexure
Table 1
Table 2
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Table 3
Table 4
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Table 5
Type of aircraft
e
Piston Propeller
0.022-0.028
0.82
Large Turbo-prop
0.025
0.79
Small General Aviation
0.025
0.77
Small General Aviation
0.032
0.72
Agricultural A/C
0.75
0.68
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Subsonic Jet
0.014
0.78
Table 6
Table 7