i

ABSTRACT

Microwave engineers and engineers in general tend to be in their profession because they like
technical challenges. Historically, one of the biggest challenges has been how to extend radio
communications, especially at microwave frequencies, beyond the horizon. One way to
achieve this end at microwaves is to bounce radio signals off the Moon. This form of
propagation is known as Moonbounce or Earth-Moon-Earth (EME) and is considered the
ultimate in long-distance 50-MHz-and-above communications. The Moon is approximately
385,000 km (240,000 mi) from the Earth, and reflecting signals from it allows
communication between any two points. Since the Moon is so far away and not a particularly
good reflector (about 7% efficient), communication using it as a passive reflector is not easy
and considered by many a challenge. This report will discuss EME in more detail. It will
cover some of the history of this form of propagation, challenges faced in communication, the
necessary system design required to obtain optimum result and the present scenario.
ii

CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE NO.
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 General Background 1
1.2 Objective and Scope of the work 3
Chapter 2: Challenges in Reaching the Moon 5
2.1. Distance between Earth and Moon 5
2.2. Path Loss 5
2.3. Natural and Man Made Noise 8
Chapter 3: EME System Considerations 10
Chapter 4: System Design 13
4.1. Transmitter 13
4.2. Antenna 14
4.3. Receiver 17
Chapter 5: Digital Signal Processing In Moon bounce 19
5.1. Communication via Jt65 20
5.2. Present Scenario 22
Chapter 6: Conclusion 23
References 24








CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL BACKGROUND
During World War II, there were reports of possible reflections of radar
signals from the Moon. It was not until after the war, in 1946, that the reflection of radio
waves off the Moon was documented. A group of U.S. Signal Corps engineers achieved the
honour of detecting the first documented radio signals reflected from the Moon as part of a
project called Diana. This project was the brain child of John DeWitt, a fellow of the Institute
of Radio Engineers (IRE) (predecessor to the IEEE), a radio amateur (N4CBC) and the
project leader. The experiment was conducted at 112 MHz, using what we would call today a
large phased array and a 3,000 W transmitter built by Edwin Armstrong as shown in fig 2.1.


Fig 1.1.Phased Array Fig 1.2.Zoltan Bays technique
At almost the same time, Zoltan Bay, working in Hungary, achieved
similar results. He used the same frequency range and a similar antenna, but, because of
2

transmit power limitations, he developed an ingenious technique to detect the reflected
signals. He sent repeated pulses over an extended period of time (months) and integrated the
returned signals. Each time he sent a pulse, he would detect the signal over the expected echo
time period and sum/store the voltage received at each point in time (see Figure 2.2). Because
he lacked a way to retain voltage over a long time (capacitors were leaky), he applied a
technique from chemistry. He used the detected voltage for a hydrolysis of water, converting
the water into hydrogen and oxygen gas. After many transmissions, he analyzed the amount
of gas produced, which he stored in jars associated with different intervals of time. He found
the jars corresponding to 2.5 s after transmission of a pulse, the time for a signal to travel to
the Moon and back, contained by far the most gas.

The concept of using the Moon for radio communications actually preceded
the Diana experiment. W.J. Bray of the British General Post Office proposed the idea in
1940. Not long after the success of Project Diana, the military started to employ the Moon for
long-distance microwave communications that were free of the vagaries of ionosphere
propagation seen at lower frequencies. These applications of moonbounce included a teletype
link between the naval base at Pearl Harbour, Hawaii and the U.S. Navy headquarters in
Washington, D.C. Eventually, these links were replaced by active communication satellites.
Another group that saw the potential of moonbounce was the radio amateur community.
Many radio amateurs are involved in the hobby because they are interested in technical
challenges and in extending the limits of radio propagation. They compete to see who can
consistently communicate the farthest at the highest frequency. Moonbounce offered a way to
achieve communication over distances not possible by other means. Amateurs were not far
behind the professionals. In January 1953, Ross Bateman and Bill Smith reported reception
of EME echoes on 144 MHz but never achieved two-way communication. It was not until
3

1960 that the first two-way contacts were made at 1,296 MHz by a group led by Sam Harris
and amateurs from the EIMAC Radio Club led by Bob Sutherland. Within a year, two-way
contacts were completed on the 432 MHz and 144 MHz bands. Sam Harris later became chief
engineer of the 305 m (1,000 ft) Arecibo Radio Telescope. By 1973, the use of EME by
amateurs had increased to the point that communication at 432 MHz could be completed with
all continents by one of the authors, Allen Katz. Today, EME contacts have been made on all
the amateur bands from 28 MHz to 47 GHz with countries all over the Earth.

1.2 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF THE WORK
Moonbounce or (EME) Earth-Moon-Earth form of propagation is a form of radio
communication technique which is used to extend the communication beyond the horizon.
Humans have been using the link of satellites for communication for decades. One of the
main disadvantages of using such a system is the escalating cost of manufacturing a satellite
and then placing it in the orbit. Various categories of satellites are there based on their
positions. Also the cost of maintaining a satellite for such a long period is very high. But,
humans have forgotten the fact that we already have a natural satellite in moon and have not
yet been to discover the tremendous possibilities using moon for a communication. Space is
also getting polluted with the remains of these satellites.
Moonbounce is a technique used to find a solution to all these problems. In
moonbounce communication, signals are sent to the moon and are reflected back from the
lunar surface. Microwave frequencies of over 100MHz are used for communication as very
high power is required so that signal reaches the moon after suffering so much loss. Higher
the signal power and frequency a much better signal can be detected. The only investment
one needs to look into while establishing such a communication system is on a high power
4

transmitter, a good antenna and a receiver. Compared to hundreds of crores of rupees spent in
constructing a satellite, it is a good gain.
Because of the distance between earth and moon, this form of communication is seen by
many as a challenge. But it is one of the most popular forms of communication beyond
50MHz. But till now only radio amateurs are the only group utilizing this communication
technique and seeing it as a challenge. The effort is to raise the maximum frequencies so that
losses are minimized. Research is going on in popularizing this form of communication and
in a few years time, EME or Moonbounce is going to be the Ultimate word in long distance
communication.




CHAPTER 2
CHALLENGES IN REACHING THE MOON

Before establishing a communication link between earth and moon, one needs
to look into the challenges to be faced to establish such a communication system. Many
aspects should be taken into consideration to design a very efficient system since the distance
is very large and huge losses are bound to occur.
The main challenges are:
2.1 DISTANCE BETWEEN EARTH AND MOON
The Moon is approximately 385,000 km (240,000 mi) from the
Earth, and reflecting signals from it allows communication between any two points. Because
the Moon is so far away and not a particularly good reflector (about 7% efficient) ,
communication using it as a passive reflector is not easy and considered by many a challenge.
2.2 PATH LOSS
Radio signals in free space are attenuated as 1/r
2
(inverse distance squared)
due to spatial expansion of the radio waves. In moonbounce, this dissolution of signal
intensity occurs twice; first, over the quarter-million-mile path to the Moon and again on the
return trip, for a net 1/r
4
path loss. Radio waves hitting the surface of the Moon are partly
absorbed and partly scattered by the irregular surface. The EME path loss, L, as a ratio of
received power to transmitted power in decibels, assuming isotropic antennas at each end,
can be expressed as (figure 2.1).
2


where d is the diameter of the Moon, l the wave-length, r the distance to the Moon,
and h a factor for lunar reflection efficiency. Using d=53.476 x 10
6
m, r=53.8 x 10
8
m, and
h=50.07 gives an L of 251.5 dB at 144 MHz, currently the most popular amateur band for use
of EME, and nearly 300 dB for 47 GHz, the highest frequency band where amateurs have
achieved EME so far.


Fig 2.1.Mean Path Loss to the moon and back

3

These very large values of loss are the main
reason why EME is so challenging. The signal level difference between receiving a signal
transmitted from the Moon and one reflected from it is enormous. For the example cited, it is
almost 130 dB. It is thus much easier to receive a signal transmitted from the Moon. Many
radio amateurs monitored the signals transmitted by astronauts during the Apollo missions.
The values above are for the average L. The Moons orbit is an ellipse, causing r to vary by
about 67% each month with a corresponding variation in L of nearly 2.25 dB [12] ,[13]. The
dependence of L makes it appear that EME is more difficult at higher frequencies (figure
2.2). This conclusion is misleading because the assumption is based on the use of isotropic
antennas.


Fig 2.2.Path loss at different frequencies





4

2.3 NATURAL AND MANMADE NOISE

The terrestrial environment is continuously exposed to electromagnetic radiations which set
up a background electromagnetic noise. For what concerns electromagnetic waves in the
Non Ionizing Radiation band (NIR), i.e. for frequencies lower than 300GHz, the background
can have a natural or artificial origin. In the first case electromagnetic radiations have
generally an atmospheric or cosmic origin while in second case human technologies,
implanted for power transmission and communications, are the non natural cause (Figure
2.3). The terrestrial environment is continuously exposed to electromagnetic radiations which
set up a background electromagnetic noise. Within the Non Ionizing Radiation band (NIR)
i.e. for frequencies lower than 300 GHz, this background can have a natural or an artificial
origin.

Natural origins of electromagnetic radiations are generally
atmospheric or cosmic while artificial origins are technological applications, power
transmission, communications, etc. Natural noise comes from a large variety of sources
involving different physical phenomena and covering a wide range of frequencies and
showing various propagation characteristics with an extremely broad range of power levels.
Due to technological growth man-made electromagnetic noise is nowadays superimposed on
natural noise almost everywhere on Earth. In the last decades man-made noise has increased
dramatically over and above the natural noise in residential and business areas. This increase
has led some scientists to consider possible negative effects of electromagnetic waves on
human life and living systems in general. Accurate measurements of natural and man-made
electromagnetic noise are necessary to understand the relative power levels in the different
bands and their influence on life.
5




Fig 2.3.Natural and Manmade noise sources

6


CHAPTER 3
EME SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS

An EME communication system basically consists of a transmitter, antennas
(used for both transmit and receive), and a receiver. The modulation used is also an important
factor in of the overall system performance. The signal power received, Pr, is simply the
transmitted power, Pt, times the gain of the transmit antenna, Gt, times L, times the gain of
the receive antenna, Gr. Noise is contributed by the receiver and the antenna and ultimately
set the limits on the ability to communicate. Noise from the antenna includes contributions
from the warm Earth, the atmosphere, the lunar surface, and cosmic sources. It is often
convenient to express noise power in terms of an equivalent noise temperature, T.

T is related to power, P, by the receiver bandwidth, B in Hz, and Boltzmanns constant, k
51.38 3 10223 J/K:


The system noise temperature, Ts, is


Where, T
r
is the receiver noise temperature and T
a
is the antenna noise temperature. T
r
is
related to receiver noise figure, NF in dB by

2



Ta includes noise from all sources in the field of view of the antenna, weighted by the
antennas pattern. The lunar surface has a temperature of around 210 K but has a minimal
contribution to Ta since most amateur antennas have beam widths much greater than the
Moons angular size. Antenna sidelobes can be a significant contributor to Ta because their
total solid angle can be large, and these sidelobes need to be considered even if they are many
decibels down from the main beam. Below 1 GHz, the most important antenna noise source
is cosmic noise, primarily from our galaxy. Cosmic noise scales with frequency to a 2.6
power, as illustrated in Figure 3.1.



Figure 3.1.Noise temperature for a typical antenna


This figure assumes a typical amateur EME antenna, one designed
for the addition of low Earth noise. At VHF, Ta can increase by as much as ten times in
3

average value depending on the location of the Moon in the sky at different times of the
month. For frequencies 1 GHz cosmic noise is negligible in most directions and can be
virtually ignored. At frequencies greater than about 5 GHz, the Earths atmosphere starts to
contribute to Ta, and noise power increases again. Because of the huge path loss, EME
signals are normally weak, and achieving a positive signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is of
overriding importance. If P
n
is the total noise power, SNR can be expressed in dB as:


Radio amateurs are usually not interested in transmit-ting large amounts of information; their
main goal is establishing communication under very weak signal conditions. EME
transmission bandwidth requirements are thus normally small, and a minimum bandwidth is
often used, (as little as one hertz, or even less), to maximize the SNR.












4



CHAPTER4
SYSTEM DESIGN

4.1 TRANSMITTER

The focus of transmitters used for EME is on the power amplifier. Generally, the
highest power is desired to maximize the SNR. This power level is limited by regulations,
available technology, and economics. The maximum output power in the United States is 1.5
kW, but many stations run lower power. At frequencies below 2 GHz, gridded vacuum tube
power amplifiers still dominate, but are rapidly being replaced by solid-state power
amplifiers (SSPAs), particularly at lower power levels (less than 100 W). A block diagram of
a typical VHF amateur transmitter is shown in Figure 4.1. At frequencies above 2 GHz,
travelling wave tube amplifiers (TWTAs) dominate but are also being rapidly replaced by
SSPAs. The transition to SSPAs is the principal advance in transmitter technology since the
early period of EME when a 3-kW transmitter was used for the first echoes. Examples of an
SSPA and TWTAs are also shown in Figure 4.1.


5


Figure 4.1.EME transmitter and solid-state power amplifier

4.2 ANTENNA
Many amateurs consider the antenna the most important component of an
EME station and devote a large share of their effort on it. There are essentially only two types
of antennas used by amateurs for EME today: the yagi and the parabolic dish, although there
are many variants of these basic antennas. Yagis, either singularly (usually very long in
wavelengths) or in arrays, are used almost exclusively in VHF bands.


Figure 4.2.Large yagi array Figure 4.3.Single yagi antenna
6


Figures 5.2.1 and 5.2.2 show examples of a large yagi array and a single yagi
antenna, respectively. Both linear and loop element yagis are used. At higher frequencies,
parabolic dishes dominate and are used almost exclusively above 2 GHz. Both full and offset
dishes are used, with offset designs more common at frequencies above 5 GHz.
Figure 5.2.3 shows a 15-m dish used for EME by HB9Q in Switzerland.
Considerable effort by many individuals has been applied to the design of high-gain yagis
with special attention paid to achieving minimal sidelobes to keep Ta low. This effort has
been made possible by the availability of accurate antenna modelling software. The gain of a
modern, well designed yagi of length l can be approximated by the equation G=58.1 log1l/l2
111.4 dB.

.
Figure 4.4.EME 15m dish used by HB9Q

7

Yagis are light, relatively easy to build, and have low wind resistance. Long yagis
designed for EME are generally narrowband antennas with bandwidth traded for gain and
better sidelobe performance. Yagis can be combined in phased arrays to yield nearly 3 dB for
each doubling of the number of elements. Large arrays of eight, 16, or even more yagis are
not uncommon. The gain of a parabolic dish of diameter d with a feed yielding 55%
efficiency is G=520 log1d/l2 17.3 dB.
The gain of many of the dishes used for EME is probably somewhat higher
than given as considerable time has also been spent modelling feed designs for optimum
efficiency. A popular method of constructing dishes by amateurs is to make use of the natural
tendency of materials to form an approximate parabolic shape. Dish antennas offer the
advantage of being usable on multiple frequency bands by simply changing their feed
antenna or using a multiband feed. A linear polarized antenna is usually thought of as being
either horizontal or vertical. When dealing with the spherical Earth, these concepts have
meaning only locally. As seen from the Moon, horizontal antennas on different continents
will have very different orientations. In addition, when a linearly polarized wave passes
through the Earths atmosphere, its plane of polarization is rotated in proportion to the local
free-electron density, the Earths magnetic field intensity, and the square of wavelength. This
phenomenon is known as Faraday rotation. Faraday rotation is greatest during the daytime for
stations well away from the equator and at low (VHF) frequencies. A mismatch in angle, DU,
between an incoming waves polarization and the receiving antenna will attenuate the
received signal power by cos2DU. Polarization losses increase to 3 dB when the
misalignment is 458 and increase rapidly at high angles up to 908. Because of the l2
dependence, Faraday rotation is only important for EME operation below 1 GHz, and is
insignificant at higher frequencies. Faraday rotation in the daytime ionosphere can be as
much as a full turn at 432 MHz and many turns at 144 MHz. At 432 MHz, the rotation may
8

be essentially constant over several hours or more; at lower frequencies, significant changes
can occur in 30 min. Variations are especially noticeable near sunrise or sunset, when
ionization levels are changing rapidly.
4.3 RECEIVER
The biggest technological impact on moonbounce has been to the
receiver. The critical part of the receiver is the first amplifier stage that connects to the
antenna. It is this stage that often is the major contributor to the noise power in the SNR.
Because of the very high EME path loss and the low noise contributed by the antenna, the
noise added by the receiver must be as small as possible, as illustrated in Figure 5.3.1.



Figure 4.5.Antenna and receiver noise

Advances in device technology have reduced the noise
added by the receiver by more than an order of magnitude since the early days of amateur
EME. A parametric amplifier (par amp) with a noise figure of more than a decibel was used
for the first 1,296 MHz EME contact. Sam Harris (W1FZJ) on the eastern end was among the
early parametric amplifier innovators. The introduction of Gallium Arsenide (Ga-As) field
effect transistors (FETs) in the 1970s was a major breakthrough for EME enthusiasts, and has
9

made the Ga-As low-noise preamplifier (LNA) an integral part of virtually all amateur EME
stations. Amateurs have become adept at producing LNAs that rival the best professionally
produced amplifiers [15]. At 1,296 MHz, LNAs with a Tr under 10 K have been reported (see
Figure 5.3.2) and, even at 78 GHz, low-noise receivers have been produced by amateurs for
EME, as shown in Figure 5.3.3.



Figure 4.6.Very low noise amplifier Figure 4.7.Low noise 78GHz receiver


Any feed-line between an antenna and a receiver introduces attenuation and
noise. Consequently, LNAs for EME are normally mounted as close to the antenna terminals
as feasible to achieve the lowest possible noise figure. At ambient temperature, every 0.1 dB
of loss in front of the LNA adds about 7 K to Ts. At microwave frequencies where antenna
temperatures are much lower than ambient, this change can correspond to a receiver
degradation of more than 0.5 dB. LNA gain must be sufficient to overcome subsequent feed-
line losses and dominate the noise contributed by subsequent stages. Since the same antenna
is generally used for both transmit and receive, the LNA must be switched out of the line
when transmitting, and thus the transmit/receive relay used must also be selected for
minimum loss.
10

CHAPTER 5
DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING IN MOONBOUNCE

Another possible way to extend communications in weak-signal scenarios like
moonbounce is to use a more efficient modulation scheme that allows a narrower bandwidth
than possible with ones ears. For many years, amateurs have been experimenting with digital
signal processing (DSP) to allow the reception of weaker signals than can be copied by ear.
However, these attempts were not very successful until relatively recently. Part of the
problem is that our ears are very good at what they do. Another factor is the nature of the
weak-signal propagation, which does not simply add noise to the signal, but actually
multiplies the signal by the noise and spreads the frequency limiting the effective minimum
bandwidth and the related signal enhancement.

Signal frequency spreading and related fading are especially a problem for EME. The
Moons rotation and orbital motion are synchronized causing the same side of the Moon to
always point toward the Earth. Since its orbit is elliptical, its orbital speed varies, but as its
rotation rate is constant, on Earth, an apparent slow rocking of the Moon is seen. This effect
is call lunar libration and results in a Doppler-related frequency spreading that increases the
effective minimum bandwidth from about 0.2 Hz at 144 MHz to more than 30 Hz at 10 GHz.
(The spreading is not quite linear with frequency because a larger portion of the lunar surface
contributes to echo power at higher frequencies)

11


Figure 5.1.Libration fading effect variation with frequency and position
The success of the new digital modulation formats/DSP techniques that have become
popular in recent years is based on eliminating the need to accurately know and maintain a
stations frequency. In the past, it was essential to very accurately know the frequency to find
and decode a weak signal utilizing effective minimum bandwidths that could be a few hertz
or less; a technical requirement not easily accomplished by many radio amateurs.

5.1 COMMUNICATION VIA JT65
The digital modulation most widely used for EME is JT65 [19], [20]. This mode was
conceived by Joe Taylor (K1JT), a Nobel Prize winning physicist. It employs a synchronizing
(sync) signal with a quasi-random amplitude pattern to provide both frequency and timing
information (see Figure 7.1).


12


Figure 5.2.Spectral display of a typical JT65 EME signal.


About half of the transmission power is used in the sync, but this
power investment is well worth the convenience provided. To overcome the effect of
libration, it uses error-correcting coding, and other diversity techniques to substantially
improve the reliability of EME signal copy. It digitizes messages with a modified Reed-
Solomon error-correcting code to enable detection even when many symbols have been lost
in transmission.JT65 is based on multi-frequency shift keying (MFSK), and uses 65 equally
spaced (65-FSK) computer-generated audio tones to modulate a single sideband (SSB)
transmitter. The results show that EME communication can be regularly achieved at signal
levels 610dB below those normally required with CW. This improved performance is due in
part to JT65s narrower detection bandwidth that is closer to the effective minimum
bandwidth than CW bandwidths. (Different versions of JT65 have been developed to allow
its bandwidth to be matched to the frequency spreading on different EME frequency bands).
MFSK is more information efficient than CW (International Morse code) because each
received symbol is roughly the equivalent of a full character, rather than individual dots or
13

dashes. Consequently, JT65 can be sent more slowly than CW and be detected in a smaller
bandwidth (5 Hz for the JT65B mode used on 144 MHz versus about 50 Hz for CW). CW is
self-synchronizing at the character level (if strong enough for letters to be recognized), but
provides no means for synchronizing a whole message, which makes piecing together
fragments of a repeated CW message difficult. JT65s Reed-Solomon block coding enables a
full message to be decoded with no errors with high likelihood even when less than a quarter
of the symbols have been correctly copied.

5.2. PRESENT SCENARIO
.
At the time of this writing, use of EME is highest in the 144 MHz band,
where JT65 is by far the preferred modulation. Just about any time the Moon is above the
horizon in Europe and North America, JT65 EME signals can be detected in the frequency
range between 144.100 and 144.160 MHz. Several hundreds of stations worldwide regularly
operate with moonbounce using JT65 on 144 MHz. The next two most popular EME bands
are 432 MHz and 1,296 MHz. In both these bands there is still significant use of CW and
even SSB (voice) modulation for EME communications because of the higher SNRs that can
be achieved with moderate sized antennas. Use of digital modulation techniques is growing in
these frequency bands as new radio amateurs in many countries are no longer required to
know CW. A hundred or more stations are typically active on these bands during regularly
scheduled international EME competitions, and in other major operating events. The higher
microwave bands, 2.3 GHz and above, have at least several dozen stations that regularly
operate EME.
14

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION

Most of the amateurs involved in EME do it for the technical challenge. The thrill of building
a system with which one can send a signal into space and detect signals returning from the
Moon is very real. Many of the amateurs involved in EME are also interested in extending
the state of the art of radio communications. Improving antenna and receiver performance has
always been a major component of EME, now DSP and the search for improved algorithms
for the reception of weak signals from the Moon is also a part of it. The effort to extend the
highest EME frequency, presently to 78 GHz goes on....and the quest continues.

15

8. REFERENCES


[1]. Allen Katz and Marc Franco, (2011)Targeting the Moon, IEEE microwave
magazine. 5
th
May 2011.
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moon, Proc. IRE, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 229242, 1949.
[3] H. Kauffman,(1946) A DX record: To the moon and back, QST, vol. 30,pp. 6568,
May 1946.
[4] D. D. Grieg, S. Metzger, and R. Waer,(1948) Considerations of moonrelay
communication, Proc. IRE, vol. 36, no. 5, pp. 652663, 1948.
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[6] J. Pether, (1998)The Post Office at War. Bletchley Park, Milton Keynes: Bletchley Park
Trust, 1998, p. 25.
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116, Mar. 1953.
[9] Coast to coast via the moon on 1296 Mc, QST, vol. 44, pp 1011, Sept. 1960.
[10] J. M. Morris, (1976)K2UYHMoon bounce WAC, QST, vol. 60, pp. 5760, Sept.
1976.
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[12] ARRL Hand Book for Radio Communications, 2010, 87th ed. EME.
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of Radio, 1995, pp. 207212.
[14] D. Mc. Arthur, The VK3UM radiation and system performance calculator [Online].
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[15] S. Zhutyaev. 1296 MHz small EME station with good capability (part 4) LNA
optimization[Online]Available:http://www.vhfdx.ru/apparatura/rw3bp_1296mhz_lna_optimi
zation, Mar. 2011.
16

[16] P. Wade. W1GHZ VE4MA and chaparral feeds with septum polarizers [Online].
Available: www.w1ghz.org/antbook/conf/VE4MA_Chaparral_septum_feeds.pdf, Mar. 2011.
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[18] M. Franco,(2008) Computer optimized dual mode circularly polarized feedhorn, in
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[19] J. Taylor,(2005) The JT65 communications protocol, QEX, Issue 232, pp. 312,
Sept.Oct. 2005.
[20] K1JT. WSJT homepage [Online]. http://www.physics.princeton.edu/pulsar/K1JT/, Mar.
2011.
[21] F. J. Kerr and C. A. Shain,(1951) Moon echoes and transmission through the
ionosphere, Proc. IRE, vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 230242, 1951.
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characteristics of the moon on specifications for earth-moon-earth communication systems,
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