Hizon Notes - Public International Law

NC1LS CN U8LIC IN1LkNA1ICNAL LAW
kenneLh & klng Plzon (3A) _____________________________________________

"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 1
UNIVLkSI1 CI SAN1C 1CMAS


Iacu|ty of C|v|| Law
A.. 2012-2013
I|rst Semester

U8LIC IN1LkNA1ICNAL LAW

IN1kCDUC1ICN

: What |s |nternat|ona| |aw?

A: lL ls a body of prlnclples, norms and processes whlch
regulaLes Lhe relaLlons of SLaLe and oLher lnLernaLlonal
persons, and governs Lhelr conducL affecLlng Lhe lnLeresL of
Lhe lnLernaLlonal communlLy of SLaLes as a whole !"#$#%%&'#(
*+ ,( -../0.

: What |s pub||c |nternat|ona| |aw?

A: lL ls Lhe body of rules and prlnclples LhaL are
recognlzed as legally blndlng and whlch govern
Lhe relaLlons of sLaLes and oLher enLlLles lnvesLed
wlLh lnLernaLlonal legal personallLy.

: What |s pr|vate |nternat|ona| |aw?

A: lL ls LhaL parL of Lhe law of each SLaLe whlch
deLermlnes wheLher, ln deallng wlLh a facLual
slLuaLlon, an evenL or LransacLlon beLween prlvaLe
lndlvlduals or enLlLles lnvolvlng a forelgn elemenL,
Lhe law of some oLher SLaLe wlll be recognlzed.

: What |s the other term for pr|vate |nternat|ona| |aw?

A: ConfllcLs of laws.

kLLA1ICNS 8L1WLLN IN1LkNA1ICNAL LAW
AND MUNICIAL LAW
Doctr|ne of Incorporat|on

Q: What is the doctrine of incorporation?

A: lL means LhaL Lhe rules of lnLernaLlonal law form parL of
Lhe law of Lhe land and no furLher leglslaLlve acLlon ls
needed Lo make such rules appllcable ln Lhe domesLlc
sphere. 1hls ls followed ln Lhe hlllpplnes.

: Under what |nstance does th|s doctr|ne app|y?
A: lL ls applled whenever munlclpal Lrlbunals or local courLs
are confronLed wlLh slLuaLlons ln whlch Lhere appears Lo be
a confllcL beLween rule of lnLernaLlonal law and Lhe
provlslons of Lhe ConsLlLuLlon or sLaLuLe of Lhe local sLaLe.
LfforLs should flrsL be exerLed Lo harmonlze Lhem, so as Lo
glve effecL Lo boLh slnce lL ls Lo be presumed LhaL munlclpal
law was enacLed wlLh proper regard for Lhe generally
accepLed prlnclples of lnLernaLlonal law ln observance of Lhe
observance of Lhe Incorporat|on C|ause. ln a slLuaLlon,
however, where Lhe confllcL ls lrreconcllable and a cholce has
Lo be made beLween a rule of lnLernaLlonal law and munlclpal
law, [urlsprudence dlcLaLes LhaL munlclpal law should be
upheld by Lhe munlclpal courLs for Lhe reason LhaL such
courLs are organs of munlclpal law and are accordlngly bound
by lL ln all clrcumsLances. 1he fact that |nternat|ona| |aw has
been made part of the |aw of the |and does not perta|n to or
|mp|y the pr|macy of |nternat|ona| |aw over nat|ona| or
mun|c|pa| |aw |n the mun|c|pa| sphere. 1he docLrlne of
lncorporaLlon, as applled ln mosL counLrles, decrees LhaL rules
of lnLernaLlonal law are glven equal sLandlng wlLh, buL are noL
superlor Lo, naLlonal leglslaLlve enacLmenLs. Accordlngly, Lhe
prlnclple %12 *&34156&5 715&$#4 *56&56 Lakes effecL a LreaLy
may repeal a sLaLuLe and a sLaLuLe may repeal a LreaLy. ln
sLaLes where Lhe consLlLuLlon ls Lhe hlghesL law of Lhe land,
such as Lhe 8epubllc of Lhe hlllpplnes, boLh sLaLuLes and
LreaLles may be lnvalldaLed lf Lhey are ln confllcL wlLh Lhe
consLlLuLlon !819514#5: &; <=34691 >+ ?#'46&'( -...0.

1aada v. Angara (272 SCkA 18)

8y Lhelr lnherenL naLure, treat|es rea||y ||m|t or restr|ct the
abso|uteness of sovere|gnty. 8y Lhelr volunLary acL, naLlons
may surrender some aspecLs of Lhelr sLaLe power ln exchange
for greaLer beneflLs granLed by or derlved from a convenLlon
or pacL. AfLer all, sLaLes, llke lndlvlduals, llve wlLh coequals,
and ln pursulL of muLually covenanLed ob[ecLlves and
beneflLs, Lhey also commonly agree Lo llmlL Lhe exerclse of
Lhelr oLherwlse absoluLe rlghLs. 1hus, LreaLles have been
used Lo record agreemenLs beLween SLaLes concernlng such
wldely dlverse maLLers as, for example, Lhe lease of naval
bases, Lhe sale or cesslon of LerrlLory, Lhe LermlnaLlon of war,
Lhe regulaLlon of conducL of hosLlllLles, Lhe formaLlon of
alllances, Lhe regulaLlon of commerclal relaLlons, Lhe seLLllng
of clalms, Lhe laylng down of rules governlng conducL ln
peace and Lhe esLabllshmenL of lnLernaLlonal organlzaLlons.
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 2
1he soverelgnLy of a sLaLe Lherefore cannoL ln facL and ln
reallLy be consldered absoluLe. CerLaln resLrlcLlons enLer lnLo
Lhe plcLure: (1) ||m|tat|ons |mposed by the very nature of
membersh|p |n the fam||y of nat|ons and (2) ||m|tat|ons
|mposed by treaty st|pu|at|ons.

Ak1ICLL II, 1987 h|||pp|ne Const|tut|on
DLCLAkA1ICN CI kINCILLS AND S1A1L CLICILS
kINCILLS

Sect|on 2. 1he hlllpplnes renounces war as an lnsLrumenL of
naLlonal pollcy, adopLs Lhe generally accepLed prlnclples of
lnLernaLlonal law as parL of Lhe law of Lhe land and adheres Lo
Lhe pollcy of peace, equallLy, [usLlce, freedom, cooperaLlon,
and amlLy wlLh all naLlons.

: G|ve examp|es of genera||y accepted pr|nc|p|es of
Internat|ona| Law?

A:

1. @#94# 3='4 315>#'7#
2. A1B=3 369 34#'46B=3C agreemenL ls valld only lf Lhe
same condlLlons prevalllng aL Llme of conLracLlng
conLlnue Lo exlsL aL Lhe Llme of performance
3. @#5 1' *#51D '&' E#B14 6D*156=D (SLaLe lmmunlLy
from SulL)
4. Soverelgn LquallLy of SLaLes
3. rlghL of sLaLes Lo self-defense
6. rlghL Lo self-deLermlnaLlon of people

Doctr|ne of 1ransformat|on

: What |s the doctr|ne of transformat|on?

A: LeglslaLlve acLlon ls requlred Lo make Lhe LreaLy
enforceable ln Lhe munlclpal sphere. Cenerally accepLed
rules of lnLernaLlonal law are
noL per se blndlng upon Lhe sLaLe buL musL flrsL be
embodled ln leglslaLlon enacLed by Lhe lawmaklng
body and so Lransformed lnLo munlclpal law. 1hls
docLrlne runs counLer ArL. ll, Sec. 2, of Lhe 1987
ConsLlLuLlon.

: What |s !"#$" &'($ servanda?

A: 1he lnLernaLlonal agreemenLs musL be performed ln good
falLh. A LreaLy engagemenL ls noL a mere moral obllgaLlon buL
creaLes a legally blndlng obllgaLlon on Lhe parLles. A sLaLe
whlch has conLracLed a valld lnLernaLlonal agreemenL ls
bound Lo make ln lLs leglslaLlon such modlflcaLlon as may be
necessary Lo ensure fulflllmenL of Lhe obllgaLlon underLaken.

: Who rat|f|es the treat|es?

A: ln our [urlsdlcLlon, Lhe power Lo raLlfy ls vesLed ln Lhe
resldenL and noL, as commonly belleved, ln Lhe leglslaLure.
1he role of Lhe SenaLe ls llmlLed only Lo glvlng or wlLhholdlng
lLs consenL, or concurrence, Lo Lhe raLlflcaLlon !F#:#' >3+
G#D&5#( H+A+ I&+ ,JK/L.( M94&B15 ,.( -...0+

1hls provlslon lays down Lhe general rule on LreaLles or
lnLernaLlonal agreemenLs and applles Lo any form of LreaLy
wlLh a wlde varleLy of sub[ecL maLLer. All LreaLles or
lnLernaLlonal agreemenLs enLered lnLo by Lhe hlllpplnes,
regardless of sub[ecL maLLer, coverage, or parLlcular
deslgnaLlon or appellaLlon, requlres Lhe concurrence of Lhe
SenaLe Lo be valld and effecLlve.

: State the const|tut|ona| bas|s.

A:

Sect|on 21. no LreaLy or lnLernaLlonal agreemenL shall be
valld and effecLlve unless concurred ln by aL leasL Lwo-Lhlrds
of all Lhe Members of Lhe SenaLe.

k|ght to se|f-determ|nat|on of the peop|es
Art|c|e 2, 1987 Const|tut|on

Sect|on 7. 1he SLaLe shall pursue an lndependenL forelgn
pollcy. ln lLs relaLlons wlLh oLher sLaLes, Lhe paramounL
conslderaLlon shall be naLlonal soverelgnLy, LerrlLorlal
lnLegrlLy, naLlonal lnLeresL, and Lhe rlghL Lo self-
deLermlnaLlon.

: What |s the r|ght to se|f-determ|nat|on of the peop|es?

A: 1he rlghL of peoples everywhere Lo freely deLermlne Lhelr
pollLlcal sLaLus and pursue Lhelr economlc, soclal and culLural
developmenL.

lL ls a new concepL ln lnLernaLlonal law. lL ls undersLood as
Lhe rlghL Lo lnLernal self-deLermlnaLlon of Lhe people ln
pursulL Lo Lhelr soclal, economlc and pollLlcal developmenL
wlLhln Lhe framework of an exlsLlng sLaLe.

: What are the 2 c|ass|f|cat|on of r|ghts?

A:
1. |nd|v|dua|
Lx: 8lll of rlghLs

2. co||ect|ve
Lx: 8lghL Lo self-deLermlnaLlon, rlghL of Lhe people Lo
balanced and healLhful ecology

NC1L: 1he rlghL Lo self-deLermlnaLlon has now grown and ls
elevaLed lnLo a $1'15#%%: #991*417 *56'96*%1 6' 6'415'#46&'#%
%#N.

: Who may c|a|m the r|ght to se|f-determ|nat|on?

A: lL refers Lo Lhe
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 3
a. rlghL of lndlgenous peoples and
b. lndlgenous culLural communlLles

and ln exLreme cases, of people:
a. under colonlal rule
b. from oLher forelgn domlnaLlon or explolLaLlon
ouLslde Lhe colonlal conLexL

: What are the 2 k|nds of r|ght to se|f-determ|nat|on?

A:
1. exLernal
2. lnLernal

rov|nce of North Cotabato

: What |s the scope of the r|ght to se|f-determ|nat|on?

A: 1he recognlzed sources of lnLernaLlonal law esLabllsh LhaL
Lhe rlghL Lo self-deLermlnaLlon of a people ls normally fulfllled
Lhrough )($*+(", se|f-determ|nat|on - a people's pursulL of lLs
pollLlcal, economlc, soclal and culLural developmenL wlLhln
Lhe framework of an exlsLlng sLaLe. A rlghL Lo 12415'#% self-
deLermlnaLlon (whlch ln Lhls case poLenLlally Lakes Lhe form
of Lhe asserLlon of a rlghL Lo unllaLeral secesslon) arlses ln
only Lhe mosL exLreme of cases and, even Lhen, under
carefully deflned clrcumsLances. -.$*+(", se|f-determ|nat|on
can be deflned Lhe esLabllshmenL of a soverelgn and
lndependenL SLaLe, Lhe free assoclaLlon or lnLegraLlon wlLh an
lndependenL SLaLe or Lhe emergence lnLo any oLher pollLlcal
sLaLus freely deLermlned by a *1&*%1 consLlLuLe modes of
lmplemenLlng Lhe rlghL of self-deLermlnaLlon by 4E#4 *1&*%1.

lndeed, Lhe rlghL Lo self-deLermlnaLlon of Lhe people ls now
elevaLed lnLo a generally accepLed prlnclple. Powever, lL ls
only llmlLed Lo lnLernal rlghL Lo self-deLermlnaLlon.

SCUkCLS CI U8LIC IN1LkNA1ICNAL LAW

S1A1U1L CI 1nL IN1LkNA1ICNAL CCUk1 CI IUS1ICL
Art|c|e 38

1. 1he CourL, whose funcLlon ls Lo declde ln accordance
wlLh lnLernaLlonal law such dlspuLes as are submlLLed Lo
lL, shall apply:

a. lnLernaLlonal convenLlons, wheLher general or
parLlcular, esLabllshlng rules expressly recognlzed by
Lhe conLesLlng sLaLes,
b. lnLernaLlonal cusLom, as evldence of a general
pracLlce accepLed as law,
c. Lhe general prlnclples of law recognlzed by clvlllzed
naLlons,
d. sub[ecL Lo Lhe provlslons of ArLlcle 39, [udlclal
declslons and Lhe Leachlngs of Lhe mosL hlghly
quallfled publlclsLs of Lhe varlous naLlons, as
subsldlary means for Lhe deLermlnaLlon of rules of
law.

2. 1hls provlslon shall noL pre[udlce Lhe power of Lhe CourL Lo
declde a case 12 #1O=& 14 B&'&, lf Lhe parLles agree LhereLo.

: What are the sources of pub||c |nternat|ona| |aw?

A: Art|c|e 38 of Lhe Statute of Internat|ona| Court of
Iust|ce (SICI) dlrecLs LhaL Lhe followlng be consldered
before decldlng a case:

A. r|mary
l. 1reaLles or lnLernaLlonal ConvenLlons ll. lnLernaLlonal
CusLom
lll. Ceneral rlnclples of Law 8ecognlzed by Clvlllzed
naLlons

8. Secondary]Subs|d|ary
lv. !udlclal ueclslons
v. 1eachlngs of auLhorlLaLlve publlclsLs

1reat|es

: What are the e|ements for a va||d treaty?

A: Same elemenLs as Lo ordlnary conLracLs:

1. consenL
2. ob[ecL
3. conslderaLlon

: What are contract treat|es?

A: 8llaLeral arrangemenLs concernlng maLLers of parLlcular or
speclal lnLeresL Lo Lhe conLracLlng parLles. 1hey are sources of
parLlcular lnLernaLlonal law buL may become prlmary sources
of publlc lnLernaLlonal law when dlfferenL conLracL LreaLles
are of Lhe same naLure, conLalnlng pracLlcally unlform
provlslons, and are concluded by a subsLanLlal number of
SLaLes.

Q: What are law-making treaties?

A: 1reaLles whlch are concluded by a large number of SLaLes
for purposes of:

1. ueclarlng, conflrmlng, or deflnlng Lhelr
undersLandlng of whaL Lhe law ls on a parLlcular
sub[ecL,
2. SLlpulaLlng or laylng down new general rules for
fuLure lnLernaLlonal conducL, and
3. CreaLlng new lnLernaLlonal lnsLlLuLlons.

: Is there a d|fference between |awmak|ng treat|se (tra|ts-
|o|s) and contractua| treat|se (tra|ts contracts)?
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 4

A: 1here ls no slgnlflcanL dlfference. All LreaLles are
lawmaklng lnasmuch as Lhey lay down Lhe rules of conducL
whlch Lhe parLles are bound Lo observe as law.

1he only dlfference ls LhaL conLracLual LreaLles are concluded
on shorL-Lerm, parLlcular quesLlons and Lhey LermlnaLe Lhelr
valldlLy afLer Lhey have fulfllled Lhelr purpose, whereas,
lawmaklng LreaLles relaLed Lo a broad sphere of relaLlons and
are concluded for long-Lerm purposes.

: Who are bound by treat|es and |nternat|ona|
convent|ons?

A:

Gk: Cnly Lhe parLles.

kN: 1reaLles may be consldered a dlrecL source of
lnLernaLlonal law when concluded by a slzable number of
SLaLes, and ls reflecLlve of Lhe wlll of Lhe famlly of naLlons.

Customs

: What |s custom?

A: CusLom ls Lhe pracLlce LhaL has grown up beLween SLaLes
and has come Lo be accepLed as blndlng by Lhe mere facL of
perslsLenL usage over a long perlod of Llme

lL exlsLs when a clear and conLlnuous hablL of dolng
cerLaln Lhlngs develops under Lhe CCNVIC1ICN that
|t |s ob||gatory and r|ght.

1hls convlcLlon ls called "Cp|n|o Iur|s"

: What are the e|ements of |nternat|ona| custom?

1. H1'15#% *5#94691, characLerlzed by unlformlLy and
conslsLency,
2. M*6'6&P=563, or recognlLlon of LhaL pracLlce as a legal norm
and Lherefore obllgaLory, and
3. Q=5#46&'

NC1L: 8epeLlLlon of pracLlce or acLlon of sLaLes ls necessary.

: now |s the e|ement of /!)()/( 0'+)& understood?

A: lL means LhaL Lhe SLaLes musL belleve LhaL Lhe pracLlce ls
requlred by law, and noL because of courLesy or pollLlcal
expedlency.

Genera| r|nc|p|es of Law kecogn|zed by
C|v|||zed Nat|ons

: G|ve examp|es of Genera| r|nc|p|es of Law kecogn|zed
by C|v|||zed Nat|ons.

A:
1. 134&**1%
2. *#94# 3='4 315>#'7#
3. 513 P=769#4#
4. prescrlpLlon
3. prlnclple of [usLlce and law
6. 513 6'415 #%6&3 #94# rule
7. he who comes Lo Lhe courL musL come wlLh clean
hands

: Does the &$"+* 1*#)&)& ru|e b|nd|ng under pub||c
|nternat|ona| |aw?

A: no. 1he 7&9456'1 &; 34#51 7196363 ls noL appllcable ln
lnLernaLlonal law per ArL.39 of Lhe lC! whlch
sLaLes LhaL "1he declslon of Lhe CourL has no
blndlng force excepL beLween Lhe parLles and ln
respecL Lo LhaL parLlcular case." 1hls means LhaL
Lhese declslons are noL a dlrecL source, buL Lhey
do exerclse conslderable lnfluence as an lmparLlal
and well-consldered sLaLemenL of Lhe law by
[urlsLs made ln Lhe llghL of acLual problems whlch
arlse before Lhem, and Lhus, accorded wlLh greaL
respecL.

Art|c|e S9, ICI

Art|c|e S9. 1he declslon of Lhe CourL has no blndlng force
excepL beLween Lhe parLles and ln respecL of LhaL parLlcular
case.

1each|ngs of author|tat|ve pub||c|sts

: What are the requ|s|tes |n order to cons|der a person to
be a h|gh|y qua||f|ed pub||c|st?

A:
1. Pls wrlLlngs musL be falr and lmparLlal represenLaLlon of
law,
2. An acknowledged auLhorlLy ln Lhe fleld.

kome Statute

: What is Rome Statute?

A: 1he 8ome SLaLuLe of Lhe lnLernaLlonal Crlmlnal CourL
(ofLen referred Lo as Lhe lnLernaLlonal Crlmlnal CourL SLaLuLe
or Lhe 8ome SLaLuLe) ls Lhe LreaLy LhaL esLabllshed Lhe
Internat|ona| Cr|m|na| Court (ICC).

1he hlllpplnes ls Lhe 117
Lh
counLry Lo raLlfy Lhe 8ome SLaLuLe
accordlng Lo uean angalanan.

Un|ted Nat|ons

: What are the 6 pr|nc|pa| organs of the U.N.

A:

1. Ceneral Assembly
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 3
2. SecurlLy Councll
3. Lconomlc Soclal Councll
4. 1rusLeeshlp Councll
3. lnLernaLlonal CourL of !usLlce
6. SecreLarlaL

: What |s the Internat|ona| Court of Iust|ce?

A: lL ls Lhe prlmary [udlclal organ of Lhe unlLed naLlons

Ius cogens and Lrga omnes

: What |s [us cogens (compelling law) norm?

A: A [us cogens norm ls a norm accepted and recogn|zed by
the |nternat|ona| commun|ty of States as a who|e as a norm
from wh|ch no derogat|on |s perm|tted and whlch can be
modlfled only by a subsequenL norm of general lnLernaLlonal
law havlng Lhe same characLer.

L.g. Lhe prohlblLlon agalnsL Lhe use of force under Lhe un
CharLer (CuLlawlng of acLs of aggresslon), CuLlawlng of
genoclde, 8aslc human rlghLs, lncludlng proLecLlon from
slavery and raclal dlscrlmlnaLlon, prlnclple of self-
deLermlnaLlon, crlmes agalnsL humanlLy, prohlblLlon agalnsL
slavery and slave Lrade, and plracy (Magallona, p. 26, 2003).

: D|st|ngu|sh [us cogens from [us d|spos|t|vum.

A: A [us cogens or peremptory ls a norm whlch SLaLes cannoL
derogaLe or devlaLe from ln Lhelr agreemenLs. lL ls a
mandaLory norm and sLands on a hlgher caLregory Lhan a P=3
763*&3646>=D norm whlch SLaLes can seL aslde or modlfy by
agreemenL.

: May a treaty or convent|ona| ru|e qua||f|es as a norm of
[us cogens character?

A: no. 1reaLy rule blnds only SLaLes LhaL are parLles Lo lL and
even ln Lhe evenL LhaL all SLaLes are parLles Lo a LreaLy, Lhey
are enLlLled Lo LermlnaLe or wlLhdraw from Lhe LreaLy.

Q: What is erga omnes (in relation to everyone)?

A: lL ls an ob||gat|on of every State towards the |nternat|ona|
commun|ty as a who|e. All sLaLes have a legal lnLeresL ln lLs
compllance, and Lhus all SLaLes are enLlLled Lo lnvoke
responslblllLy for breach of such an obllgaLlon.

: D|st|ngu|sh between erga omnes from an ob||gat|on |nter
se (wh|ch a State owes to another State)?
A: Lrga omnes, by Lhelr naLure, are Lhe concern of all SLaLes.
All SLaLes can be held Lo have a legal lnLeresL ln Lhelr
proLecLlon.

Lg. CuLlawlng of acLs of aggresslon, and of genoclde, as also
from Lhe prlnclples and rules concernlng Lhe baslc rlghLs of
Lhe human person, lncludlng proLecLlon from slavery and
raclal dlscrlmlnaLlon.

ogyakarta r|nc|p|es

: What are the ogyakarta r|nc|p|es?

A: 1he ?ogyakarLa rlnclples ensure Lhe full en[oymenL of all
human rlghLs by all persons regardless of sexual orlenLaLlon
and gender ldenLlLy. 1hey were puL LogeLher by a
dlsLlngulshed group of human rlghLs experLs ln november
2006 aL ?ogyakarLa, lndonesla and have slnce been
lnLroduced formally Lo Lhe unlLed naLlons (un) sysLem,
LranslaLed lnLo Lhe slx offlclal un languages and launched ln
several counLrles.

1he ?ogyakarLa rlnclples ensure Lhe full en[oymenL of all
human rlghLs by all persons regardless of sexual orlenLaLlon
and gender ldenLlLy. 1hey were puL LogeLher by a
dlsLlngulshed group of human rlghLs experLs ln november
2006 aL ?ogyakarLa , lndonesla and have slnce been
lnLroduced formally Lo Lhe unlLed naLlons (un) sysLem,
LranslaLed lnLo Lhe slx offlclal un languages and launched ln
several counLrles.

: Is the ogyakarta r|nc|p|es accepted under our
[ur|sd|ct|on?

A: We are noL prepared Lo declare LhaL Lhese R&$:#S#54#
@56'96*%13 conLaln norms LhaL are obllgaLory on
Lhe hlllpplnes. 1here are declaraLlons and obllgaLlons
ouLllned ln sald rlnclples whlch are noL reflecLlve of Lhe
currenL sLaLe of lnLernaLlonal law, and do noL flnd basls ln any
of Lhe sources of lnLernaLlonal law enumeraLed under ArLlcle
38(1) of Lhe SLaLuLe of Lhe lnLernaLlonal CourL of !usLlce !T'$
?#7%#7 ?HFU @#54: >+ VM"W?WV0.

: What |s the concept ex aequo et bono?

A: lL ls a [udgmenL based on conslderaLlons of falrness, noL on
conslderaLlons of exlsLlng law, LhaL ls, Lo slmply declde Lhe
case based upon a balanclng of Lhe equlLles. (8rownlle, 2003)

SU8ILC1S AND C8ILC1S CI IN1LkNA1ICNAL LAW

2 Concepts:

1. 1rad|t|ona| concept- Cnly SLaLes are consldered
sub[ecLs of lnLernaLlonal law.
2. Contemporary concept- lndlvlduals and
lnLernaLlonal organlzaLlons are also sub[ecLs because
Lhey have rlghLs and duLles under lnLernaLlonal
law.

"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 6

Sub[ects of |nternat|ona| |aw

Q: What is a subject of international law?

A: A Sub[ecL ls an enLlLy LhaL has an lnLernaLlonal
personallLy. An enLlLy has an lnLernaLlonal
personallLy |f |t can d|rect|y enforce |ts r|ghts and dut|es
under |nternat|ona| |aw. Where Lhere ls no dlrecL
enforcemenL of accounLablllLy and an lnLermedlaLe
agency ls needed, Lhe enLlLy ls merely an ob[ecL noL a
sub[ecL of lnLernaLlonal law.

lL ls an enLlLy wlLh capaclLy of possesslng lnLernaLlonal rlghLs
and duLles and of brlnglng lnLernaLlonal clalms !"#$#%%&'#(
*+ JJ( -../0.

: When does an ent|ty acqu|re |nternat|ona|
persona||ty?

A: When lL has rlghL and duLles under
lnLernaLlonal law, can dlrecLly enforce lLs rlghLs,
and may be held dlrecLly accounLable for lLs
obllgaLlons.

: D|st|ngu|sh between genera| or ob[ect|ve |nternat|ona|
persona||ty from part|cu|ar or spec|a| |nternat|ona|
persona||ty?

A: As Lo Lhe flrsL, rlghLs and obllgaLlons are conferred by
general lnLernaLlonal law and such personallLy ls blndlng 15$#
&D'13. As Lo Lhe second, personallLy blnds only Lhose whlch
glve consenL. lL ls brough abouL by Lhelr agreemenL and ls
recognlzed only among Lhemselves as parLles Lo LhaL
agreemenL.

GLNLkAL SCLIAL
8lghL and obllgaLlons are
conferred by general
lnLernaLlonal law and such
personallLy ls blndlng 15$#
&D'13
ersonallLy blnds only Lhose
whlch glve consenL:
a. Lxpress
b. LaclL

: If an ent|ty |s not a sub[ect of |nternat|ona| |aw, can |t st|||
assume certa|n character|st|cs of |nternat|ona| persona||ty?

A: ?es, buL ln a speclal or resLrlcLed conLexL such as LhaL
deflned by agreemenL, recognlLlon or acqulescence.

: now |s the State regarded as a sub[ect of |nternat|ona|
|aw?

A: 1he SLaLe ls regarded as sub[ecL of lnLernaLlonal law or an
lnLernaLlonal legal person ln LhaL lL has, ln oLher words, Lhe
capac|ty to be bearer of r|ghts and dut|es under
|nternat|ona| |aw.

1he sLaLus of Lhe SLaLe as sub[ecL of law or an lnLernaLlonal
person ls conferred by cusLomary or general lnLernaLlonal
law. lL possesses erga omnes or ob[ecLlve personallLy noL
merely by vlrLue of recognlLlon on Lhe parL of parLlcular
sLaLes.

: now |s the pr|macy of states as sub[ects of |nternat|ona|
|aw exp|a|ned?

A: 1he States are the repos|tor|es of |eg|t|mated author|ty
over peop|es and terr|tor|es. lL ls only ln Lerms of SLaLe
powers, prerogaLlves, [urlsdlcLlonal llmlLs and law-maklng
capablllLles LhaL LerrlLorlal llmlLs and [urlsdlcLlon,
responslblllLy for offlclal acLlons, and a hosL of oLher
quesLlons of co-exlsLence beLween naLlons can be
deLermlned.

A: Are |nternat|ona| organ|zat|ons cons|dered as sub[ects of
|nternat|ona| |aw?

A: ?es, lf Lhelr legal personallLy ls esLabllshed by Lhelr
consLlLuenL lnsLrumenL or charLer. 1he|r status |s determ|ned
by agreement and not by genera| or customary |nternat|ona|
|aw. 1helr personallLy ls derlvaLlve of Lhe collecLlve wlll of Lhe
sLaLes creaLlng lL.

: What |s the cr|ter|on for |ega| persona||ty to be met?

A:
1. A permanenL assoclaLlon of sLaLes, wlLh lawful
ob[ecLs, equlpped wlLh organs
2. A dlsLlncLlon, ln Lerms of legal powers and purposes,
beLween Lhe organlzaLlon and lLs member sLaLes
3. 1he exlsLence of legal powers exerclsable on Lhe
lnLernaLlonal plane and noL solely wlLhln Lhe naLlonal
sysLem of one or more sLaLes

: May |nd|v|dua|s assume the status of sub[ects of
|nternat|ona| |aw?

A: ?es, buL on Lhe basls of Lhe agreemenL by sLaLes and ln
speclflc conLexL, noL ln accordance wlLh general or cusLomary
lnLernaLlonal law.

nCL SLL v. kCSAkIC (1994)

under boLh ubllc lnLernaLlonal Law and 1ransnaLlonal Law, a
person who feels aggrleved by Lhe acLs of a forelgn soverelgn
can ask hls own governmenL Lo espouse hls cause Lhrough
dlplomaLlc channels.

rlvaLe respondenL can ask Lhe hlllpplne governmenL,
Lhrough Lhe lorelgn Cfflce, Lo espouse lLs clalms agalnsL Lhe
Poly See. lLs flrsL Lask ls Lo persuade Lhe hlllpplne
governmenL Lo Lake up wlLh Lhe Poly See Lhe valldlLy of lLs
clalms. Cf course, Lhe lorelgn Cfflce shall flrsL make a
deLermlnaLlon of Lhe lmpacL of lLs espousal on Lhe relaLlons
beLween Lhe hlllpplne governmenL and Lhe Poly See. Cnce
Lhe hlllpplne governmenL decldes Lo espouse Lhe clalm, Lhe
laLLer ceases Lo be a prlvaLe cause.

"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 7
Accordlng Lo Lhe ermanenL CourL of lnLernaLlonal !usLlce,
Lhe forerunner of Lhe lnLernaLlonal CourL of !usLlce by tak|ng
up the case of one of |ts sub[ects and by report|ng to
d|p|omat|c act|on or |nternat|ona| [ud|c|a| proceed|ngs on h|s
beha|f, a State |s |n rea||ty assert|ng |ts own r|ghts |ts r|ght
to ensure, |n the person of |ts sub[ects, respect for the ru|es
of |nternat|ona| |aw.

Cb[ects of |nternat|ona| |aw

: What |s an ob[ect of |nternat|ona| |aw?

A: An Cb[ecL ls a person or Lhlng ln respecL of whlch rlghLs
are held and obllgaLlons assumed by Lhe Sub[ecL. 1hus, lL ls
noL dlrecLly governed by Lhe rules of lnLernaLlonal law.
1here ls no dlrecL enforcemenL and accounLablllLy. An
lnLermedlaLe agencyLhe Sub[ecLls requlred for
Lhe en[oymenL of lLs rlghLs and for Lhe dlscharge of lLs
obllgaLlons.

: D|st|ngu|sh sub[ects from ob[ects of |nternat|ona| |aw.

A:

SU8ILC1S CI IN1LNA1ICNAL
LAW
C8ILC1S CI IN1LNA1ICNAL
LAW
LnLlLy LhaL has rlghLs and
responslblllLles
erson or Lhlng ln respecL of
whlch rlghLs are held and
obllgaLlons assumed by Lhe
sub[ecL
Pas lnLernaLlonal personallLy
LhaL lL can dlrecLly asserL
rlghLs and can be held
responslble under Lhe law of
naLlons
noL dlrecLly governed by Lhe
rules of lnLernaLlonal law

lL can be a proper parLy ln
LransacLlons lnvolvlng Lhe
appllcaLlon of Lhe law of
naLlons among members of
lnLernaLlonal communlLles

lLs rlghLs are recelved and lLs
responslblllLles lmposed
lndlrecLly Lhrough Lhe
lnsLrumenLallLy of an
lnLermedlaLe agency

S1A1L

: What |s a state?

A: A sLaLe ls a communlLy of persons more or less numerous,
permanenLly occupylng a deflnlLe porLlon of LerrlLory,
lndependenL of exLernal conLrol, and possesslng an exLernal
governmenL of whlch Lhe greaL body of lnhablLanLs render
hablLual obedlence.

lL ls a commun|ty of persons (peop|e), more ore less
numerous, permanent|y occupy|ng a f|xed port|on of the
surface of the earth (terr|tory) havlng a government,
organlzed for polLllcal end where ma[or|ty of the |nhab|tants
render hab|tua| obed|ence (sovere|gnty).

: D|st|ngu|sh state from nat|on.

A:

S1A1L NA1ICN
A legal concepL LLhnlc or raclal concepL

NC1L: 1here may be one sLaLe wlLh many naLlons.
L.g. Arab naLlons

1here may be several sLaLes wlLh one naLlon. L.g. unlLed
SLaLes of Amerlca

: What are the capac|t|es assoc|ated w|th |ega| persona||ty
of States?

A: 1hese lnclude:

1. capaclLy Lo make lnLernaLlonal agreemenLs
2. Lo engage ln prlvlleges and lmmunlLles wlLh respecL
Lo naLlonal [urlsdlcLlons
3. capaclLy Lo brlng clalms ln cases of breach of
lnLernaLlonal laws

: Can the comfort woman and the|r descendant assert
|nd|v|dua| c|a|ms aga|nst Iapan?

A: no. 1he soverelgn auLhorlLy of Lhe sLaLe Lo seLLle clalms
of lLs naLlonals agalnsL forelgn counLrles has repeaLedly
been recognlzed. 1hls may be made wlLhouL Lhe consenL
of Lhe naLlonals or even wlLhouL consulLaLlon wlLh Lhem.
Slnce Lhe conLlnued amlLy beLween Lhe SLaLe and oLher
counLrles may requlre a saLlsfacLory compromlse of
muLual clalms, Lhe necessary power Lo make such
compromlse has been recognlzed. 1he seLLlemenL of such
clalms may be made by execuLlve agreemenL.

: What must a person who fee|s aggr|eved by
the acts of a fore|gn sovere|gn do to espouse h|s
cause?

A: under boLh ubllc lnLernaLlonal Law and 1ransnaLlonal
Law, a person who feels aggrleved by Lhe acLs of a forelgn
soverelgn can ask hls own governmenL Lo espouse hls
cause Lhrough dlplomaLlc channels.

"8y Laklng up Lhe case of one of lLs sub[ecLs and
by resorLlng Lo dlplomaLlc acLlon or lnLernaLlonal
[udlclal proceedlngs on hls behalf, a SLaLe ls ln
reallLy asserLlng lLs own rlghLs - lLs rlghL Lo
ensure, ln Lhe person of lLs sub[ecLs, respecL for
Lhe rules of lnLernaLlonal law."

"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 8

L|ements of State

: What are the e|ements of a state?

A:

1. eop|e an aggregaLe of lndlvlduals of boLh sexes
(for perpeLulLy), who llve LogeLher as a communlLy
desplLe raclal or culLural dlfferences (permanenL
populaLlon).
2. 1err|tory fixed portion of the earths surface which
Lhe lnhablLanLs occupy (deflned LerrlLory).
3. Government lL ls Lhe agency Lhrough whlch Lhe
wlll of Lhe sLaLe ls formulaLed, expressed and
reallzed.

NC1L: 1he rlnclpal ls Lhe SLaLe whlle Lhe
CovernmenL ls Lhe AgenL.

4. Independence]sovere|gnty Lhe power of a sLaLe Lo
manage lLs exLernal affalrs wlLhouL dlrecLlon or
lnLerference from anoLher sLaLe (capaclLy Lo enLer
lnLo relaLlons wlLh oLher SLaLes.

: What are the other suggested e|ements of the State?

A:

1. ClvlllzaLlon
2. 8ecognlLlon

: now |s the status of an ent|ty as a State accepted by
other States?

A: lL ls Lhrough recogn|t|on whlch ls Lhe acL by whlch anoLher
SLaLe acknowledges LhaL Lhe pollLlcal enLlLy recognlzed
possesses Lhe aLLrlbuLes of sLaLehood.

Lffect of kecogn|t|on

: What |s the effect of such recogn|ton?

A:

1. Construct|ve Schoo|- lL conslLLuLes or creaLes Lhe
sLaLus of a SLaLe as a sub[ecL of law and Lhus glves lL
a legal personallLy,
2. Dec|aratory status- recognlLlon merely conflrms Lhe
accepaLance by SLaLes of Lhe sLaLus of an enLlLy as a
SLaLe.
NC1L: 1he prevalllng vlew ls LhaL recognlLlon ls noL
an elemenL of sLaLehood !"#$#%%&'#( *+ X,( -../0.

: Is there a duty to recogn|ze a state?

A: no. lL ls a publlc acL of Lhe SLaLe and ls opLlonal and
pollLlcal acL and Lhere ls no legal duLy ln Lhls regard.

: Does adm|ss|on of a State |nto the UN s|gn|fy
recogn|t|on?

A: ?es.

Art|c|e 4 (1) of the UN Charter

Membershlp ln Lhe unlLed naLlons ls open Lo all oLher peace-
lovlng sLaLes whlch accepL Lhe obllgaLlons conLalned ln Lhe
presenL CharLer and, ln Lhe [udgmenL of Lhe CrganlzaLlon, are
able and wllllng Lo carry ouL Lhese obllgaLlons.

1he admlsslon of any such sLaLe Lo membershlp ln Lhe unlLed
naLlons wlll be effecLed by a declslon of Lhe Ceneral
Assembly upon Lhe recommendaLlon of Lhe SecurlLy Councll.

1hus, admlsslon Lo membershlp slgnlfles accepLance of sLaLus
as a sLaLe for Lhe purposes of lnLernaLlonal law.

VA1ICAN AS A S1A1L

: Is Vat|can a State?

A. ?es. ln Lhe case of Y&%: 811 >+ A&3#56& Lhe SC noLed LhaL Lhe
Lateran 1reaty beLween lLaly and Lhe ope esLabllshed Lhe
SLaLehood of Lhe vaLlcan for Lhe purpose of assurlng Lo Lhe
Poly See absoluLe and vlslble lndependence and of
guaranLeelng Lo lL lndlspuLable soverelgnLy also ln Lhe fleld of
lnLernaLlonal relaLlons.

NC1L: 1he LaLeran 1reaLy esLabllshed Lhe S1A1LPCCu of Lhe
vaLlcan ClLy "for Lhe purpose of assurlng Lo Lhe Poly See
absoluLe and vlslble lndependence and of guaranLeelng Lo lL
lndlspuLable soverelgnLy also ln Lhe fleld of lnLernaLlonal
relaLlons".

lrom Lhe wordlngs of Lhe LaLeran 1reaLy, lL ls dlfflculL Lo
deLermlne wheLher Lhe sLaLehood ls vesLed ln Lhe Poly See or
ln Lhe vaLlcan ClLy. 1he vaLlcan ClLy flLs lnLo none of Lhe
esLabllshed caLegorles of sLaLes, and Lhe aLLrlbuLlon Lo lL of
"soverelgnLy" musL be made ln a sense dlfferenL from LhaL ln
whlch lL ls applled Lo oLher sLaLes. 1he vaLlcan ClLy
represenLs an enLlLy organlzed noL for pollLlcal buL for
eccleslasLlcal purposes and lnLernaLlonal ob[ecLs. Q13*641 643
36Z1 #'7 &BP194( 64 E#3 #' 6'71*1'71'4 $&>15'D1'4 &; 643 &N'(
N64E 4E1 @&*1( NE& 63 #%3& E1#7 &; 4E1 A&D#' V#4E&%69
VE=59E( #3 4E1 Y&%: 811 &5 Y1#7 &; 84#41( 6' 9&';&5D64: N64E
643 45#7646&'3( #'7 4E1 71D#'73 &; 643 D6336&'+ lndeed,
lLs world-wlde lnLeresLs and acLlvlLles are such as Lo make lL
ln a sense an "lnLernaLlonal sLaLe".

lL was noLed LhaL Lhe recognlLlon of Lhe vaLlcan ClLy as a
sLaLe has slgnlflcanL lmpllcaLlon - LhaL lL ls posslble for any
enLlLy pursulng ob[ecLs essenLlally dlfferenL from Lhose
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 9
pursued by sLaLes Lo be lnvesLed wlLh lnLernaLlonal
personallLy.

Slnce Lhe ope prefers Lo conducL forelgn relaLlons
and enLer lnLo LransacLlons as Lhe Poly See and noL ln Lhe
name of Lhe vaLlcan ClLy, one can conclude LhaL ln Lhe ope's
own vlew, lL ls Lhe Poly See LhaL ls Lhe lnLernaLlonal person.

1he hlllpplnes has accorded Lhe Poly See Lhe
sLaLus of a forelgn soverelgn. 1he Poly See,
Lhrough lLs Ambassador, Lhe apal nunclo, has
had dlplomaLlc represenLaLlons wlLh Lhe
hlllpplne governmenL slnce 1937. 1hls appears Lo
be Lhe unlversal pracLlce.

LCLL

lL ls a group of lndlvlduals, boLh sexes, llvlng LogeLher as a
communlLy. 1hey musL be sufflclenL ln number Lo malnLaln
and perpeLuaLe Lhemselves. A causal gaLherlng (sLranded), or
socleLy of plraLes would noL consLlLuLe a sLaLe.

: What are the different Meanings of People as used in
the Const|tut|on?

A:
1. lnhablLanLs
1

2. LlecLors
2

3. ClLlzens
3

4. Soverelgn
4

: G|ve examp|es of groups of peop|e wh|ch cannot
compr|se a State.

A:

1. Amazons - noL of boLh sexes, cannoL perpeLuaLe
Lhemselves
2. lraLes - consldered as ouLslde Lhe pale of law,
LreaLed as an enemy of all manklnd, "hosLls humanl
generls"

1LkkI1Ck

: What |s terr|tory?

A: 1he flxed porLlon of Lhe surface of Lhe
earLh lnhablLed by Lhe people of Lhe
SLaLe.

lL ls Lhe flxed porLlon on Lhe surface of Lhe LarLh on whlch Lhe
SLaLe seLLles and over whlch lL has supreme auLhorlLy.

1
ArLlcle ll, SecLlon 13, 16, ArLlcle lll, SecLlon 2, ArLlcle xlll,
SecLlon 1
2
ArLlcle vll, SecLlon 4, ArLlcle xvl, SecLlon 2, ArLlcle xvlll,
SecLlon 23
3
ArLlcle ll, SecLlon 4, ArLlcle lll, SecLlon 7.
4
1he people organlzed collecLlvely as a legal assoclaLlon ls Lhe sLaLe whlch
soverelgnLy resldes. reamble, ArLlcle ll, SecLlon 1.
: Is the s|ze re|evant?

A: no. lL ls lrrelevanL. 1he LerrlLory musL noL be Loo blg as Lo
be dlfflculL Lo admlnlsLer and defend, buL musL noL be Loo
small as Lo unable Lo provlde for peoples needs.

NC1L: 1he lmporLance of SLaLe LerrlLory lles ln Lhe facL LhaL lL ls
Lhe space wlLhln whlch Lhe sLaLe exerclses supreme auLhorlLy.

: Is nomad|c tr|be a State?

A: no.

: What compr|ses the h|||pp|ne Arch|pe|ago?

A:

Art|c|e 1, 1987 Const|tut|on

Art|c|e 1. The national territory comprises Lhe hlllpplne
archlpelago, wlLh all Lhe lslands and waLers embraced
Lhereln, and all oLher LerrlLorles over whlch Lhe hlllpplnes
has soverelgnLy or [urlsdlcLlon, conslsLlng of lLs LerresLrlal,
fluvlal and aerlal domalns, lncludlng lLs LerrlLorlal sea, Lhe sea
bed, Lhe subsoll, Lhe lnsular shelves, and oLher submarlne
areas. 1he waLers around, beLween and connecLlng Lhe
lslands of Lhe archlpelago, regardless of Lhelr breadLh and
dlmenslons, form parL of Lhe lnLernal waLers of Lhe
hlllpplnes.

NC1L: 1hls second senLence of ArLlcle l ls not Lhe Arch|pe|ago
Doctr|ne. 1hls ls only our resLaLemenL/reafflrmaLlon of our
adherence Lo Lhe Archlpelago uocLrlne slmply because we are
an archlpelago conslsLlng of 7,107 lslands. lL ls essenLlal for
our naLlonal survlval LhaL we adhere Lo Lhe archlpelago
prlnclple.

: What are the components of the nat|ona| terr|tory?

A:

1. 1erresLrlal uomaln
2. MarlLlme uomaln
3. Aerlal uomaln

1errestr|a| Doma|n

: What |s terrestr|a| doma|n?

A: lL ls Lhe land mass on whlch people llve. lL may be
)($*2+"$*, as ln Lhe case of lran, or 1)&3*34*+*1 as ln Lhe
case of Lhe unlLed SLaLes, or lL may be part|y bounded by
water llke 8urma, or comp|ete|y surrounded llke lceland, or
may cons|st of severa| |s|ands llke Lhe hlllpplne archlpelago.

NC1L: lL lncludes all Lhe lands and lnLernal waLers.

: What compr|ses of the |nterna| waters?
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 10

A: lL refers Lo bodles of waLer wlLhln Lhe land mass, such as
rlvers, lakes, canals, gulfs, bays and sLralLs. 1he unCLCS
deflnes lnLernal waLers as all waLers on Lhe landward slde of
Lhe basellnes of Lhe LerrlLorlal sea.

NC1L: 1hey are Lhose whlch do noL form parL of Lhe marlLlme
domaln. (e.g. rlvers, lakes, canals, porLs and harbors)

: May fore|gn vesse| enter |nto the ports and harbors of
state |nvok|ng the r|ght of |nnocent passage?

A. no. 1he rlghL of lnnocenL passage may only be lnvoked by
forelgn vessel when Lraverslng LerrlLorlal sea whlch ls a parL
of marlLlme domaln. WhaL may be lnvoked ls Lhe rlghL of
arrlval under dlsLress

Q: What is a man of war?

A: Man of War refers Lo naval vessels/ submarlnes, whlch
may lnvoke Lhe rlghL of lnnocenL passage provlded LhaL Lhey
navlgaLe on Lhe surface of Lhe waLer and dlsplay Lhelr flags.

1he k|ght of Innocent assage

: What |s the r|ght of |nnocent passage?

A: lnnocenL passage means Lhe rlghL of conLlnuous and
expedlLlous navlgaLlon of a forelgn shlp Lhrough Lhe LerrlLorlal
sea of a SLaLe for Lhe purpose of Lraverslng LhaL sea wlLhouL
enLerlng Lhe lnLernal waLers or calllng aL a roadsLead or porL
faclllLy. 1he passage ls lnnocenL as long as lL ls noL pre[udlclal
Lo Lhe peace, good order or securlLy of coasLal SLaLe.

navlgaLlon Lhrough Lhe LerrlLorlal sea of a SLaLe for Lhe
purpose of Lraverslng LhaL sea wlLhouL enLerlng lnLernal
waLers, or of proceedlng Lo lnLernal waLers, or maklng for Lhe
hlgh seas from lnLernal waLers, as long as lL ls noL pre[udlclal
Lo Lhe peace, good order or securlLy of Lhe coasLal sLaLe.

: What |s the r|ght of trans|t passage?

A: lL has Lhe same concepL wlLh Lhe rlghL of lnnocenL passage.
1he only dlfference beLween Lhe Lwo rlghLs ls LhaL Lhe rlghL of
lnnocenL passage may be lnvoked ln case of passage Lhrough
a sLralL (sLralL ls a narrow body of waLer separaLlng 2 ma[or
lslands).

Arr|va| under stress

Arrlval under sLress or lnvolunLary enLrance may be due Lo
lack of provlslons, unseaworLhlness of Lhe vessel, lnclemenL
weaLher, or oLher case of force ma[eure, such as pursulL by
plraLes.

Mar|t|me doma|n

lL conslsLs of Lhe bodles of waLer wlLhln Lhe land mass and
Lhe waLers ad[acenL Lo Lhe coasLs of Lhe sLaLe up Lo a speclflc
LerrlLorlal sea.

keg|me of the 1err|tor|a| Sea

: What |s the so-ca||ed reg|me of terr|tor|a| sea?

A: ueflned accordlng Lo whaL we call h|stor|c r|ght or treaty
||m|ts theory, all Lhe non-lnLernal waLers dellneaLed by
laLlLudes and longlLudes speclfled ln ArLlcle lll of Lhe 1reaLy of
arls of uecember 20, 1898, beLween Lhe uS, are LerrlLorlal ln
characLer. 1hey have been regarded by Lhe resL of Lhe world
slnce Spaln clalmed Lhem as such afLer lLs dlscovery of Lhe
hlllpplnes ln 1321 and such recognlLlon has vesLed hlsLorlc
rlghL ln Lhe uS as successor ln lnLeresL, Lo such LerrlLorlal
seas.

NC1L: under Lhe unCLCS, Lhe LerrlLorlal sea has a unlform
wlLh of 12 mlles measured from Lhe low-waLer mark of Lhe
coasL.

1. 1err|tor|a| Sea

12 nauLlcal mlles from Lhe shore beglnnlng from Lhe
|ow water mark
S
,
Comprlses Lhe marglnal belL ad[acenL Lo Lhe land
area or Lhe coasL lncludes generally Lhe bays, gulfs,
and sLralLs whlch do noL have characLer of h|stor|c
waters
6

Area where a forelgn sLaLe may exerclse lLs rlghL of
lnnocenL passage

2. Cont|guous 2one (24-Naut|ca| M||es Cont|guous 2one)

LxLends up Lo 24 nauLlcal mlles from Lhe shore
beglnnlng from Lhe low waLer mark or LerrlLorlal sea.
lmporLance: (a) Lo prevenL lnfrlngemenL of Lhe
States fiscal, immigration or sanitary laws within its
LerrlLory or lLs LerrlLorlal sea, (b) Lo punlsh such
lnfrlngemenL
Accordlngly, Lhe coasLal sLaLe may exerclse llmlLed
[urlsdlcLlon over Lhe conLlguous zone, Lo prevenL
lnfrlngemenL of cusLoms, flscal, lmmlgraLlon or
sanlLary laws.

3. Lxc|us|ve Lconom|c 2one (200-M||e LL2 or the
atr|mon|a| Sea)

200 nauLlcal mlles from Lhe shore beglnnlng from
Lhe low waLer mark or Lhe basellnes

3
Low waLer mark ls Lhe mark of waLer on Lhe shore aL low Llde
6
PlsLorlc waLers are legally parL of lnLernal waLers of Lhe SLaLe
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 11
1he SLaLe has Lhe excluslve [urlsdlcLlon Lo explolL Lhe
naLural resources ln seabed, subsoll, or oLher
submarlne areas. So LhaL lf Lhe coasLal SLaLe was
noLable Lo explolL Lhe naLural resources, forelgn
sLaLes may noL explolL Lhe same.

. What |s the reason why the measurement sha|| start from
the |ow water mark?

A. lf Lhe measuremenL wlll sLarL from hlgh Llde, Lhe LerrlLorlal
sea, conLlguous zone and excluslve economlc zone wlll
recede. 1he resulL wlll be Lhe area of Lhe lnLernaLlonal waLers
wlll be wlder. 1hus Lhe hlllpplnes cannoL exerclse domlnlon
over lL.

4. Cont|nenta| She|f

Comprlses Lhe seabed and subsoll of Lhe submarlne
areas LhaL exLend beyond lLs LerrlLorlal sea
LhroughouL Lhe naLural prolongaLlon of lLs land
LerrlLory Lo Lhe ouLer edge of Lhe conLlnenLal margln
or Lhe dlsLance of 200 nauLlcal mlles beyond Lhe
basellnes from whlch Lhe breadLh of Lhe LerrlLorlal
sea ls measured lf Lhe edge of Lhe conLlnenLal
margln does noL exLend up Lhe dlsLance.

S. n|gh Seas

Is res commones open Lo:
a. navlgaLlon
b. llshlng
c. SclenLlflc research and exploraLlon
d. Mlnlng
e. Laylng of submarlne cables or plpellnes
f. CLher human acLlvlLles ln Lhe open sea and
ocean floor

1hls ls also LreaLed as 513 9&DD='13 or 513 '=%%6=3( and Lhus,
are noL LerrlLory of Lhe any parLlcular sLaLe. 1he LradlLlonal
vlew ls freedom of the h|gh seas- Lhey are open and
avallable, wlLhouL desLrucLlon, Lo Lhe use of all SLaLes for Lhe
purpose sLaLe above.

Q: What is the Ireedom of Nav|gat|on?

A: lL ls Lhe rlghL Lo sall shlps on seas whlch ls open Lo all
SLaLes and land-locked counLrles.

G.k.: vessels salllng on Lhe hlgh seas are sub[ecL only Lo Lhe
lnLernaLlonal law and law of Lhe flag sLaLe

kNS:

a) lorelgn merchanL shlps vlolaLlng Lhe laws of a coasLal
SLaLe,
b) lraLe shlps,
c) Slave Lrade shlps, any shlp engage ln unauLhorlzed
broadcasLlng, and
d) Shlps wlLhouL naLlonallLy, or flylng a false flag or refuslng
Lo show lLs flag when requlred Lo do so.

Q: What is Flag State?

A: State whose nationality (Ships registration) the ship
possesses, for lLs naLlonallLy whlch glves Lhe rlghL Lo fly
countrys flag

Doctr|ne of not ursu|t

: What |s the Doctr|ne of not ursu|t?

A: 1he pursulL of a forelgn vessel underLaken Lhe coasLal
State which has good reason to believe that the ship has
violated the laws and regulations of that State provided LhaL
Lhe followlng elemenLs are presenL:

1. ursulL commences from lnLernal waLer, LerrlLorlal
sea, conLlguous zone of Lhe pursulng SLaLe, and may
noL be conLlnued ouLslde lf Lhe pursulL has noL been
lnLerrupLed,
2. lL ls conLlnuous and unabaLed,
3. ursulL conducLed by a warshlp, mlllLary alrcrafL, or
governmenL shlps auLhorlzed for Lhe purpose

1hus, lf an offense ls commlLLed by a forelgn merchanL vessel
wlLhln Lhe LerrlLorlal waLers of Lhe coasLal sLaLe, lLs own
vessels may pursue Lhe offendlng vessel lnLo Lhe open sea
and upon capLure brlng lL back Lo lLs LerrlLory for punlshmenL.
?eL, Lo be lawful, Lhe pursulL musL have begun before Lhe
offendlng vessel has lefL Lhe LerrlLorlal sea, or Lhe conLlguous
zone of Lhe coasLal sLaLe, Lhe pursulL musL be conLlnuous and
unabaLed, and lL ceases as soon as Lhe shlp belng pursued
enLers Lhe LerrlLorlal sea of lLs own or of a Lhlrd sLaLe.

: When does the pursu|t ceases?

A. 1he pursulL ceases when as soon as Lhe forelgn shlp belng
pursued enLers Lhe LerrlLorlal sea of lLs own or LhaL of a Lhlrd
SLaLe.

: D|st|ngu|sh the f|ag state and the f|ag of conven|ence

A. llag sLaLe means a shlp has Lhe naLlonallLy of Lhe flag of
Lhe sLaLe lL flles, buL Lhere musL be a genulne llnk beLween
Lhe sLaLe and Lhe shlp (ArLlcle 91 of Lhe ConvenLlon on Lhe
Law of Lhe Sea).

llag of convenlence refers Lo a sLaLe wlLh whlch a vessel ls
reglsLered for varlous reasons such as low or non-exlsLenL
LaxaLlon or low operaLlng cosLs alLhough Lhe shlp has no
genulne llnk wlLh Lhe sLaLe.

"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 12

Un|ted Nations Convention on the Law of the Seas

lL changes Lhe exLenL of LerrlLorlal seas from 3 nauLlcal mlles
Lo 12 nauLlcal mlles from Lhe shore of Lhe sea beglnnlng from
Lhe low waLer mark.

: What |s the 3 Naut|ca| M||es L|m|t ku|e?

A: lL ls also known as Lhe CANON SHOT RULE because lL ls
Lhe maxlmum effecLlve range of a canon durlng Lhe Llme
before Lhe unCLCS was held.

Aer|a| Doma|n

: What |s A|r Space?

A: lL ls Lhe alrspace above Lhe hlgh seas ls open Lo all alrcrafL,
[usL as Lhe hlgh sea ls accesslble Lo shlps of all SLaLes. 1he
SLaLe whose aerlal space ls vlolaLed can Lake measure Lo
proLecL lLself, buL lL does noL mean LhaL Lhe SLaLes have
unllmlLed rlghL Lo aLLack Lhe lnLrudlng alrcrafL.

lL ls Lhe alrspace above Lhe LerrlLorlal domaln and Lhe
marlLlme and fluvlal domaln of Lhe sLaLe, Lo an unllmlLed
alLlLude buL noL lncludlng ouLer space.

: May foreign aircraft pass Philippines aerial domain
|nvok|ng the r|ght of |nnocent passage?

A: no. Lvery SLaLe has Lhe excluslve [urlsdlcLlon over lLs aerlal
domaln. 1here ls no such rlghL as lnnocenL passage ln aerlal
domaln. 1here musL be LreaLy/agreemenL allowlng such
passage.

1nL CU1Lk SACL

1he rules governlng hlgh seas also apply Lo ouLer space,
whlch ls consldered as 513 9&DD='13. SLaLes have Lhe rlghL Lo
launch saLelllLes ln orblL over Lhe LerrlLorlal alr space of Lhe
oLher sLaLe.

: Who owns the outer space?

A: lL is res commones.

NC1L: AS18CnAu1S are ambassadors of humanklnd under
Lhe Lheory LhaL Lhere are oLher belngs ln ouLer space. 1hus
every SLaLe has llablllLy Lo render asslsLance Lo an asLronauL
under dlsLress.

1he Cuter Space 1reaty

CuLer space ls free for exploraLlon and use by all SLaLes, lL
cannoL be annexed by any SLaLe, and lL may be used
excluslvely for peacefu| purposes. 1hus, nuclear weapons of
mass desLrucLlon may noL be placed ln orblL around Lhe
earLh.
: What are the d|fferent modes of acqu|s|t|on of terr|tory?

1. ulscovery and occupaLlon of a LerrlLory noL sub[ecL Lo Lhe
conLroversy of any oLher SLaLe,
7

2. rescrlpLlon by whlch LlLle ls acqulred by effecLlve or
occupaLlon over a perlod of Llme,
8

3. Cesslon whlch ls Lhe Lransfer LerrlLory by LreaLyl
9

4. ConquesL
10

3. AccreLlon whlch ls Lhe naLural process of land formaLlon
resulLlng ln Lhe lncrease of LerrlLory.
11

D|scovery and Cccupat|on

: What |s the Doctr|ne of Lffect|ve Cccupat|on?

A: under Lhls docLrlne, dlscovery alone ls noL enough. Mere
dlscovery glves only an lnchoaLe rlghL Lo Lhe dlscoverer. lor
LlLle Lo flnally vesL, dlscovery musL be followed by effect|ve
occupat|on ln a reasonable Llme and aLLesLaLlon of Lhe same.

lL ls Lhe effecLlve exerclse of soverelgnLy over a LerrlLory
whlch ls 4155# '=%%6=3 or noL under Lhe soverelgnLy of anoLher
sLaLe.

Accordlngly, Lhe naLlonals of Lhe dlscoverlng sLaLe, ln lLs
name or by lLs auLhorlLy, musL flrsL Lake possesslon of Lhe
LerrlLory. 1hereafLer, Lhey musL esLabllsh Lhereon an
organlzaLlon or governmenL capable of maklng lLs laws
respecLed.

: What |s effect|ve occupat|on?

A: lL means conLlnued dlsplay of auLhorlLy whlch lnvolves 2
elemenLs:

1. lnLenLlon and wlll Lo acL as soverelgn,
2. Some acLual exerclse or dlsplay of such auLhorlLy.

NC1L: ulscovery alone merely creaLes an lnchoaLe rlghL, lL
musL be followed by occupaLlon.

rescr|pt|on

lL ls Lhe acqu|s|t|on of sovere|gnty over a terr|tory through
cont|nuous and und|sturbed exerc|se of sovere|gnty over |t

7
ulscovery and CccupaLlon whlch are Lerra nulllus (land belonglng Lo no one)
8
rescrlpLlon, 1errlLory may also be acqulred Lhrough conLlnuous and
unlnLerrupLed possesslon over a long perlod of Llme.
9
Cesslon by 1reaLy, Lxamples are 1reaLy of arls, LreaLy beLween lrance and
uS cedlng Loulslana Lo Lhe laLLer and LreaLy beLween 8ussla and uS cedlng
Alaska Lo Lhe laLLer
10
ConquesL or Sub[ugaLlon (conqulsLadores)Lhls ls no longer recognlzed,
lnasmuch as Lhe un CharLer prohlblLs resorL Lo LhreaL or use of force agalnsL
Lhe LerrlLorlal lnLegrlLy or pollLlcal lndependence of any sLaLe
11
AccreLlon, lL ls Lhe lncrease ln Lhe land area of Lhe SLaLe, elLher Lhrough
naLural means, or arLlflclally, Lhrough human labor.
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 13
dur|ng such per|od as |s necessary Lo creaLe under Lhe
lnfluence of hlsLorlcal developmenL Lhe general convlcLlon
LhaL Lhe presenL condlLlon of Lhlngs ls ln conformlLy wlLh Lhe
lnLernaLlonal order.

: Ior prescr|pt|on to set |n, what |s the per|od requ|red by
the |aw?

A: ln lnLernaLlonal law, Lhere ls no rule of Lhumb as Lo Lhe
lengLh of Llme for acqulslLlon of LerrlLory Lhrough
prescrlpLlon. ln Lhls connecLlon, conslder Lhe Grot|us
Doctr|ne of |mmemor|a| prescr|pt|on, whlch speaks of
unlnLerrupLed possesslon golng beyond memory.

: What are the 2 parts of the nat|ona| terr|tory?

A:
1. 1he hlllpplne archlpelago wlLh all Lhe lslands and waLers
embraced Lhereln, and
2. All oLher LerrlLorles over whlch Lhe hlllpplnes has
soverelgnLy or [urlsdlcLlon

Cess|on

lL ls a bllaLeral mode of acqulslLlon, Lhe oLher modes belng
unllaLeral. lL ls derlvaLlve mode slnce lLs valldlLy depends on
Lhe valld LlLle of Lhe cedlng sLaLe, Lhe cesslonary sLaLe cannoL
have more rlghLs Lhan whaL Lhe cedlng sLaLe possessed.

CessaLlon may be vo|untary, Lhrough a LreaL of sale or
LreaLy of donaLlon. Cessat|on may also be lnvolunLary or
forced.

Conquest

1hls mode of acqulslLlon ls no longer recognlzed, lnasmuch as
Lhe un CharLer prohlblLs resorL Lo LhreaL or use of force
agalnsL Lhe LerrlLorlal lnLegrlLy or pollLlcal lndependence of
any SLaLe. 1hus, under Lhe 846D3&' Q&9456'1, whlch forbade
recognlLlon of any governmenL seL up Lhrough exLernal
aggresslon, conquesL was noL consldered as a valld mode of
acqulrlng LerrlLory.

1he St|mson Doctr|ne

1he po||cy of expans|on|sm |n Ch|na pursued by Lhe
auLonomous kwangLung Army of !apan acceleraLed ln Lhe
laLe 1920s and early 1930s and became a ma[or concern of
Lhe u.S. CovernmenL. Cn SepLember 18, 1931, !apanese
soldlers guardlng Lhe SouLh Manchurlan 8allway blew up parL
of Lhe Lrack ln order Lo manufacLure an excuse Lo selze
Manchurla proper. Secretary of State nenry L. St|mson
reacLed Lo whaL he regarded as a vlolaLlon of lnLernaLlonal
law as well as LreaLles LhaL Lhe !apanese CovernmenL had
slgned. Slnce calls for a cessaLlon of hosLlllLles beLween Chlna
and !apan falled and resldenL PerberL Poover had re[ecLed
economlc sancLlons ln prlnclple, SLlmson declared ln !anuary
1932 LhaL Lhe 5676 8/9*+(3*($ :/',1 (/$ +*#/2();* "(<
$*++)$/+)", /+ "13)()&$+"$)9* #="(2*& $=* >"!"(*&* 3)2=$
)3!/&* '!/( ?=)("6 1he SLlmson uocLrlne was echoed ln
March 1932 by Lhe Assembly of Lhe League of naLlons, whlch
unanlmously adopLed an anLl-!apanese resoluLlon
lncorporaLlng vlrLually verbaLlm Lhe St|mson Doctr|ne of non-
recogn|t|on. Powever, as Lhe SecreLary of SLaLe laLer reallzed,
he had aL hls dlsposal only "spears of sLraws and swords of
lce." ln shorL order, !apanese represenLaLlves slmply walked
ouL of Lhe League, and Lhe kwangLung Army formallzed lLs
conquesL of Manchurla by esLabllshlng Lhe puppet state of
Manchukuo under former Chlnese emperor u-?l. When war
beLween !apan and Chlna broke ouL followlng a mlnor clash
beLween mlllLary unlLs aL Lhe Marco olo 8rldge ln 1937, Lhe
lmpoLence of Lhe "SLlmson uocLrlne" became even more
apparenL. ln oLher words, Lhls documenL baslcally sald LhaL
Lhe uS was noL Lo recognlze any admlnlsLraLlve or LerrlLorlal
changes LhaL !apan lmposed upon Chlna. 1hls was also
recognlzed when speaklng of Lhe SovleL unlon Laklng over
Lhree 8alLlc counLrles. lL was Lhe ldea of forced expanslonlsm
prevenLlon.

Accret|on

1hls ls Lhe lncrease ln Lhe land area of Lhe SLaLe, elLher
Lhrough naLural means or arLlflclally Lhrough human labour.
1he 8194&5 @56'96*%1, applled ln Lhe olar reglon of Lhe ArcLlc
and AnLarLlca.

Sector r|nc|p|e

1he prlnclple on whlch clalms Lo LerrlLory ln Lhe ArcLlc and
AnLarcLlc are made. 1he LerrlLory ls shared ouL ln Lhe form of
arblLrary secLors, each one havlng an apex aL Lhe poles and
lncludlng an ouLer area bounded by Lhe coasL. 1he prlnclple
has worked well ln esLabllshlng conLrol of Lhe ArcLlc lce, buL
Lhere are dlspuLed clalms over Lhe land mass of Lhe AnLarcLlc
whlch may posslbly yleld mlneral resources.

h|||pp|ne Arch|pe|ago

1. 1reaLy of arls, uecember 10, 1898 Cesslon of Lhe
hlllpplne lslands by Spaln Lo Lhe unlLed SLaLes,
2. 1reaLy beLween Spaln and uS aL WashlngLon,
november 7, 1900lncluslon of Cagayan, Sulu and
SlbuLo,
3. 1reaLy beLween uS and C8, !anuary 2, 1930
lncluslon of 1urLle and Mangsee lslands

: What are the other terr|tor|es over wh|ch the h|||pp|nes
has sovere|gnty or [ur|sd|ct|on?

A:

1. 8aLanes(1933 ConsLlLuLlon),
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 14
2. 1hose conLemplaLed under ArLlcle l, 1973
ConsLlLuLlonbelonglng Lo Lhe hlllpplnes by
hlsLorlc rlghL or legal LlLle,
3. u 1396, !une 11, 1978-- constituting the Spratlys
Croup of lslands as a regular munlclpallLy clalmlng lL
Lhe MunlclpallLy of kalayaan, placlng lL under Lhe
rovlnce of alawan

Arch|pe|ag|c Doctr|ne

: What |s the Arch|pe|ag|c Doctr|ne?

A: lL emphaslzes Lhe unlLy of Lhe land and waLers by deflnlng
an archlpelago as group of lslands surrounded by waLers or a
body of waLers sLudded wlLh lslands.

Accordlngly, all Lhe waLers around, beLween and connecLlng
Lhe lsland of Lhe archlpelago, regardless of Lhelr breadLh or
dlmenslon, are Lo be LreaLed as lnLernal waLers.

Note: An lmaglnary slngle basellne ls drawn around Lhe
lslands by [olnlng approprlaLe polnLs of Lhe ouLermosL lslands
of Lhe archlpelago wlLh sLralghL llnes and all lslands and
waLers enclosed wlLhln Lhe basellne form parL of lLs LerrlLory.

CorrelaLe Lhls docLrlne Lo rlghL of lnnocenL of passage, rlghL of
arrlval under sLress and unCLCS requlrlng Lhe deslgnaLlon of
archlpelaglc seaways so LhaL forelgn vessels may pass Lhrough
an archlpelago.

: What are the purposes of th|s doctr|ne?

A:

a. 1errlLorlal lnLegrlLy
b. naLlonal SecurlLy
c. Lconomlc reasons

lL ls sald LhaL Lhe purpose of archlpelaglc docLrlne ls Lo
proLecL Lhe LerrlLorlal lnLegrlLy of Lhe archlpelago. WlLhouL lL,
Lhere would be pockets of high seas beLween some of our
lslands and lsleLs, Lhus forelgn vessels would be able Lo pass
through these pockets of seas and would have no
[urlsdlcLlon over Lhem.

1he Sprat|ys Group of Is|ands

: Do you cons|der the Sprat|ys Group of Is|ands as part of
h|||pp|ne Arch|pe|ago?

A. SpraLlys Croup of lslands ls noL parL of Lhe hlllpplne
Archlpelago because lL ls Loo far away from Lhe Lhree maln
lslands of Lhe hlllpplnes. lL ls found, geographlcally, almosL ln
Lhe mlddle of Lhe SouLh Chlna Sea. lL ls noL parL of Lhe
hlllpplne Archlpelago. PlsLorlcally, when we Lalk abouL
hlllpplne Archlpelago, we refer Lo Lhose lslands and waLers
LhaL were ceded by Lhe Spaln Lo Lhe unlLed SLaLes by vlrLue of
1reaLy of arls ln 1898. And LhaL dld noL lnclude Lhe SpraLlys
Croup of lslands yeL. under Lhe LreaLy, Lhe lslands LhaL were
ceded by Spaln were ldenLlfledLhe maln lslandsLuzon,
vlsayas and Mlndanao. Clearly, lL dld noL lnclude Lhe SpraLlys
Croup of lslands.

SpraLlys Croup of lslands was only dlscovered someLlme ln
the 1950s by a Filipino, Tomas Cloma. The latter waived his
rlghLs over Lhe lslands ln favor of Lhe hlllpplne CovernmenL.
ln effecL, Lhe governmenL sLepped lnLo Lhe shoes of Lhe
dlscoverer. 8y Lhen resldenL Marcos, whaL he dld Lhe
momenL 1omas Cloma walved hls rlghLs over Lhe SpraLlys
Croup of lslands, ls Lo have Lhe lslands lmmedlaLely occupled
by hlllpplne Lroops. Pe Lhen lssued u 1396, consLlLuLlng Lhe
SpraLlys Croup of lslands as a regular munlclpallLy clalmlng lL
Lhe MunlclpallLy of kalayaan placlng lL under Lhe rovlnce of
alawan. And Lhen he had Lhe elecLlons lmmedlaLely held ln
Lhe lslands so from LhaL Llme on unLll now, we conLlnue Lo
hold elecLlons Lhere. 1he hlllpplne exerclses noL only
[urlsdlcLlon buL also soverelgnLy over Lhe SpraLlys Croup of
lslands, yeL lL ls noL parL of Lhe hlllpplne Archlpelago.
Ceographlcally, lL ls Loo far away from Lhe hlllpplne
Archlpelago.

Cn May 20, 1980, Lhe hlllpplnes reglsLered lLs clalm wlLh Lhe
un SecreLarlaL. 1he hlllpplne clalm Lo Lhe lslands ls [usLlfled
by reason of hlsLory, lndlspensable need, and effecLlve
occupaLlon and conLrol. 1hus, ln accordance wlLh Lhe
lnLernaLlonal law, Lhe SpraLlys Croup of lslands ls sub[ecL Lo
Lhe soverelgnLy of Lhe hlllpplnes.

: Do you cons|der the Sprat|ys group of Is|ands as part of
our Nat|ona| 1err|tory?

A. Yes. Article I of the Constitution provides: UE1 '#46&'#%
415564&5: 9&D*56313 4E1 @E6%6**6'1 #59E6*1%#$&( 2 2 2( #'7 #%%
&4E15 415564&5613 &>15 NE69E 4E1 @E6%6**6'13 E#3 3&>1516$'4: &5
jurisdiction, x x x. 1he SpraLlys Croup of lslands falls under
the second phrase and all other territories over which the
Philippines has sovereignty or jurisdiction. It is part of our
naLlonal LerrlLory because hlllpplnes exerclse soverelgnLy
(Lhrough elecLlon of publlc offlclals) over SpraLlys Croup of
lslands.

: What was the basis of the Philippines claim over the
Sprat|ys?

A. 1hrough dlscovery of 1omas Cloma and occupaLlon.

SCVLkLIGN1

: What |s sovere|gnty?

A: lL ls Lhe supreme legal auLhorlLy ln relaLlon Lo Lhe sub[ecLs
wlLhln lLs LerrlLorlal domaln.

"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 13
lL means freedom from outs|de contro| |n the conduct of |ts
fore|gn and |nterna| affa|rs.

NC1L: ln Lhe lnLernaLlonal sphere, there is the co-exlsLence
of soverelgnLles under Lhe condlLlons of lndependence and
equallLy. 1he soverelgnLy of one SLaLe ends where Lhe
soverelgnLy of anoLher SLaLe beglns.

: now then |s state sovere|gnty def|ned |n |nternat|ona|
|aw?

A: lL ls Lhe rlghL Lo exerclse ln a deflnlLe porLlon of Lhe globe
Lhe funcLlons of a sLaLe Lo Lhe excluslon of any oLher SLaLe.

NC1L: lL ls lmporLanL Lo vlew soverelgnLy ln lnLernaLlonal law
as Lhe soverelgnLy of one SLaLe ln relaLlon Lo Lhe soverelgnLy
of anoLher SLaLe ln condlLlons of co-exlsLence.

SoverelgnLy ln relaLlons beLween sLaLes slgnlfles
|ndependence.

: What are the k|nds of sovere|gnty?

A:

a. Lega|- soverelgnLy ls Lhe auLhorlLy whlch has Lhe
power Lo lssue flnal commands. ln our counLry, Lhe
Congress ls Lhe legal soverelgn.
b. o||t|ca|- Sum LoLal of all Lhe lnfluences of a SLaLe,
legal and non-legal whlch deLermlne Lhe course of
law
c. Interna|- lL refers Lo Lhe power of Lhe SLaLe Lo
conLrol lLs domesLlc affalrs. lL ls Lhe supreme power
over everyLhlng wlLhln lLs LerrlLory.
d. Lxterna|- Also known as ['71*1'71'91\ whlch ls
freedom from exLernal conLrol. lL ls Lhe power of
SLaLe Lo dlrecL lLs relaLlons wlLh oLher SLaLes

: What are the character|st|cs of sovere|gnty?I
3
A

A:
1. permanenL,
2. excluslve,
3. comprehenslve,
4. absoluLe,
3. lndlvlslble,
6. lnallenable, and
7. lmprescrlpLlble

NC1L: 1hese characLerlsLlcs are only Lrue ln uCMLS1lC
SPL8LS buL nC1 ln wlLh respecL Lo ln1L8nA1lCnAL LAW.

: D|st|ngu|sh sovere|gnty vs. dom|n|on.

A:

SCVLkLIGN1 DCMINICN
SoverelgnLy ls Lhe rlghL Lo
exerclse Lhe funcLlons of a
SLaLe Lo Lhe excluslon of any
oLher SLaLe. lL ls ofLen
referred Lo as Lhe power of
lmperlum, whlch ls deflned
as Lhe governmenL auLhorlLy
possessed by Lhe SLaLe.
uomlnlon, or domlnlum, ls
Lhe capaclLy of Lhe SLaLe Lo
own or acqulre properLy such
as lands and naLural
resources.

: Is sovere|gnty abso|ute?

A: Whlle soverelgnLy has LradlLlonally been deemed absoluLe
and all encompasslng on Lhe domesLlc level, lL ls sub[ecL Lo
resLrlcLlons and llmlLaLlons volunLarlly agreed Lo by Lhe
hlllpplnes, expressly or lmplledly, as a member of Lhe lamlly
of naLlons.

: What are the ||m|tat|ons of the sovere|gnty?

A: So Lhese are Lhe llmlLaLlons of Lhe soverelgnLy ln Lhe fleld
of lnLernaLlonal relaLlons:

1. llmlLaLlons broughL abouL by Lhe enLry lnLo LreaLles
wlLh oLher sLaLes,
2. llmlLaLlons broughL abouL by [olnlng Lhe lamlly of
naLlons !U#]#7# >3+ T'$#5# HA+ I&+ ,,K-^/ "#:
,^^L0

NC1L: 1he ConsLlLuLlon does noL envlslon a hermlL Lype
lsolaLlon of Lhe counLry from Lhe resL of Lhe world.

8y Lhe docLrlne of lncorporaLlon, Lhe counLry ls bound
by generally accepLed prlnclples of lnLernaLlonal law,
whlch are consldered Lo be auLomaLlcally parL of our
own laws.

1he consLlLuLlonal pollcy of a "self-rellanL and
lndependenL naLlonal economy" does noL
necessarlly rule ouL Lhe enLry of forelgn
lnvesLmenLs, goods and servlces. lL conLemplaLes nelLher
"economlc secluslon" nor "mendlcancy ln Lhe lnLernaLlonal
communlLy" !U#]#7# >3+ T'$#5# HA+ I&+ ,,K-^/ "#: ,^^L0+

acta Sunt Servanda

: What |s the pr|nc|p|e of !"#$" &'($ &*+9"(1"?

A: 1he |nternat|ona| agreements must be performed |n good
fa|th. A LreaLy engagemenL ls noL a mere moral obllgaLlon buL
creaLes a legally blndlng obllgaLlon on Lhe parLles. A sLaLe
whlch has conLracLed a valld lnLernaLlonal agreemenL ls
bound Lo make ln lLs leglslaLlon such modlflcaLlon as may be
necessary Lo ensure fulflllmenL of Lhe obllgaLlon underLaken.
Accordlngly, SLaLes may noL advance Lhe provlslons of Lhelr
own ConsLlLuLlon as well as Lhe acL of Lhelr own laws ln order
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 16
noL Lo comply wlLh Lhelr obllgaLlons under a LreaLy. SLaLes are
supposed Lo make Lhe necessary modlflcaLlons ln Lhelr
obllgaLlons under a LreaLy.
A treaty engagement |s not a mere mora| ob||gat|on
but creates a |ega||y b|nd|ng ob||gat|on on the part|es. A
sLaLe whlch has conLracLed valld lnLernaLlonal obllgaLlons ls
bound Lo make ln lLs leglslaLlons such modlflcaLlons as may
be necessary Lo ensure Lhe fulflllmenL of Lhe obllgaLlons
underLaken. 8y Lhelr lnherenL naLure, treat|es rea||y ||m|t or
restr|ct the abso|uteness of sovere|gnty. 8y Lhelr volunLary
acL, naLlons may surrender some aspecLs of Lhelr sLaLe power
ln exchange for greaLer beneflLs granLed by or derlved from a
convenLlon or pacL. AfLer all, sLaLes, llke lndlvlduals, llve wlLh
coequals, and ln pursulL of muLually covenanLed ob[ecLlves
and beneflLs, Lhey also commonly agree Lo llmlL Lhe exerclse
of Lhelr oLherwlse absoluLe rlghLs. 1hus, LreaLles have been
used Lo record agreemenLs beLween SLaLes concernlng such
wldely dlverse maLLers as, for example, Lhe lease of naval
bases, Lhe sale or cesslon of LerrlLory, Lhe LermlnaLlon of war,
Lhe regulaLlon of conducL of hosLlllLles, Lhe formaLlon of
alllances, Lhe regulaLlon of commerclal relaLlons, Lhe seLLllng
of clalms, Lhe laylng down of rules governlng conducL ln
peace and Lhe esLabllshmenL of lnLernaLlonal organlzaLlons.
1he soverelgnLy of a sLaLe Lherefore cannoL ln facL and ln
reallLy be consldered absoluLe (1anada v. Angara).
Doctr|ne of Auto-L|m|tat|on

: What |s the doctr|ne of auto-||m|tat|on?

A: lL ls Lhe docLrlne where Lhe hlllpplnes adhere Lo prlnclples
of lnLernaLlonal law as a llmlLaLlon Lo Lhe exerclse of lLs
soverelgnLy.

Accordlngly, we agreed Lo surrender some of our soverelgn
rlghLs ln exchange for greaLer beneflLs LhaL we may derlve by
enLerlng lnLo LreaLles or by [olnlng Lhe lamlly of naLlons.

NC1L: When Lhe hlllpplnes [olned Lhe unlLed naLlons as one
of lLs 31 charLer members, lL consenLed Lo resLrlcL lLs
soverelgn rlghLs under Lhe "concepL of soverelgnLy as auLo-
llmlLaLlon.

Lex poster|or derogate pr|or|

: What |s the doctr|ne of @*. !/&$*+)/+ 1*+/2"$* !+)/+)?

A: ln SLaLes where Lhe consLlLuLlon ls Lhe hlghesL law of Lhe
land, boLh sLaLuLes and LreaLles may be lnvalldaLed lf Lhey are
ln confllcL wlLh Lhe ConsLlLuLlon (SecreLary of !usLlce vs.
LanLlon, C.8. no. 139463, !anuary 18, 2000).

LIILC1S CI CnANGL CI SCVLkLIGN1

: What are the effects |n Change of Sovere|gnty?

A: ollLlcal laws are abrogaLed, munlclpal laws remaln ln
force

I||ustrat|on: When Lhe Spanlsh ceded Lhe hlllpplnes Lo Lhe
uS under Lhe 1reaty of ar|s (uecember 10, 1989) 1he effecL
of Lhe change of soverelgnLy of Lhe former soverelgn are noL
merely suspended buL abrogaLed. uurlng Lhe Amerlcan
occupaLlon, Lhe Spanlsh Clvll Code conLlnued Lo Lake effecL.
1he uS dld noL modlfy lL.

: G|ve the effects of a change of sovere|gnty on mun|c|pa|
|aws.

A:

1. Laws parLaklng of a pollLlcal complexlon are abrogaLed
auLomaLlcally.
2. Laws regulaLlng prlvaLe and domesLlc rlghLs conLlnue ln
force unLll changed or abrogaLed.

: What are the effects of 8e|||gerent Cccupat|on?

A: no change ln soverelgnLy.

CLI1ICAL LAWS NCN-CLI1ICAL
LAWS
IUDICIAL
DLCISICNS
Suspended sub[ecL
Lo revlval under
Lhe prlnclple of P=3
*&346%6D6'6 upon
Lhe end of Lhe
occupaLlon,
non affecLed:

a. non-pollLlcal
laws are laws
lnLended Lo
govern Lhe
relaLlons of
lndlvlduals as
among
Lhemselves,
b. ollLlcal laws
are laws
lnLended Lo
govern Lhe
relaLlons
beLween Lhe
lnhablLanLs
and Lhe sLaLe.
1hey are valld
durlng Lhe
occupaLlon and
even beyond lL,
excepL Lhose of
pollLlcal
complexlon, whlch
ls auLomaLlcally
annulled upon Lhe
resLoraLlon of Lhe
leglLlmaLe
auLhorlLy.
1hls applles only
Lo clvlllans and noL
Lo members of Lhe
armed forces,
excepL laws on
Lreason because
Lreason ls a
breach of

"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 17
alleglance Lo Lhe
soverelgn.

Note: Slnce Lhe pollLlcal laws were merely suspended, Lhey
were sub[ecL Lo revlval upon Lhe reLurn of Lhe soverelgn
under Lhe Doctr|ne of Ius ost|||m|num. !!/&$ D1#'3
beyond; ,)3)( means boundary)

r|nc|p|e of State Cont|nu|ty

: What |s the pr|nc|p|e of State Cont|nu|ty?

A: lL ls Lhe prlnclple whlch sLaLes LhaL Lhe dlsappearance of
any of Lhe elemenLs of sLaLehood would cause Lhe exLlncLlon
of Lhe SLaLe, buL mere changes as to one or more of those
e|ements wou|d not necessar||y, as a ru|e, br|ng about such
ext|nct|on.

Also, Lhe ldenLlLy of Lhe SLaLe ln lnLernaLlonal law ls noL
affecLed by changes ln Lhe governmenL, wheLher broughL
abouL legally or lllegally by revoluLlon or coup detat.

: uurlng Lhe !apanese CccupaLlon, was Lhere a change ln
Lhe soverelgnLy durlng such perlod (1941-1943)?

A: no. 1he soverelgnLy over Lhe counLry remalned wlLh Lhe
Amerlcans because Lhe Amerlcans never ceded Lhe
hlllpplnes Lo !apan. WhaL Lhe !apanese mlllLary occupanLs
performed Lhere were noL soverelgnLy buL acLs of
soverelgnLy. ?ou have Lo dlsLlngulsh beLween soverelgnLy
lLself and acLs of soverelgnLy because Lhe characLerlsLlcs of
soverelgnLy are abso|ute, |nd|v|s|b|e, |mprescr|pt|b|e and
comprehens|ve. SoverelgnLy over Lhe hlllpplnes remalned ln
Lhe hlllpplnes alLhough Lhe ones LhaL performed Lhe acLs of
soverelgnLy were !apanese, Lhe occupanLs.

Doctr|ne of >'& A/&$),)3)('3

: What |s the doctr|ne of >'& A/&$),,)3)('3B

A: lL sLaLes LhaL aL Lhe end of Lhe occupaLlon, when Lhe
occupanL ls ousLed from Lhe LerrlLory, Lhe pollLlcal laws whlch
have been suspended shall auLomaLlcally become effecLlve
agaln !UE&31 4#S1' B1:&'7 B&='7#5: N6%% %&31 4E165 34#4=3 B=4
N6%% B1 51$#6'17 =*&' 514=5' 4& 643 B&='7#5:+0

NC1L: 1he rule LhaL pollLlcal laws are merely suspended does
nC1 AL? Lo Lhe members of Lhe Armed lorces who
remalned sub[ecLs of ArLlcles of War as Lhe naLlonal uefense
AcL as well as Lhe ArLlcles of War, even durlng Lhe !apanese
occupaLlon. Such rule applles only Lo Lhe ClvlLlAnS ln Lhe
occupled LerrlLory !A=;;: >+ VE61; &; 84#;;0.

Gk: ollLlcal laws were suspended durlng Lhe !apanese
occupaLlon.

kN: Law on 18LASCn (breach of alleglance Lo soverelgn as
shown by Lhe exLernal acLs of glvlng ald Lo Lhe enemles)
alLhough lL ls a specle of pollLlcal law. lL ls a specles of pollLlcal
law yeL lL remalned valld and effecLlve because lL ls a war
offense

1reason ls an offense LhaL can only be commlLLed ln Llmes of
war. WhaL ls really punlshed ln Lreason ls noL Lhe acL of glvlng
ald and comforL Lo Lhe enemles ln Llmes of war.

NC1L: As for [udlclal declslons Lhe same are valld durlng Lhe
occupaLlon and even beyond excepL Lhose of a pollLlcal
complexlon, whlch are auLomaLlcally annulled upon Lhe
resLoraLlon of Lhe leglLlmaLe auLhorlLy.

Cnly Lhose declslons of pollLlcal complexlon auLomaLlcally fall
Lo Lhe ground upon Lhe reLurn of Lhe uS (for example) buL ln
common crlmes llke rape, robbery, kldnapplng, [udgmenL
remalns valld even lf Lhey were rendered ln a !apanese
creaLed courL.

: What |s the effect of change of sovere|gnty when the
Spa|n ceded the h|||pp|nes to the U.S.?

A: 1he effecL ls LhaL Lhe pollLlcal laws of Lhe former soverelgn
are '&4 D151%: 3=3*1'717 B=4 #B5&$#417+ As Lhey regulaLe Lhe
relaLlons beLween Lhe ruler and Lhe ruled, Lhese laws fall Lo
Lhe ground 6*3& ;#94& unless they are retained or re-enacted
by positive act of the new sovereign. Non-political laws, by
conLrasL, conLlnue ln operaLlon, for Lhe reason also LhaL Lhey
regulaLe prlvaLe relaLlons only, unless Lhey are changed by
Lhe new soverelgn or are conLrary Lo lLs lnsLlLuLlons.

: What |s the effect of Iapanese occupat|on to the
sovere|gnty of the U.S. over the h|||pp|nes?

A: SoverelgnLy ls noL deemed suspended alLhough acLs of
soverelgnLy cannoL be exerclsed by Lhe leglLlmaLe auLhorlLy.
1hus, soverelgnLy over Lhe hlllpplnes remalned wlLh Lhe u.S.
alLhough Lhe Amerlcans could noL exerclse any conLrol over
Lhe occupled LerrlLory aL Lhe Llme. WhaL Lhe belllgerenL
occupanL Look over was merely Lhe exerclse of acLs of
soverelgnLy.

: D|st|ngu|sh between Span|sh secess|on to the U.S. and
Iapanese occupat|on dur|ng WWII regard|ng the po||t|ca|
|aws of the h|||pp|nes.

A: 1here belng no change of soverelgnLy durlng Lhe
belllgerenL occupaLlon of !apan, Lhe pollLlcal laws of Lhe
occupled LerrlLory are D151%: 3=3*1'717, sub[ecL Lo revlval
under P=3 *&34%6D6'6=Dupon Lhe end of Lhe occupaLlon. ln
both cases, however, non-political laws, remains effective.

: Was there a case of suspended a||eg|ance dur|ng the
Iapanese occupat|on?

"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 18

A: none. AdopLlon of Lhe Lheory of suspended alleglance
would lead Lo dlsasLrous consequences for small and weak
naLlons or sLaLes, and would be repugnanL Lo Lhe laws of
humanlLy and requlremenLs of publlc consclence, for lL would
allow lnvaders Lo legally recrulL or enllsL Lhe qulsllng
lnhablLanLs of Lhe occupled LerrlLory Lo flghL agalnsL Lhelr
own governmenL wlLhouL Lhe laLLer lncurrlng Lhe rlsk of belng
prosecuLed for Lreason. 1o allow suspenslon ls Lo commlL
pollLlcal sulclde.

Lffect of kevo|ut|onary Government

: What |s the effect of a revo|ut|onary government?

A: lL ls bound by no consLlLuLlon. Powever, lL dld noL
repudlaLe Lhe CovenanL or ueclaraLlon ln Lhe same way lL
repudlaLed Lhe ConsLlLuLlon. As Lhe 71 P=51 governmenL, Lhe
revoluLlonary governmenL could noL escape responslblllLy for
the States good faith compliance wiLh lLs LreaLy obllgaLlons
under lnLernaLlonal law. uurlng Lhe lnLerregnum when no
consLlLuLlon or 8lll of 8lghLs exlsLed, dlrecLlves and orders
lssued by governmenL offlcers dld noL exceed Lhe auLhorlLy
granLed Lhem by Lhe revoluLlonary governmenL. 1he
dlrecLlves or orders should noL have also vlolaLed Lhe
CovenanL or Lhe ueclaraLlon.

IUkISDIC1ICN

: What |s Iur|sd|ct|on?

A: !urlsdlcLlon ls Lhe manlfesLaLlon of soverelgnLy. 1he
[urlsdlcLlon of Lhe sLaLe ls undersLood as boLh lLs auLhorlLy
and Lhe sphere of Lhe exerclse of LhaL auLhorlLy.

: What are the k|nds of [ur|sd|ct|on?

A:

1. 1err|tor|a| [ur|sd|ct|on- auLhorlLy of Lhe sLaLe Lo have all
persons and Lhlngs wlLhln lLs LerrlLorlal llmlLs Lo be
compleLely sub[ecL Lo lLs conLrol and proLecLlon
2. ersona| [ur|sd|ct|on- auLhorlLy of Lhe sLaLe over lLs
naLlonals, Lhelr persons, properLy, and acLs wheLher
wlLhln or ouLslde lLs LerrlLory (e.g. ArL. 13, CC)
3. Lxtra-terr|tor|a| [ur|sd|ct|on- auLhorlLy of Lhe SLaLe over
persons, Lhlngs, or acLs, ouLslde lLs LerrlLorlal llmlLs by
reason of Lhelr effecL Lo lLs LerrlLory

: What are the exempt|ons to the terr|tor|a| [ur|sd|ct|on
ru|e?

A:

: D|st|ngu|sh between sovere|gnty from |ndependence?

A: LxempL are:
1. lorelgn sLaLes, heads of sLaLe, dlplomaLlc
represenLaLlves, and consuls Lo a cerLaln degree,
2. lorelgn sLaLe properLy, lncludlng embassles, consulaLes,
and publlc vessels engaged ln non-commerclal acLlvlLles,
3. AcLs of sLaLe,
4. lorelgn merchanL vessels exerclslng Lhe rlghLs of
lnnocenL passage or lnvolunLary enLry, such as Lhe arrlval
under sLress,
3. lorelgn armles passlng Lhrough or sLaLloned ln lLs
LerrlLory wlLh lLs permlsslon
6. Such oLher persons or properLy, lncludlng organlzaLlons
llke Lhe unlLed naLlons, over whlch lL may, by
agreemenL, walved [urlsdlcLlon

: D|st|ngu|sh sovere|gnty and |ndependence.

A:

SCVLkLIGN1 INDLLNDLNCL
lL ls Lhe supreme power
of Lhe sLaLe by whlch
Lhe SLaLe ls governed.
lL ls Lhe exLernal
manlfesLaLlon of
soverelgnLy, whereby
Lhe SLaLe ls free from
forelgn conLrol.
lnLernal and exLernal

AC1S CI 1nL S1A1L

An acL of sLaLe ls done by Lhe soverelgn power of a counLry,
or by lLs delegaLe, wlLhln Lhe llmlLs vesLed ln hlm. lL cannoL be
quesLloned or made Lhe sub[ecL of legal proceedlngs ln a
courL of law.

Note: WlLhln parLlcular reference Lo ollLlcal Law, an acL of
SLaLe ls an acL done by Lhe pollLlcal deparLmenLs of Lhe
governmenL and noL sub[ecL Lo [udlclal revlew. An lllusLraLlon
ls Lhe declslon of Lhe resldenL, ln Lhe exerclse of hls
dlplomaLlc power, Lo exLend recognlLlon Lo a newly-
esLabllshed forelgn SLaLe or governmenL.

: When is act of person considered State action covered
by the Const|tut|on?

A: ln consLlLuLlonal [urlsprudence, Lhe acL of persons dlsLlncL
from the government are considered state action covered
by Lhe ConsLlLuLlon:

1. When the activity it engages in is a public function;
2. When Lhe governmenL ls so slgnlflcanLly lnvolved
wlLh Lhe prlvaLe acLor as Lo make Lhe governmenL
responslble for hls acLlon, and
3. When Lhe governmenL has approved or auLhorlzed
Lhe acLlon.

"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 19
GCVLkNMLN1
Iorms of government

SLaLe ls an absLracL belng LhaL can only acL Lhrough lLs agenL.
Slnce Lhe governmenL ls a mere agenL and Lhe SLaLe ls Lhe
prlnclpal, any good th|ng performed by the government |s
a|ways attr|butab|e to the Sate.

lL musL be organlzed, exerclslng conLrol over and capable of
malnLalnlng law and order wlLhln Lhe LerrlLory. lL can be held
lnLernaLlonally responslble for Lhe acLs of Lhe lnhablLanLs. 1he
ldenLlLy of Lhe sLaLe ls noL affecLed by changes ln Lhe
governmenL.

: What |f the government performs an act that proves to
be harmfu| to the peop|e, w||| you attr|bute that to the
State?

A: no. 1he mandaLe of Lhe SLaLe Lo Lhe governmenL, as Lhe
agenL, ls for Lhe governmenL Lo promoLe Lhe welfare of Lhe
people, noL Lo harm Lhe people. ln such a case, Lhe
governmenL has defled lLs mandaLe.

ConsequenLly, Lhere was a revoluLlon, whlch came abouL
upon Lhe behesL of Lhe SLaLe lLself because Lhe agenL ls no
longer Lrue Lo lLs mandaLe. lL came abouL upon Lhe requesL lf
Lhe sLaLe lLself because Lhe agenL ls no longer Lrue Lo lLs
mandaLe. 1hls ls acLually Lhe [usLlflcaLlon for revoluLlons. 1hls
developmenL ls known as D|rect State Act|on.

: G|ve the d|st|nct|on between a government and
adm|n|strat|on?

A: CovernmenL ls Lhe lnsLlLuLlon Lhrough whlch Lhe sLaLe
exerclses power. AdmlnlsLraLlon conslsLs of Lhe seL of people
currenLly runnlng Lhe lnsLlLuLlon.

: G|ve the d|st|nct|on between the pres|dent|a| and
par||amentary form of government?

A: 1he pres|dent|a| form of governments ldenLlfylng feaLure
ls whaL ls called Lhe separation of powers. 1he essenLlal
characLerlsLlcs of a par||amentary form of governmenL are:

1. 1he members of Lhe governmenL or cablneL or Lhe
execuLlve arm are, as a rule, slmulLaneously members
of Lhe leglslaLure,
2. 1he governmenL or cablneL conslsLlng of Lhe pollLlcal
leaders of Lhe ma[orlLy parLy or of a coallLlon, who are
also members of Lhe leglslaLure, ls ln effecL a
commlLLee of Lhe leglslaLure,
3. 1he governmenL or cablneL has a pyramldal sLrucLure
aL Lhe apex of whlch ls Lhe rlme MlnlsLer or hls
equlvalenL,
4. 1he governmenL or cablneL remalns ln power only for
so long as lL en[oys Lhe supporL of Lhe ma[orlLy of Lhe
leglslaLure,
3. 8oLh governmenL and leglslaLure are possessed of
conLrol devlces whlch each can demand of Lhe oLher
lmmedlaLe pollLlcal responslblllLy. ln Lhe hands of Lhe
leglslaLure ls Lhe voLe of non-confldence (censure)
whereby governmenL may be ousLed. ln Lhe hands of
Lhe governmenL ls Lhe power Lo dlssolve Lhe
leglslaLure and call for new elecLlons.

NC1L: ln lnLernaLlonal law, Lhe form of governmenL does noL
really maLLer. ?eL, wlLh respecL Lo Lhe ConsLlLuLlon, Lhe klnd
of governmenL maLLers.

Art|c|e II

Sect|on 1. 1he hlllpplnes ls a democraLlc and republlcan
SLaLe. SoverelgnLy resldes ln Lhe people and all governmenL
auLhorlLy emanaLes from Lhem.

Iunct|ons of Government

: What are the funct|ons of Government?

A:

1. Governmenta| (Const|tuent)--are Lhe compulsory
funcLlons whlch consLlLuLe Lhe very bonds of socleLy

Lxamp|e: 1he deflnlLlon and punlshmenL of crlmes,
admlnlsLraLlon of [usLlce ln clvll cases, admlnlsLraLlon of
pollLlcal duLles, deallngs of Lhe sLaLe wlLh forelgn powers,
deLermlnaLlon of conLracLual rlghLs beLween lndlvlduals, Lhe
regulaLlon of Lransmlsslon of properLy, keeplng of order

2. ropr|etary (M|n|ster|a|)opLlonal funcLlons of Lhe
governmenL for achlevlng a beLLer llfe for Lhe
communlLy

Lxamp|e: Agrarlan 8eform- Lhls ls ln reallLy a mlnlsLranL
funcLlon buL was made consLlLuenL by Lhe consLlLuLlon

Note: ulsLlncLlon of funcLlon ls no longer relevanL because
Lhe ConsLlLuLlon obllgaLes Lhe SLaLe Lo promoLe soclal [usLlce
and has repudlaLed Lhe lalssez falre pollcy+ Powever, ln
Shlpslde lncorporaLed v. CA( Lhe naLure of Lhe funcLlon of Lhe
8CuA was a facLor Lo deLermlne Lhe %&9=3 34#'76 of Lhe
CovernmenL+

arents atr|ae

: What |s the doctr|ne of !"+*($& !"$+)"*?

A: lL poslLs LhaL lL ls Lhe governmenL whlch acLs as guardlan of
Lhe rlghLs of Lhe people and may lnlLlaLe legal acLlons for and
ln behalf of a parLlcular lndlvldual.

: Is 8ases Convers|on Deve|opment Author|ty (8CDA)
exerc|s|ng const|tuent or m|n|strant funct|on?
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 20

A: Whlle publlc beneflL and publlc welfare, parLlcularly, Lhe
promoLlon of Lhe economlc and soclal developmenL of
CenLral Luzon, may be aLLrlbuLable Lo Lhe operaLlon of Lhe
8CuA, yeL lL ls cerLaln LhaL Lhe funcLlons performed by Lhe
8CuA are baslcally proprleLary ln naLure. 1he promoLlon of
economlc and soclal developmenL of CenLral Luzon, ln
parLlcular, and Lhe counLry's goal for enhancemenL, ln
general, do noL make Lhe 8CuA equlvalenL Lo Lhe
CovernmenL. CLher corporaLlons have been creaLed by
governmenL Lo acL as lLs agenLs for Lhe reallzaLlon of lLs
programs, Lhe SSS, CSlS, nAWASA arld Lhe nlA, Lo counL a
few, and yeL, Lhe CourL has ruled LhaL Lhese enLlLles, alLhough
performlng funcLlons almed aL promoLlng publlc lnLeresL and
publlc welfare, are noL governmenL-funcLlon corporaLlons
lnvesLed wlLh governmenLal aLLrlbuLes. lL may Lhus be sald
LhaL Lhe 8CuA ls noL a mere agency of Lhe CovernmenL buL a
corporaLe body performlng proprleLary funcLlons !8E6*3671
['9&5*&5#417 >+ VT( H+A+ I&+ ,XJJLL( _1B5=#5: -.( -..,0

V|g||ant|sm

: What |s v|g||ant|sm?

A: lL ls a slLuaLlon whereln people Lake Lhe law ln Lhelr hands
for Lhe promoLlon of peace and order ln Lhe communlLy. 1hls
ls noL allowed because lL ls a vlolaLlon of Lhe consLlLuenL
funcLlon of Lhe governmenL.

: What |f the government performs an act that proves
harmfu| to the peop|e, w||| you attr|bute that to the state?

A: no. 1he mandaLe of Lhe sLaLe Lo Lhe governmenL, as lLs
agenL, ls Lo promoLe Lhe welfare of Lhe people and noL Lo
harm Lhem. SLaLe as an eLhlcal belng and an absLracL concepL
cannoL commlL any wrong.

: What |s the mandate of the h|||pp|ne Government?

A: ArL. ll, Sec. 4 - "1he prlme duLy of Lhe CovernmenL ls Lo
serve and protect the people" Thus, whatever good is done
by governmenL -aLLrlbuLed Lo Lhe SLaLe, whaLever harm ls
done by Lhe governmenL - aLLrlbuLed Lo Lhe governmenL
alone, noL Lhe SLaLe

Lffect of change of government

: What |s the effect of change of government?

A: lL ls well seLLled LhaL as far as the r|ghts of the predecessor
government are concerned, they are |nher|ted |n $/$/ by the
successor government. 8egardlng obllgaLlons, dlsLlncLlon ls
made accordlng Lo Lhe esLabllshmenL of Lhe new
governmenL.

1he rule ls LhaL when the new government was organ|zed by
v|rtue of const|tut|ona| reform du|y rat|f|ed |n a p|eb|sc|te,
the ob||gat|on of the rep|aced government are comp|ete|y
assumed by the former. Conversely, when the new
government was estab||shed through v|o|ence, as by
revo|ut|on, |t may |awfu||y re[ect the pure|y persona| or
persona| ob||gat|ons of the predecessor government but not
those contracted by but |n ord|nary course of off|c|a|
bus|ness.

De Iure and De Iacto Government

: D|st|ngu|sh between a de [ure and de facto government?

A:

DL IUkL DL IAC1C
A C* >'+* 2/9*+(3*($
(governmenL of law) ls a
government that has a
|awfu| t|t|e a|though |t may
not be |n possess|on of the
mach|nery of the state but
the po|nt |s |t has the |awfu|
t|t|e.
C* D"#$/ 2/9*+(3*($
(governmenL of facL) has no
|awfu| t|t|e but |t |s |n actua|
possess|on of the mach|nery
of the state.

: What are the 3 k|nds of de facto government?

A:

1. 8y |nsurrect|on LhaL whlch ls esLabllshed by Lhe
lnhablLanLs who rlse ln revolL agalnsL and depose Lhe
leglLlmaLe reglme.

W2#D*%1` Lhe CommonwealLh esLabllshed by Cllver Cromwell
whlch supplanLed Lhe monarchy under Charles l of Lngland

2. 8y government of paramount force - LhaL whlch ls
esLabllshed ln Lhe course of war by lnvadlng forces of one
belllgerenL Lo Lhe LerrlLory of oLher belllgerenL, Lhe
governmenL of whlch ls dlsplaced.

lL ls esLabllshed by one belllgerenL ln Lhe course of war ln
Lhe LerrlLory of Lhe oLher belllgerenL whlch lL was able Lo
occupy and whlch was supporLed by lLs mlllLary mlghL.

W2#D*%1` 1he !apanese occupaLlon ln Lhe governmenL ln Lhe
hlllpplnes whlch replaced Lhe CommonwealLh durlng WW ll.
1hls ls Lhe one headed by resldenL !ose Laurel. WhaL
belllgerenL was LhaL? !apan. ln Lhe course of war ln Lhe
LerrlLory of Lhe oLher belllgerenLwhaL was Lhe oLher
belllgerenL? 1he unlLed SLaLes. WhaL LerrlLory was LhaL? 1he
hlllpplnes. Accordlngly, Lhe hlllpplnes was sLlll a colony of
Lhe uS aL LhaL Llme under Lhe Common wealLh governmenL
headed by resldenL Manuel Cuezon who wenL Lo exlle
durlng Lhe Second World War. Pe wenL on exlle ln Lurope. lL
was a governmenL ln exlle. ln facL, lL was ln new ?ork, uSA
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 21
where resldenL Cuezon dled. So he was succeeded by
Csmena (vlce resldenL). 1hls ls also Lhe reason why when
Mc ArLhur reLurned Lo Lhe hlllpplnes, Lhe LeyLe landlngs of
October 20, 1944, it was Osmea whos with him. In other
words, Lhere are 2 governmenLs Lhen. 1he !apanese-creaLed
led by resldenL Laurel and Lhe CommonwealLh governmenL
led by resldenL Cuezon. 1he ue !ure governmenL was Lhe
commonwealLh governmenL-lL has Lhe lawful LlLle buL lL was
noL ln acLual possesslon of Lhe machlnery of Lhe SLaLe aL LhaL
Llme lL wenL Lo exlle. 1he !apanese governmenL was Lhe de
facLo-a governmenL ln facL. lL has no lawful LlLle buL aL Lhe
Llme lL was ln acLual possesslon of Lhe machlnery of Lhe sLaLe.

3. 8y cess|on LhaL whlch ls esLabllshed by Lhe lnhablLanLs
of a sLaLe who cedes Lhere from Lhe parenL governmenL
wlLhouL overLhrowlng Lhe parenL governmenL.

W2#D*%1` 1he confederaLe governmenL durlng Lhe Amerlcan
Clvll War however dld noL seek Lo depose Lhe unlon
governmenL.

uurlng Lhe uS Clvll War of 1861-1863, Lhe SouLhern sLaLes
(whose economy was based on coLLon) were opposed Lo Lhe
abollLlonlsL pollcy of resldenL Llncoln, Lhe emanclpaLlon of
Lhe blacks of Lhe negros. lf you emanclpaLe Lhe negros who
wlll work on Lhelr coLLon flelds. 1hus, Lhe separaLe from Lhe
Amerlcan unlon and organlzed Lhe Confederate States of
Amer|ca. 1hey elecLed Lhelr own resldenL- !efferson uavls.

NC1L: 1he Common denomlnaLor of Lhese 3 klnds of de facLo
governmenLs ls LhaL Lhey all lose. lor whlle Lhey were Lhey
are ln possesslon of Lhe machlnery of Lhe sLaLe buL evenLually
Lhey losL.

Cory Aqu|no Adm|n|n|strat|on

lnlLlally lL was de facLo because lL was creaLed exLra-
consLlLuLlonally. lLs creaLlon was noL ln accordance wlLh Lhe
provlslons of Lhe Lhen prevalllng 1973 ConsLlLuLlon. 8uL laLer
on, lL became de [ure Lhrough acqulescence of Lhe people
and also Lhe recognlLlon exLended by Lhe lnLernaLlonal
communlLy. As Lhe CourL held, we wlll no longer lnqulre lnLo
Lhe moLlves of Lhe people ln golng Lo LuSA Lhen. 1he facLs
were because Lhey were Lhere, Marcos fled Lo Pawall. And
Lhe Cory governmenL was able Lo Lake effecLlve conLrol of Lhe
machlnery of Lhe SLaLe wlLh no subsLanLlal reslsLance Lo lLs
auLhorlLy. Also, Lhe lnLernaLlonal communlLy has already
glven lL recognlLlon.

Lawyers League for a better Philippines v. Aquino

Cllver Lozano flled a peLlLlon before Lhe Supreme CourL
quesLlonlng Lhe leglLlmacy of Lhe Cory governmenL.
Accordlng Lo Lhe peLlLlon, mosL of Lhe people who wenL Lo
LuSA are noL really serlous ln overLhrowlng Lhe Marcos
governmenL.

nLLD: We wlll no longer lnqulre lnLo Lhe moLlves of Lhe
people ln golng Lo LuSA. 1he facLs were: because of Lhe
magnlLude of Lhe people who were ln LuSA, Marcos fled Lo
Pawall, so LhaL Lhe Cory governmenL was able Lo Lake
effecLlve conLrol of Lhe machlnery of Lhe SLaLe wlLhouL
reslsLance from Lhe people. lurLhermore, Lhe lnLernaLlonal
communlLy has recognlzed Lhe Cory CovernmenL. Pence,
Lhere can be no more quesLlon as Lo Lhe de [ure sLaLus of Lhe
sald governmenL.

1he Aqulno governmenL was Lhe resulL of a successful
revoluLlon by Lhe soverelgn people-lL was lnsLalled Lhrough a
dlrecL exerclse of Lhe power of Lhe llllplno people, ln deflance
of Lhe provlslons of Lhe 1973 ConsLlLuLlon. 1he leglLlmacy of a
governmenL slred by a successful revoluLlon by people power
ls beyond [udlclal scruLlny, such governmenL auLomaLlcally
orblLs ouL of Lhe consLlLuLlonal loop.

Lstrada v. Des|erto

Desierto argues that the legitimacy of Arroyos assumption to
Lhe presldency ls a pollLlcal quesLlon, and lnvokes Lhe
rullng ln Lhe Lawyers League case.

nLLD:

Arroyos government is not revolutionary in character. The
oaLh she Look ls Lhe oaLh under Lhe 1987 ConsLlLuLlon.
lndeed, she has sLressed LhaL she ls dlscharglng Lhe powers of
Lhe presldency under Lhe auLhorlLy of Lhe 1987 ConsLlLuLlon.

: Is the |eg|t|macy of a government a [ust|c|ab|e quest|on?

A: no. lL ls only Lhe eople of Lhe hlllpplnes who may be Lhe
[udge of lLs leglLlmacy. Slnce such governmenL ls accepLed by
Lhe people, lL ls noL merely a 71 ;#94& governmenL buL also a
71 P=51 governmenL. Moreover, Lhe communlLy of naLlons has
recognlzed lLs leglLlmacy.

What are the |ega| d|st|nct|ons between LDSA I and LDSA II?

LDSA I LDSA II
lnvolves Lhe exerc|se
of the peop|e power
of revo|ut|on whlch
overLhrows Lhe
whole governmenL.
lnvolves Lhe exerc|se of
the peop|e power of
freedom of speech and
freedom to assemb|e, Lo
peLlLlon Lhe governmenL
for redress of grlevances
whlch only affecLed Lhe
Cfflce of Lhe resldenL.
LxLra-consLlLuLlonal
and Lhe leglLlmacy of
Lhe new governmenL
LhaL resulLed from lL
cannoL be Lhe sub[ecL
of [udlclal revlew.
Intra-const|tut|ona| and
Lhe reslgnaLlon of Lhe
slLLlng resldenL LhaL lL
caused and Lhe
successlon of Lhe v as
resldenL are sub[ecL Lo
[udlclal revlew.
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 22
resenLed a pollLlcal
quesLlon.
lnvolves legal quesLlons.

GCVLkNMLN1 CI 1nL nILIINLS

Q: What is the Government of the Philippines?

A: It is the corporaLe governmenLal enLlLy Lhrough whlch
Lhe funcLlons of Lhe governmenL are exerclse LhroughouL Lhe
hlllpplnes, lncludlng, save as Lhe conLrary appears from Lhe
conLexL, Lhe varlous arms Lhrough whlch pollLlcal auLhorlLy ls
made effecLlve ln Lhe hlllpplnes, wheLher perLalnlng Lo Lhe
auLonomous reglons, Lhe provlnclal, clLy munlclpal, or
B#5#'$#: subdivisions or other form of local government
(Sec. 2 (1), AdmlnlsLraLlve Code of 1987).

NC1L: A governmenL owned or conLrolled corporaLlon
engaged ln proprleLy funcLlons cannoL be consldered parL of
Lhe CovernmenL for Lhe purpose for purpose of exempLlon
from Lhe appllcaLlon of Lhe sLaLuLe of llmlLaLlons.

: Is the Aqu|no Government a de facto government?

A. Whlle lnlLlally, Aqulno CovernmenL was a de facLo
governmenL because lL was esLabllshed Lhru exLra-
consLlLuLlonal measure, lL neverLheless assumed de [ure
sLaLus when lL ls subsequenLly recognlzed by Lhe lnLernaLlonal
communlLy as Lhe leglLlmaLe CovernmenL of Lhe hlllpplnes.
Moreover, a new ConsLlLuLlon was drafLed and
overwhelmlngly raLlfled by Lhe llllplno people and naLlonal
elecLlons were held for LhaL purpose.

NC1L: 1he governmenL under Cory Aqulno and Lhe lreedom
ConsLlLuLlon ls a 71 P=51 governmenL. lL was esLabllshed by
auLhorlLy of Lhe leglLlmaLe soverelgn, Lhe people. lL was a
revoluLlonary governmenL esLabllshed ln deflance of Lhe 1973
ConsLlLuLlon. (ln 8e: LeLLer of AssoclaLe !usLlce uno, 210
SC8A 389 (1992)

Q: Is PGMAs administration a de jure government?

A: 1he governmenL under resldenL Clorla Macapagal-Arroyo
esLabllshed afLer Lhe ousLer of resldenL LsLrada ls de [ure
governmenL.

CCNCL1 CI ASSCCIA1ICN

: What |s the concept of Assoc|at|on?

A: An assoclaLlon ls formed when Lwo sLaLes of unequal
power volunLarlly esLabllsh durable llnks. ln Lhe baslc model,
one sLaLe, Lhe assoclaLe, delegaLes cerLaln responslblllLles Lo
Lhe oLher, Lhe prlnclpal, whlle malnLalnlng lLs lnLernaLlonal
sLaLus as a sLaLe. lree assoclaLlon represenLs a mlddle ground
beLween lnLegraLlon and lndependence. !W+$+ A1*=B%69 &; 4E1
"#53E#%% [3%#'73 #'7 4E1 _1715#417 84#413 &; "695&'136#
;&5D15%: *#54 &; 4E1 a+8+ T7D6'6341517 U5=34 U15564&5: &; 4E1
@#96;69 [3%#'73+0

1he assoclaLed sLaLe arrangemenL has usually been used as a
LranslLlonal devlce of former colonles on Lhelr way Lo full
lndependence+

Does the MOA-AD violate the Constitution and the laws?

A: ?es. 1he provlslons of Lhe MCA lndlcaLe LhaL Lhe arLles
almed Lo vesL ln Lhe 8!L Lhe sLaLus of an assoclaLed sLaLe or,
aL any raLe, a sLaLus closely approxlmaLlng lL.

1he concepL of #33&96#46&' ls noL recognlzed under Lhe
presenL ConsLlLuLlon. lndeed, Lhe concepL lmplles powers
LhaL go beyond anyLhlng ever granLed by Lhe ConsLlLuLlon Lo
any local or reglonal governmenL. lL also lmplles Lhe
recognlLlon of Lhe assoclaLed enLlLy as a sLaLe. 1he
ConsLlLuLlon, however, does noL conLemplaLe any sLaLe ln Lhls
[urlsdlcLlon oLher Lhan Lhe hlllpplne SLaLe, much less does lL
provlde for a LranslLory sLaLus LhaL alms Lo prepare any parL
of hlllpplne LerrlLory for lndependence.

Lven assumlng #5$=1'7& LhaL the MOA-AD would not
necessarlly sever any porLlon of hlllpplne LerrlLory, Lhe splrlL
anlmaLlng lL whlch has beLrayed lLself by lLs use of Lhe
concepL of #33&96#46&' runs counLer Lo Lhe naLlonal
soverelgnLy and LerrlLorlal lnLegrlLy of Lhe 8epubllc

: Is the 8IL a state?

A: ?es, 8!L ls a sLaLe ln all buL name as lL meeLs Lhe crlLerla of
a sLaLe lald down ln Lhe MonLevldeo ConvenLlon namely, a
permanenL populaLlon, a deflned LerrlLory, a governmenL and
a capaclLy Lo enLer lnLo relaLlons wlLh oLher sLaLes.

Even assuming that the MOA-AD would not necessarily sever
any porLlon of hlllpplne 1errlLory, Lhe splrlL anlmaLlng lL
whlch has beLrayed lLself by lLs use of Lhe concepL of
assoclaLlon runs counLer Lo Lhe naLlonal soverelgnLy and
LerrlLorlal lnLegrlLy of Lhe 8epubllc.

Q: Does the peoples right of self-determination extend to a
un||atera| r|ght of secess|on?

A: no. A dlsLlncLlon should be made beLween Lhe rlghL of
internal and external self-determination. The recognized
sources of lnLernaLlonal law esLabllsh LhaL Lhe rlghL Lo
self-determination of a people is normally fulfilled through
internal self-determination a peoples pursuit of its political,
economlc, soclal and culLural developmenL wlLhln Lhe
framework of an exlsLlng SLaLe. A rlghL Lo 12415'#%
self-determination arlses ln only Lhe mosL exLreme cases and,
even Lhen, under carefully deflned clrcumsLances.

"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 23
External self-determination can be defined as the
esLabllshmenL of a soverelgn and lndependenL SLaLe, Lhe free
assoclaLlon or lnLegraLlon wlLh an lndependenL SLaLe or Lhe
emergence lnLo any oLher pollLlcal sLaLus freely deLermlned
by a people whlch consLlLuLe modes of lmplemenLlng Lhe
right of self-determination by that people.

: Does the r|ght to se|f determ|nat|on extend to the
|nd|genous peop|es?

A: ?es. lndlgenous peoples slLuaLed wlLhln SLaLes do noL have
a general rlghL Lo lndependence or secesslon from Lhose
sLaLes under lnLernaLlonal law, buL Lhey do have Lhe rlghL
amounting to the right to internal self-determination. Such
rlghL ls recognlzed by Lhe un Ceneral Assembly by adopLlng
Lhe unlLed naLlons ueclaraLlon on Lhe rlghLs of lndlgenous
eoples (unu8l).

: Do the ob||gat|ons enumerated |n the UN DkI str|ct|y
requ|re the kepub||c of the h|||pp|nes to grant the
8angsamoro peop|e, through the 8IL, the part|cu|ar r|ghts
and powers prov|ded for |n the MCA_AD?

A: no. 1he un u8l, whlle upholdlng Lhe rlghL of lndlgenous
peoples Lo auLonomy, does noL obllgaLe SLaLes Lo granL
lndlgenous peoples Lhe near lndependenL sLaLus of an
assoclaLed sLaLe. 1here ls no requlremenL LhaL SLaLes now
guaranLee lndlgenous peoples Lhelr own pollce and lnLernal
securlLy force, nor ls Lhere an acknowledgemenL of Lhe rlghL
of lndlgenous peoples Lo Lhe aerlal domaln and aLmospherlc
space. 8uL whaL lL upholds ls Lhe rlghL of lndlgenous peoples
Lo Lhe lands, LerrlLorles and resources, whlch Lhey have
LradlLlonally owned, occupled or oLherwlse used or acqulred.

IUNDAMLN1AL kIGn1S CI S1A1LS

: What are the fundamenta| r|ghts of a State?

A: lL conslsLs of Lhe 8lghL of:

1. Existence and self-preservation
2. SoverelgnLy and lndependence
3. LquallLy
4. roperLy and [urlsdlcLlon
3. ulplomaLlc lnLercourse

kIGn1 CI LkIS1LNCL AND SLLI-DLILNSL

1hls ls Lhe mosL elemenLary and lmporLanL rlghL of a SLaLe. All
oLher rlghLs flow from Lhls rlghL.

Accordlngly, Lhe sLaLe may Lake such measures, lncludlng Lhe
use of force, as may be necessary Lo reslsL any danger Lo lLs
exlsLence. Such acLlon belng Lhe exerclse of an lnherenL rlghL,
lL does noL depend for lLs valldlLy on Lhe prevlous recognlLlon
of Lhe sLaLe asserLlng lL or on Lhe consenL of Lhe oLher sLaLes.

: What |s the bas|s for th|s r|ght?

A:

UN CnAk1Lk

Sect|on S1. noLhlng ln Lhe presenL CharLer shall lmpalr Lhe
lnherenL rlghL of lndlvldual or collecLlve self-defence lf an
armed aLLack occurs agalnsL a Member of Lhe unlLed naLlons,
unLll Lhe SecurlLy Councll has Laken measures necessary Lo
malnLaln lnLernaLlonal peace and securlLy. Measures Laken by
Members ln Lhe exerclse of Lhls rlghL of self-defence shall be
lmmedlaLely reporLed Lo Lhe SecurlLy Councll and shall noL ln
any way affecL Lhe auLhorlLy and responslblllLy of Lhe SecurlLy
Councll under Lhe presenL CharLer Lo Lake aL any Llme such
acLlon as lL deems necessary ln order Lo malnLaln or resLore
lnLernaLlonal peace and securlLy.

: What |s the const|tut|ona| bas|s re|ated to th|s r|ght?

A:
Ak1ICLL II


: What are the three (3) parts of th|s const|tut|ona|
prov|s|on?

A:
1. 8enunclaLlon of warLhe power Lo wage a
defenslve war ls of Lhe very essence of soverelgnLy,
2. AdopLlon of Lhe prlnclples of lnLernaLlonal law,
3. Adherence Lo a pollcy of peace, equallLy, [usLlce,
freedom, cooperaLlon & amlLy

NC1L: 1he second parL ls noLhlng more Lhan a formal
accepLance of a prlnclple Lo whlch all clvlllzed naLlons musL
conform.

The third part is called the selfish policyLhe guldlng
prlnclple of hlllpplne forelgn pollcy ls Lhe naLlonal lnLeresL.
Powever, Lhls ls Lempered wlLh concern for equality, peace,
freedom and [usLlce.

: Do we renounce a|| k|nds of war?

A: 1he hlllpplnes only renounces ACC8LSSlvL war as an
lnsLrumenL of naLlonal pollcy. lL does noL renounce defenslve
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 24
war. 1hus, no one has Lhe power Lo declare war. 8u1,
Congress can declare a State of War.

Also, Lhe resldenL can only use mlllLary powers ln case of
lnvaslon, rebelllon, eLc. Pe has no power Lo declare war.

: State the occas|ons when the use of force may be
a||owed under the UN Charter.

A: 1here are only Lwo occaslons when Lhe use of force ls
allowed under Lhe un CharLer.

a. 1he flrsL ls when lL ls auLhorlzed ln pursuance of
Lhe enforcemenL acLlon LhaL may be decreed by Lhe
SecurlLy Councll under ArL. 42.
b. 1he second ls when lL ls employed ln Lhe exerclse
of Lhe lnherenL rlghL of self-defense under
condlLlons prescrlbed ln ArL. 31.

: What are the effects when Congress dec|ares a state of
war?

A:

1. ArL. vl, Sec. 23 - "In times of warthe Congress may,
by law, auLhorlze Lhe resldenL, for a llmlLed
perlod and sub[ecL Lo such resLrlcLlons as lL
may prescrlbe, Lo exerclse powers necessary and
proper Lo carry ouL a declared naLlonal pollcy.
unless sooner wlLhdrawn by resoluLlon of Lhe
Congress, such powers shall cease upon Lhe nexL
ad[ournmenL Lhereof."
2. ArL. vll, Sec. 18 - "1he resldenL shall be Lhe
Commander-ln-Chief of all armed forcesand
whenever lL becomes necessary, he may call ouL
such armed forces Lo prevenL or
suppress invasionIn case, invasionwhen the
publlc safeLy requlres lL, he may, for a perlod noL
exceedlng 60 days, suspend Lhe prlvllege of Lhe wrlL
of habeas corpus or place Lhe hlllpplnes or any parL
thereof under martial law"

kIGn1S CI SCVLkLIGN1 AND INDLLNDLNCL


A: lL ls the supreme, uncontro||ab|e power |nherent |n a
state by wh|ch that state |s governed. lL ls Lhe supreme
powerof Lhe SLaLe Lo command and enforce obedlence, Lhe
power Lo whlch, legally speaklng, all lnLeresLs are pracLlcally
sub[ecL and all wllls subordlnaLe.

: What |s |ndependence?

A: lL ls also known as externa| sovere|gnty. lL slgnlfles Lhe
freedom of Lhe sLaLe Lo conLrol lLs own forelgn affalrs.

: What |s Intervent|on?

A: lL ls "Lhe dlcLaLorlal lnLerference by a SLaLe ln Lhe lnLernal
affalrs of anoLher SLaLe, or ln Lhe relaLlons beLween
oLher SLaLes, whlch ls elLher forclble or backed by Lhe LhreaL
of force."

lL ls Lhe acL by whlch a sLaLe lnLerferes wlLh Lhe domesLlc or
forelgn affals of anoLher sLaLe or sLaLes Lhrough Lhe
employmenL of force or LhreaL of force. Such force may be
physlcal or ln Lhe presenL sLaLe of world affalrs, even pollLlcal
or economlc.

1he sLaLe musL absLaln from lnLervenLlon. Lven as lL expecLs
lLs lndependence Lo be respecLed by oLher sLaLes so Loo musL
lL respecL Lhelr own lndependence.

Gk: lnLerveLlon ls noL sancLloned ln lnLernaLlonal relaLlons.

kNs: Cnly when lL ls exerclsed as an acL of se|f-defense or
when lL ls decreed by the Secur|ty Counc|| as a prevenLlve or
enforcemenL acLlon for Lhe malnLenance of lnLernaLlonal
peace and securlLy. Some wrlLers would add a Lhlrd
[usLlflcaLlon for lnLervenlon, and Lhls ls when such acLlon ls
agreed upon ln a treaty. lnLervenLlon may also be allowed
when requesLed from fellow sLaLes or from Lhe un by Lhe
parrles Lo a dlspuLe or by a sLaLe beseL by rebelllon.

NC1L: lnLervenLlon ls ulfferenL from "lnLercesslon."
lnLercesslon ls allowed!

Lx.: ulplomaLlc roLesL, 1ender of Advlce

N|caragua v. USA, Commun|que 86]8 (Iune 27, 2986)

1hls ls where Lhe uS was found gullLy of lnLervenLlo ln Lhe
affalrs of nlcaragua for sendlng Lroops Lo nlcaragua Lo ald Lhe
conLras, lnasmuch as Lhere was no armed aLLack agalnsL Lhe
laLLer. noLe LhaL Lhe proLesL or demand for recLlflcaLlon or
reparaLlon does noL comprlse lnLervenLlon. 1hus, Lhe acL of
resldenL CllnLon ln dlscoraglng Amerlcans from lnvesLlng ln
8urma was noL consldered as lnLervenLlon.

1he Drago Doctr|ne

Q: What is the Drago Doctrine?

A: Cenerally lnLervenLlon ls rohlblLed (urago uocLrlne)

ln 1902, uk, Cermany and lLaly blockaded venezuelan
porLs Lo compel lL Lo pay lLs conLracLual debLs leadlng
lorelgn MlnlsLer urago Lo formulaLe a docLrlne LhaL " a
pub||c debt cannot g|ve r|se to the r|ght of |ntervent|on.
1hls prlnclple was laLer adopLed ln Lhe Second nague
Conference, buL sub[ecL Lo Lhe quallflcaLlon LhaL Lhe debLor
sLaLe should noL refuse or neglecL Lo reply Lo an offer of
arblLraLlon or afLer accepLlng Lhe offer, prevenL any
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 23
compromlse from belng agreed upon, or afLer Lhe
arblLraLlon, fall Lo submlL Lo Lhe award, Lhe quallflcaLlon ls
known as Lhe orLer resoluLlon.

1hls was recognlzed ln Lhe nague Convent|on of 1907
Lhrough a provlslon LhaL Lhe conLracLlng powers agree Lo
have Lhe recourse Lo armed force for Lhe recovery of conLracL
debLs clalmed from Lhe governmnL of one counLry by Lhe
governmenL of anoLher counLry as belng due Lo lLs naLlonals.
1he force of Lhls docLrlne was laLer dlsslpaLed by Lhe orLer
8esoluLlon.

orter keso|ut|on

under Lhls resoluLlon, lnLervnLlon was permlLLed lf Lhe debLor
state refused to an offer to arbitrate the creditors claim, or
havlng agreed Lo arblLraLe, prevenLed agreemenL on Lhe
compromlse, or havlng agreed LhereLo, refused Lo ablde by
Lhe award of Lhe arblLraLor.

Intervent|on under the UN Charetr

un lLself caLegorlcally blnds lLself noL Lo lnLerven ln maLLers
whlch are essenLlally wlLhln Lhe doemsLlc [urlsdlcLlon of any
sLaLe. ln Lhe un ueclaraLlon of 8lghLs and uuLles of SLaLes, lL
provlded LhaL every sLaLe has Lhe duLy Lo refraln from
lnLervenLlon ln Lhe lnLernal or exLernal affalrs of any oLher
SLaLe.

Charter of the Crgan|zat|on of Amer|can States

1he charLer of Lhe CrganlzaLlon of Amerlcan SLaLes ls more
unequlvocal wlLh Lhe sLaLemenL LhaL:

Art|c|e 19

no SLaLe or group of SLaLes has Lhe rlghL Lo lnLervene,
dlrecLly or lndlrecLly, for any reason whaLever, ln Lhe
lnLernal or exLernal affalrs of any oLher SLaLe. 1he foregolng
prlnclple prohlblLs noL only armed force buL also any oLher
form of lnLerference or aLLempLed LhreaL agalnsL Lhe
personallLy of Lhe SLaLe or agalnsL lLs pollLlcal, economlc,
and culLural elemenLs.

Art|c|e 20

no SLaLe may use or encourage Lhe use of coerclve
measures of an economlc or pollLlcal characLer ln order Lo
force Lhe soverelgn wlll of anoLher SLaLe and obLaln from lL
advanLages of any klnd.

: What |s ac|f|c 8|ockade?

A: lL ls one lmposed durlng Llmes of peace were Lhe counLrles
aL war, Lhen a blockade ls a leglLlmaLe measure ln facL, a
blockade musL noL be vlolaLed by a neuLral SLaLe. lf breached,
Lhe neuLral vessel ls selzed.

: When |s |ntervent|on a||owed?

A:
1. lnLervenLlon as an AcL of lndlvldual and CollecLlve
Self-uefense
2. lnLervenLlon by 1reaLy SLlpulaLlon or by
lnvlLaLlon

: What |s "Intervent|on by Inv|tat|on"?

A: lL presupposes LhaL Lhe lnvlLlng SLaLe ls noL a mere puppeL
of Lhe lnLervenlng SLaLe

Lx.: Pungary

NC1L: ln 1936, Pungary was ln lnLernal Lurmoll, and asked
Lhe SovleL forces Lo lnLervene. Whlle Lhe lnLervenLlon was
upon lnvlLaLlon, lL was sLlll condemned because Lhe
Pungarlan governmenL was a mere SovleL puppeL

3. 8y un AuLhorlzaLlon and 8esoluLlon

W2#D*%13` korean War, 1990 lraql AnnexaLlon of kuwalL

4. Cn PumanlLarlan Crounds

1hls has recenLly evolved by lnLernaLlonal cusLom.
1hus, has become a prlmary source of lnLernaLlonal law.

W2#D*%13` lnLervenLlon ln Somalla, lnLervenLlon ln 8osnla
and kosovo (no un 8esoluLlon, buL nA1C lnLervened
mlllLarlly on Lhe ground LhaL Lhere was eLhnlc cleanslng
by Serbs of eLhnlc mlnorlLles), lnLervenLlon ln LasL 1lmor

kLCCGNI1ICN

: What |s recogn|t|on?

A: lL ls an acL by whlch a SLaLe acknowledges Lhe exlsLence of
anoLher SLaLe, governmenL, or a belllgerenL communlLy and
lndlcaLes lLs wllllngness Lo deal wlLh Lhe enLlLy as such under
lnLernaLlonal law.

: Who has the author|ty to recogn|ze?

A: lL ls a maLLer Lo be deLermlned accordlng Lo Lhe munlclpal
law of each sLaLe. ln Lhe hlllpplnes, Lhere ls no expllclL
provlslon ln Lhe ConsLlLuLlon whlch vesLs Lhls power ln any
deparLmenL. 8uL slnce Lhe resldenL ls empowered Lo appolnL
and recelve ambassadors and publlc mlnlsLers, lL ls conceded
LhaL by lmpllcaLlons, lL ls Lhe execuLlve deparLmenL LhaL ls
prlmarlly endowed wlLh Lhe power Lo recognlze forelgn
governmenLs and SLaLes.

"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 26
: What are the 3 |eve|s of recogn|t|on?

A:
1. 8ecognlLlon of SLaLe
2. 8ecognlLlon of CovernmenL
3. 8ecognlLlon of 8elllgerency

kecogn|t|on by the State

: What are the two theor|es of recogn|t|on of State?

A: 1he Lheorles of recognlLlon of a SLaLe are:

1. Const|tut|ve theory (m|nor|ty v|ew) recognlLlon ls
Lhe lasL lndlspensable elemenL LhaL converLs Lhe
sLaLe belng recognlzed lnLo an lnLernaLlonal person.
lL ls an acL whlch consLlLuLes Lhe enLlLy lnLo an
lnLernaLlonal person.

lL ls only Lhrough recognlLlon LhaL a SLaLe becomes an
lnLernaLlonal erson and a sub[ecL of lnLernaLlonal law. 1hus,
recogn|t|on |s a |ega| matternoL a maLLer of arblLrary wlll
on Lhe parL of one SLaLe wheLher Lo recognlze or refuse Lo
recognlze anoLher enLlLy buL LhaL where cerLaln condlLlons
of facL exlsL, an enLlLy may demand, and Lhe SLaLe ls under
legal duLy Lo accord recognlLlon.

1hus, recognlLlon ls compulsory and legal. lL may be
compelled once Lhe elemenLs of a sLaLe are esLabllshed.

2. Dec|aratory theory recognlLlon ls merely an
acknowledgmenL of Lhe pre-existing fact that the
sLaLe belng recognlzed ls an lnLernaLlonal person. lL
merely afflrms an exlsLlng facL.

lL slmply manlfesLs Lhe recognlzlng States readiness to
accepL Lhe normal consequences of Lhe facL of SLaLehood.
1hus, recognlLlon ls a pollLlcal acL, l.e., lL ls enLlrely a maLLer
of pollcy and dlscreLlon Lo glve or refuse recognlLlon, and LhaL
no enLlLy possesses Lhe power, as a maLLer of legal rlghL, Lo
demand recognlLlon. under Lhls Lheory, here ls no legal
rlghL Lo demand recognlLlon.

under Lhls vlew, recognlLlon ls dlscreLlonary and pollLlcal.

: Wh|ch |s fo||owed by most nat|ons?

A: ueclaraLory Lheory

NC1L: 1he recognlLlon of a SLaLe has now been subsLlLuLed
Lo a large exLenL by Lhe acL of admlsslon Lo Lhe unlLed
naLlons lL ls Lhe "assurance glven Lo a new SLaLe LhaL lL wlll be
permlLLed Lo hold lLs place and rank ln Lhe characLer of
an lndependenL pollLlcal organlsm ln Lhe socleLy of
naLlons."

: D|st|ngu|sh recogn|t|on of State from recogn|t|on of
government.

A:

1. A19&$'646&' &; 84#41 carrles wlLh lL Lhe recognlLlon of
governmenL slnce Lhe former lmplles LhaL a SLaLe
recognlzed has all Lhe essenLlal requlslLes of a SLaLe aL
Lhe Llme recognlLlon ls exLended.
2. Cnce recognlLlon of sLaLe ls accorded, lL ls generally
lrrevocable. ln conLrasL, 519&$'646&' &; $&>15'D1'4 may
be wlLhheld from a succeedlng governmenL broughL
abouL by vlolenL or unconsLlLuLlonal means.

: D|st|ngu|sh 1* 0'+* recogn|t|on from 1* E"#$/ recogn|t|on.

A:
DL IUkL DL IAC1C
Clven Lo a governmenL LhaL
saLlsfles boLh Lhe ob[ecLlve
and sub[ecLlve crlLerla
Clven Lo governmenLs LhaL
have noL fully saLlsfled
ob[ecLlve and sub[ecLlve
crlLerla
LxLended Lo a governmenL
fulfllllng Lhe requlremenLs for
recognlLlon. When Lhere ls
no speclflc lndlcaLlon,
recognlLlon ls generally
consldered as 71 P=51.
LxLended by Lhe recognlzlng
sLaLe whlch belleves LhaL
some of Lhe requlremenLs for
recognlLlon are absenL.
8ecognlLlon ls re|at|ve|y
permanent, brlngs abouL full
dlplomaLlc lnLercourse and
observance of dlplomaLlc
lmmunlLles, and confers LlLle
Lo asseLs abroad.
1he recognlLlon ls genera||y
prov|s|ona| and llmlLed Lo
[udlclal relaLlons, lL does noL
brlng abouL dlplomaLlc
lnLercourse and does noL
glve LlLle Lo asseLs of Lhe
sLaLe held or slLuaLed abroad.

NC1L: 1here ls no such Lhlng as de facLo or de [ure
recognlLlon of Lhe sLaLes.

kecogn|t|on of New Governments

: What are the requ|rements for recogn|t|on of
government?

A:
1. 1he government |s stab|e and effect|ve, wlLh no
subsLanLlal reslsLance Lo lLs auLhorlLy- lL musL be ln
possesslon of Lhe machlnery of Lhe SLaLe wlLhouL
subsLanLlal reslsLance Lo lLs auLhorlLy (Cb[ect|ve
1est),
2. 1he governmenL musL show wllllngness and ablllLy Lo
dlscharge lLs lnLernaLlonal obllgaLlons (Sub[ect|ve
1est),
3. 1he governmenL musL en[oy popular consenL or
approval of Lhe people

"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 27
: What |s the 1obar (Iormer Iore|gn M|n|ster of Lcuador)
or W||son doctr|ne?

A: lL precludes recognlLlon Lo any governmenL comlng lnLo
exlsLence by revoluLlonary means so long as Lhe freely
elecLed represenLaLlves of Lhe people Lhereof have noL
consLlLuLlonally reorganlzed Lhe counLry.

under Lhls docLrlne, Lhe recognlzlng sLaLe or governmenL
imposes a government: we will not give you recognition
unless you flrsL adopL a ConsLlLuLlon and hold free elecLlons.

: What |s the Lstrada Doctr|ne?

A: 1hls docLrlne was formulaLed by lorelgn MlnlsLer Cenaro
LsLrada of Mexlco l 1930. lL lnvolves a po||cy of never |ssu|ng
any dec|arat|on g|v|ng recogn|t|on to governments and of
accept|ng whatever government |s |n effect|ve contro|
w|thout ra|s|ng the |ssue of recogn|t|on. An lnqulry lnLo
leglLlmacy would be an lnLervenLlon ln Lhe lnLernal affalrs of
anoLher SLaLe.

: Who has the author|ty to recogn|ze?

A: lL ls a maLLer Lo be deLermlned accordlng Lo Lhe munlclpal
law of each SLaLe. ln Lhe hlllpplnes, lL ls Lhe resldenL who
deLermlnes Lhe quesLlon of recognlLlon and hls declslons on
Lhls maLLer are consldered acLs of sLaLe whlch are, Lherefore,
noL sub[ecL Lo [udlclal revlew. Pls auLhorlLy ln Lhls respecL ls
derlved from hls treaty-making power, hls power Lo send and
recelve dlplomaLlc represenLaLlves (d|p|omat|c power), hls
mlllLary power, and hls rlghL ln general Lo acL as Lhe forelgn
pollcy spokesman of Lhe naLlon. 8elng essenLlally
dlscreLlonary, Lhe exerclse of Lhese powers may noL be
compelled.

: Is the recogn|t|on extended by the res|dent to a fore|gn
government sub[ect to [ud|c|a| rev|ew?

A: no! lL ls purely a pollLlcal quesLlon. CLherwlse, you wlll
embarrass Lhe resldenL ln Lhe conducL of forelgn pollcy and
forelgn relaLlons. Accordlng Lo Salonga, Lhe legallLy and
wlsdom of recognlLlon accorded by forelgn enLlLy ls noL
sub[ecL Lo [udlclal revlew. 1he CourLs are bound by Lhe acL of
Lhe pollLlcal deparLmenL of Lhe governmenL.

: What are the effects or |ega| consequences of recogn|t|on
of government?

A:

1. 1he recognlzed governmenL or SLaLe acqulres Lhe
capac|ty to enter |nto d|p|omat|c re|at|ons w|th
recogn|z|ng States and to make treat|es w|th them,
2. 1he recognlzed governmenL or SLaLe acqulres Lhe r|ght of
su|ng |n the courts of |aw of the recogn|z|ng State,
3. lL ls |mmune from the [ur|sd|ct|on of the courts of |aw of
recogn|z|ng State (It may not be sued w|thout |ts
consent),
4. 1he new government becomes ent|t|ed to demand and
rece|ve possess|on of property s|tuated w|th|n the
[ur|sd|ct|on of a recogn|z|ng State, wh|ch former|y
be|onged to the preced|ng government at the t|me
of |ts supercess|on,
3. lLs effecL ls Lo preclude Lhe courLs of recognlzlng
SLaLe from asslgn [udgmenL on Lhe legallLy of lLs acLs,
pasL and fuLure. kecogn|t|on be|ng retroact|ve. lL
valldaLes Lhe acLs or decrees of Lhe recognlzlng sLaLe or
governmenL so LhaL Lhe courLs of Lhe recognlzlng sLaLe
are noL precluded from passlng [udgmenL on Lhe legallLy
of lLs acLs, pasL and fuLure. 1hls ls Lhe appllcaLlon of Lhe
Act of State Doctr|ne.

Act of State Doctr|ne

under Lhls docLrlne, Lhe courLs of one sLaLe are precluded
from passlng [udgmenLs on Lhe legallLy of Lhe acLs of anoLher
sLaLe commlLLed wlLhln lLs LerrlLory.

8e|||gerency

: What |s be|||gerency?

A: 8elllgerency exlsLs when Lhe |nhab|tants of a State r|se up
|n arms for the purpose of overthrow|ng the |eg|t|mate
government or when there |s a state of war between two
states.

8elllgerency may be undersLood ln Lwo senses:

a. lL may refer Lo Lhe sLaLe of war beLween 2 or more
sLaLes. ln whlch case, Lhe sLaLes of war are referred
Lo as Lhe belllgerenL sLaLes, and
b. AcLual hosLlllLles amounLlng Lo clvll war wlLhln a
slngle sLaLe.

kecogn|t|on of 8e|||gerency

lL ls Lhe formal acknowledgemenL by a Lhlrd parLy of Lhe
exlsLence of a sLaLe of war beLween Lhe cenLral governmenL
and a porLlon of LhaL sLaLe.

: When does be|||gerency ex|st?

A: lL exlsLs when a slzable porLlon of Lhe LerrlLory of a sLaLe ls
under effecLlve conLrol of an lnsurgenL communlLy whlch ls
seeklng Lo esLabllsh a separaLe governmenL and Lhe
lnsurgenLs are ln de facLo conLrol of a porLlon of Lhe LerrlLory
and populaLlon, have pollLlcal organlzaLlon, are able Lo
malnLaln such conLrol, and conducL Lhemselves accordlng Lo
Lhe laws of war.

: What are the requ|s|tes |n recogn|z|ng 8e|||gerency?
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 28

A:

1. 1here musL be an organlzed clvll governmenL
dlrecLlng Lhe rebel forces, or an organlzed clvll
governmenL havlng conLrol and supervlslon over Lhe
armed sLruggle,
2. 1he rebels musL occupy a subsLanLlal porLlon of Lhe
1errlLory of Lhe sLaLe,
3. 1he confllcL beLween Lhe leglLlmaLe governmenL and
Lhe rebels musL be serlous, maklng Lhe ouLcome
uncerLaln, or serlous and wldespread sLruggle wlLh
Lhe ouLcome uncerLaln
4. 1he rebels musL be wllllng and able Lo observe Lhe
rules/ cusLoms/ laws of war.

: What |s the effect of the absence of any of these
cond|t|ons] requ|s|tes?

A: lL wlll resulL merely ln lnsurgency whlch ls rarely
recognlzed.

: What are the |ega| consequences of be|||gerency?

A:

1. 8efore recognlLlon, lL ls Lhe leglLlmaLe governmenL
LhaL ls responslble for Lhe acLs of Lhe rebels affecLlng
forelgn naLlonals and Lhelr properLles. Cnce
recognlLlon ls glven, responslblllLy ls shlfLed Lo Lhe
rebel governmenL,
2. 1he leglLlmaLe governmenL, once lL recognlzes Lhe
rebels as belllgerenLs, ls bound Lo observe Lhe laws
and cusLoms of war ln conducLlng Lhe hosLlllLles
Lhls ls no longer a maLLer of munlclpal law. Cnce Lhe
governmenL capLures a rebel, LhaL he a combaLanL
and LhaL as combaLanL, he wlll have Lo be LreaLed as
a prlsoner of war. rlsoners of war have rlghLs under
lnLernaLlonal humanlLarlan law.

L.g. 1hey cannoL execuLe rebels consldered as CWs.

3. lrom Lhe vlewpolnL of Lhlrd SLaLes, ls Lo puL Lhem
under obllgaLlon Lo observe sLrlcL neuLrallLy and
ablde by Lhe consequences arlslng from LhaL
poslLlon, and

Lxample:

a. lL musL absLaln from Laklng parL ln Lhe
hosLlllLles, and
b. MosL acqulesce Lo resLrlcLlons lmposed
by Lhe rebels, such as vlslL and search of lLs
merchanL shlps

4. 8ecognlLlon puLs Lhe rebels under responslblllLy Lo
Lhlrd SLaLes and Lo Lhe leglLlmaLe governmenL for all
Lhelr acLs whlch do noL conform Lo Lhe laws and
cusLoms of war.

NC1L: 8ebels are enemy combaLanLs and accorded Lhe rlghLs
of prlsoners of war. And, essenLlally, Lhls means LhaL Lhere
are Lwo compeLlng governmenLs ln one counLry.

: What |s the form of such recogn|t|on?

A: lL may elLher be express or lmplled, Lhe proclamaLlon by
Lhe parenL sLaLe of a blockade of a porL held by Lhe rebels ls
lmplled recognlLlon of belllgerency, so ls Lhe proclamaLlon of
neuLrallLy by a Lhlrd sLaLe.

: What are the effects of recogn|t|on of be|||gerency?

A: 8esponslblllLy for acLs of rebels resulLlng ln ln[ury Lo
naLlonals of Lhe recognlzlng sLaLe shall be shlfLed Lo Lhe rebel
governmenL, Lhe leglLlmaLe governmenL recognlzlng Lhe
rebels shall observe Lhe laws of war ln conducLlng hosLlllLles,
Lhlrd sLaLes recognlzlng Lhe belllgerency shall malnLaln
neuLrallLy, and recognlLlon ls only provlslonal (for Lhe
duraLlon of Lhe armed sLruggle) and only for Lhe purpose of
Lhe hosLlllLles.

: D|st|ngu|sh |nsurgency from be|||gerency

A:

INSUkGLNC 8LLLIGLkLNC
a mere lnlLlal sLage of war. lL
lnvolves a rebel movemenL,
and ls usually noL
recognlzed
More serlous and
wldespread and presupposes
Lhe exlsLence of war
beLween 2 or more sLaLes
(1sL sense) or acLual clvll war
wlLhln a slngle sLaLe (2nd
sense).
SancLlons Lo lnsurgency are
governed by munlclpal law
8evlsed enal Code, 6+1+
rebelllon.
8elllgerency ls governed by
Lhe rules on lnLernaLlonal law
as Lhe belllgerenLs may be
glven lnLernaLlonal
personallLy.

: nas the C]NA and MILI comp||ed w|th these
cond|t|ons?

A: no. 8uL, Lhere are some lndlcaLlons Lhey are sLrlvlng Lo
meeL Lhe condlLlons. 1hey execuLed common crlmlnals, afLer
a Lrlal. lL ls llke saylng Lhey have a governmenL.

NC1L: 1he malnLenance of peace and order, and
admlnlsLraLlon of [usLlce, are consLlLuenL funcLlons of Lhe
governmenL.

: Lxp|a|n, us|ng examp|e, recogn|t|on of be|||gerency.
(1991 8ar).

"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 29
A: 8ecognlLlon of belllgerency ls Lhe formal acknowledgmenL
by a Lhlrd parLy of Lhe exlsLence of a sLaLe of war beLween Lhe
cenLral governmenL and a porLlon of LhaL sLaLe. 8elllgerency
exlsLs when a slzable porLlon of Lhe LerrlLory of a sLaLe ls
under Lhe effecLlve conLrol of an lnsurgenL communlLy
whlch ls seeklng Lo esLabllsh a separaLe governmenL and
Lhe lnsurgenLs are ln de facLo conLrol of a porLlon of Lhe
LerrlLory and populaLlon, have a pollLlcal organlzaLlon, and
are able Lo malnLaln such conLrol and conducL
Lhemselves accordlng Lo Lhe laws of war. lor example, CreaL
8rlLaln recognlzed a sLaLe of belllgerency ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes
durlng Lhe Clvll War.

kIGn1S CI 1nL S1A1L

: What are the fundamenta| r|ghts of States?

A: (SLLD)

1. 8lghL Lo SoverelgnLy and lndependence,
2. 8lghL Lo roperLy and !urlsdlcLlon,
3. 8lghL Lo LxlsLence and Self-uefense
4. 8lghL Lo LquallLy
3. 8lghL Lo ulplomaLlc lnLercourse

kIGn1 CI LkIS1LNCL AND SLLI-DLILNSL

1hls ls consldered as Lhe mosL comprehenslve of Lhe
aLLrlbuLes of Lhe sLaLe because all lLs oLher rlghLs are
supposed Lo flow or be derlved from lL. 8y Lhls rlghL, Lhe sLaLe
may Lake such measures, lncludlng Lhe use of force, as may
be necessary Lo reslsL any danger Lo lLs exlsLence. Such acLlon
does noL depend for lLs valldlLy on Lhe prevlous recognlLlon of
Lhe sLaLe asserLlng lL or on Lhe consenL of oLher sLaLes !V5=Z(
*+ ^-0.

1hls ls Lhe mosL elemenLary and lmporLanL rlghL of a SLaLe. All
oLher rlghLs flow from Lhls rlghL. As recognlzed ln Lhe un
CharLer, ArLlcle 31:

"noLhlng ln Lhe presenL charLer shall lmpalr Lhe |nherent
r|ght of |nd|v|dua| or co||ect|ve se|f-defense lf an armed
aLLack occurs agalnsL a Member of Lhe un, unLll Lhe SC has
Laken measures necessary Lo malnLaln lnLernaLlonal peace
and securlLy. Measures Laken by Members ln Lhe exerclse
of Lhls rlghL of self- defense shall be lmmedlaLely reporLed Lo
Lhe SC and shall noL ln any way affecL Lhe auLhorlLy and
responslblllLy of Lhe SC under Lhe presenL CharLer Lo Lake aL
any Llme such acLlon as lL deems necessary ln order Lo
malnLaln or resLore lnLernaLlonal peace and securlLy."

Accordlngly, Lhe sLaLe may Lake such measures, lncludlng Lhe
use of force, as may be necessary Lo reslsL any danger Lo lLs
exlsLence. Such acLlon belng Lhe exerclse of an lnherenL rlghL,
lL does noL depend for lLs valldlLy on Lhe prevlous recognlLlon
of Lhe sLaLe asserLlng lL or on Lhe consenL of Lhe oLher sLaLes.

: What are the requ|s|tes of the r|ght?

A:

1. resence of armed attack to [ust|fy the exerc|se of
the r|ght of se|f-defense- only ln Lhe face of
necesslLy of self-defense lnsLanL, overwhelmlng and
leavlng no cholce or means and no momenL for
dellberaLlon. Mere apprehended danger or any
dlrecL LhreaL wlll noL warranL Lhe employmenL of any
force agalnsL he suspecLed or poLenLlal enemy,
2. C|ear show|ng of a grave and actua| danger to the
secur|ty of the state, and
3. L|m|ted by the necess|ty and kept c|ear|y w|th|n |t.

: What |s the const|tut|ona| po||cy regard|ng war?

A: ArL. ll, Sec. 2 provldes LhaL "1he hlllpplnes renounces war
as an instrument of national policy" 1hls prohlblLs an
offenslve/aggresslve war. 1hus, lL allows uLlLnSlvL WA8!

1hus, when aLLacked, Lhe hlllpplnes can exerclse lLs lnherenL
rlghL of exlsLence and self-defense. 1hls rlghL ls a generally
accepLed prlnclple of lnLernaLlonal law - Lhus, lL ls parL of our
law of Lhe land, under Lhe lncorporaLlon Clause (ArL. ll, Sec. 2,
1987 ConsLlLuLlon)

Ak1ICLL II


: What are the three (3) parts of th|s const|tut|ona|
prov|s|on?

A:
1. 8enunclaLlon of warLhe power Lo wage a
defenslve war ls of Lhe very essence of soverelgnLy,
2. AdopLlon of Lhe prlnclples of lnLernaLlonal law,
3. Adherence Lo a pollcy of peace, equallLy, [usLlce,
freedom, cooperaLlon & amlLy

NC1L: 1he second parL ls noLhlng more Lhan a formal
accepLance of a prlnclple Lo whlch all clvlllzed naLlons musL
conform.

1he Lhlrd parL ls called Lhe selfish policyLhe guldlng
prlnclple of hlllpplne forelgn pollcy ls Lhe naLlonal lnLeresL.
However, this is tempered with concern for equality, peace,
freedom and [usLlce.
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 30

: Do we renounce a|| k|nds of war?

A: 1he hlllpplnes only renounces AGGkLSSIVL war as an
lnsLrumenL of naLlonal pollcy. lL does noL renounce defenslve
war. 1hus, no one has Lhe power Lo declare war. 8u1,
Congress can declare a State of War.

Also, Lhe resldenL can only use mlllLary powers ln case of
lnvaslon, rebelllon, eLc. Pe has no power Lo declare war.

: Under our [ur|sd|ct|on, who has the power to dec|are
war?

A: none.

Sec. 23 of Art. VI Sec. 18 of Art. VII
Sect|on 23. 1he Congress, by a voLe
of Lwo-Lhlrds of boLh Pouses ln [olnL
sesslon assembled, voLlng
separaLely, shall have Lhe sole power
Lo declare Lhe exlsLence of a sLaLe of
war.
Sect|on 18. 1he resldenL shall be
Lhe Commander-ln-Chlef of all
armed forces of Lhe hlllpplnes and
whenever lL becomes necessary, he
may call ouL such armed forces Lo
prevenL or suppress lawless
vlolence, lnvaslon or rebelllon. ln
case of lnvaslon or rebelllon, when
Lhe publlc safeLy requlres lL, he may,
for a perlod noL exceedlng slxLy
days, suspend Lhe prlvllege of Lhe
wrlL of habeas corpus or place Lhe
hlllpplnes or any parL Lhereof under
marLlal law. WlLhln forLy-elghL hours
from Lhe proclamaLlon of marLlal law
or Lhe suspenslon of Lhe prlvllege of
Lhe wrlL of habeas corpus, Lhe
resldenL shall submlL a reporL ln
person or ln wrlLlng Lo Lhe Congress.
1he Congress, voLlng [olnLly, by a
voLe of aL leasL a ma[orlLy of all lLs
Members ln regular or speclal
sesslon, may revoke such
proclamaLlon or suspenslon, whlch
revocaLlon shall noL be seL aslde by
Lhe resldenL. upon Lhe lnlLlaLlve of
Lhe resldenL, Lhe Congress may, ln
Lhe same manner, exLend such
proclamaLlon or suspenslon for a
perlod Lo be deLermlned by Lhe
Congress, lf Lhe lnvaslon or rebelllon
shall perslsL and publlc safeLy
requlres lL.

1he Congress, lf noL ln sesslon, shall,
wlLhln LwenLy-four hours followlng
such proclamaLlon or suspenslon,
convene ln accordance wlLh lLs rules
wlLhouL need of a call.

1he Supreme CourL may revlew, ln
an approprlaLe proceedlng flled by
any clLlzen, Lhe sufflclency of Lhe
facLual basls of Lhe proclamaLlon of
marLlal law or Lhe suspenslon of Lhe
prlvllege of Lhe wrlL or Lhe exLenslon
Lhereof, and musL promulgaLe lLs
declslon Lhereon wlLhln LhlrLy days
from lLs flllng.

A sLaLe of marLlal law does noL
suspend Lhe operaLlon of Lhe
ConsLlLuLlon, nor supplanL Lhe
funcLlonlng of Lhe clvll courLs or
leglslaLlve assemblles, nor auLhorlze
Lhe confermenL of [urlsdlcLlon on
mlllLary courLs and agencles over
clvlllans where clvll courLs are able
Lo funcLlon, nor auLomaLlcally
suspend Lhe prlvllege of Lhe wrlL.

1he suspenslon of Lhe prlvllege of
Lhe wrlL shall apply only Lo persons
[udlclally charged for rebelllon or
offenses lnherenL ln or dlrecLly
connecLed wlLh lnvaslon.

uurlng Lhe suspenslon of Lhe
prlvllege of Lhe wrlL, any person Lhus
arresLed or deLalned shall be
[udlclally charged wlLhln Lhree days,
oLherwlse he shall be released.
1hls only covers defens|ve war
where we are already belng
aLLacked. Congress shall meeL
and declare Lhe exlsLence of a
sLaLe of war, and on Lhe basls of
LhaL declaraLlon, Congress may
now delegaLe emergency
powers Lo Lhe resldenL.

: Why does the h|||pp|nes have to renounce war?

A: lL ls conslsLenL wlLh our membershlp Lo Lhe unlLed naLlons
because among Lhe fundamenLal prlnclples governlng Lhe
esLabllshmenL of Lhe u.n. ls Lhe renunclaLlon of war as an
lnsLrumenL of naLlonal pollcy.

: State the occas|ons when the use of force may be
a||owed under the UN Charter.

A: 1here are only Lwo occaslons when Lhe use of force ls
allowed under Lhe un CharLer:

1. when lL ls auLhorlzed ln pursuance of Lhe
enforcement act|on LhaL may be decreed by Lhe
SecurlLy Councll under ArL. 42
12
.
2. when lL ls employed ln Lhe exerclse of Lhe
lnherenL rlghL of self-defense under condlLlons
prescrlbed ln ArL. 31
13
.

: Not too |ong ago, "a|||ed forces", |ed by Amer|can and
8r|t|sh armed forces, |nvaded Iraq to "||berate Iraq|s and
destroy suspected weapons of mass destruct|on." 1he

12
1he SecurlLy Councll may declde whaL measures noL lnvolvlng Lhe use of armed force are Lo be
employed Lo glve effecL Lo lLs declslons, and lL may call upon Lhe Members of Lhe unlLed naLlons Lo
apply such measures. 1hese may lnclude comp|ete or part|a| |nterrupt|on of econom|c re|at|ons and
of ra||, sea, a|r, posta|, te|egraph|c, rad|o, and other means of commun|cat|on, and the severance of
d|p|omat|c re|at|ons.

13
noLhlng ln Lhe presenL CharLer shall lmpalr Lhe lnherenL rlghL of lndlvldual or collecLlve self-defence
lf an armed aLLack occurs agalnsL a Member of Lhe unlLed naLlons, unLll Lhe SecurlLy Councll has Laken
measures necessary Lo malnLaln lnLernaLlonal peace and securlLy. Measures Laken by Members ln Lhe
exerclse of Lhls rlghL of self-defence shall be lmmedlaLely reporLed Lo Lhe SecurlLy Councll and shall noL
ln any way affecL Lhe auLhorlLy and responslblllLy of Lhe SecurlLy Councll under Lhe presenL CharLer Lo
Lake aL any Llme such acLlon as lL deems necessary ln order Lo malnLaln or resLore lnLernaLlonal peace
and securlLy.
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 31
Secur|ty Counc|| of the Un|ted Nat|ons fa||ed to reach a
consensus on whether to support or oppose the "war of
||berat|on." Can the act|on taken by the a|||ed forces
f|nd [ust|f|cat|on |n Internat|ona| Law? Lxp|a|n. (2003 8ar)

A: 1he unlLed SLaLes and lLs allled forces cannoL [usLlfy Lhelr
lnvaslon of lraq on Lhe basls of self-defense under ArLlcle 31,
aLLack by lraq, and Lhere was no necesslLy for
anLlclpaLory self-defense whlch may be [usLlfled under
cusLomary lnLernaLlonal law. nelLher can Lhey [usLlfy Lhelr
lnvaslon on Lhe ground LhaL ArLlcle 42 of Lhe CharLer of Lhe
unlLed naLlons permlLs Lhe use of force agalnsL a SLaLe lf lL ls
sancLloned by Lhe SecurlLy Councll. 8esoluLlon 1441, whlch
gave lraq a flnal opporLunlLy Lo dlsarm or face serlous
consequences, dld noL auLhorlze Lhe use of armed force.

A|ternat|ve A: ln lnLernaLlonal Law, Lhe acLlon Laken by Lhe
allled forces cannoL flnd [usLlflcaLlon. lL ls covered by Lhe
prohlblLlon agalnsL Lhe use of force prescrlbed by Lhe unlLed
naLlons CharLer and lL does noL fall under any of Lhe
excepLlons Lo LhaL prohlblLlon.

1he un CharLer ln Art|c|e 2(4) prohlblLs Lhe use of force ln Lhe
relaLlons of sLaLes by provldlng LhaL all members of Lhe un
"shall refraln ln Lhelr lnLernaLlonal relaLlons from Lhe LhreaL
or use of force agalnsL Lhe LerrlLorlal lnLegrlLy or pollLlcal
lndependence of any sLaLe, or ln any oLher manner
lnconslsLenL wlLh Lhe purposes of Lhe unlLed naLlons."
1hls mandaLe does noL only ouLlaw war, lL encompasses all
LhreaLs of and acLs of force or vlolence shorL of war.

As Lhus provlded, Lhe prohlblLlon ls addressed Lo all un
members. Powever, lL ls now recognlzed as a fundamenLal
prlnclple ln cusLomary lnLernaLlonal law and, as such, ls
blndlng on all members of Lhe lnLernaLlonal communlLy.

1he acLlon Laken by Lhe allled forces cannoL be [usLlfled under
any of Lhe Lhree excepLlons Lo Lhe prohlblLlon agalnsL Lhe use
of force whlch Lhe un CharLer allows. 1hese are:

(1) lnherenL rlghL of lndlvldual or collecLlve self-defense
under ArLlcle 31,
(2) LnforcemenL measure lnvolvlng Lhe use of armed
forces by Lhe un SecurlLy Councll under ArLlcle 42,
and
(3) LnforcemenL measure by reglonal arrangemenL
under ArLlcle 33
14
, as auLhorlzed by Lhe un
SecurlLy Councll. 1he allled forces dld noL launch
mlllLary operaLlons and dld noL occupy lraq on Lhe
clalm LhaL Lhelr acLlon was ln response Lo an armed
aLLacked by lraq, of whlch Lhere was none.

14
1. 1he SecurlLy Councll shall, where approprlaLe, uLlllze such reglonal arrangemenLs or agencles for
enforcemenL acLlon under lLs auLhorlLy. 8uL no enforcemenL acLlon shall be Laken under reglonal
arrangemenLs or by reglonal agencles wlLhouL Lhe auLhorlzaLlon of Lhe SecurlLy Councll, wlLh Lhe
excepLlon of measures agalnsL any enemy sLaLe, as deflned ln paragraph 2 of Lhls ArLlcle, provlded for
pursuanL Lo ArLlcle 107 or ln reglonal arrangemenLs dlrecLed agalnsL renewal of aggresslve pollcy on
Lhe parL of any such sLaLe, unLll such Llme as Lhe CrganlzaLlon may, on requesL of Lhe CovernmenLs
concerned, be charged wlLh Lhe responslblllLy for prevenLlng furLher aggresslon by such a sLaLe.
2. 1he Lerm enemy sLaLe as used ln paragraph 1 of Lhls ArLlcle applles Lo any sLaLe whlch durlng Lhe
Second World War has been an enemy of any slgnaLory of Lhe presenL CharLer.

Moreover, Lhe acLlon of Lhe alleged allled forces was Laken ln
deflance or dlsregard of Lhe SecurlLy Councll 8esoluLlon no.
1441 whlch seL up "an enhanced lnspecLlon reglme wlLh
Lhe alm of brlnglng Lo full and verlfled compleLlon Lhe
dlsarmamenL process," glvlng lraq "a flnal opporLunlLy
Lo comply wlLh lLs dlsarmamenL obllgaLlons." 1hls
resoluLlon was ln Lhe process of lmplemenLaLlon, so was
Iraqs compliance with such disarmament obligations.

keg|ona| arrangements

CollecLlve self-defense ls recognlzed under ArLlcle 31 and
lmplledly ln ArLlcle vll of Lhe 8eglonal ArrangemenLs (ArLlcle
32, SecLlon 1)
13
.

An example of Lhls reglonal agency ls Lhe CrganlzaLlon of
Amerlcan SLaLes.

: Cn 31 Cctober 2001, members of A|| 8aba, a po||t|ca|
extrem|st organ|zat|on based |n and under the protect|on
of Country k and espous|ng v|o|ence wor|dw|de as a
means of ach|ev|ng |ts ob[ect|ve, p|anted h|gh-powered
exp|os|ves and bombs at the Internat|ona| 1rade 1ower
(I11) |n Iewe| C|ty |n Country , a member of the Un|ted
Nat|ons. As a resu|t of the bomb|ng and the co||apse of the
100-story tw|n towers, about 2000 peop|e, |nc|ud|ng
women and ch||dren were k|||ed or |n[ured and b||||ons of
do||ars |n property were |ost. Immed|ate|y after the
|nc|dent, A|| 8aba, speak|ng through |ts |eader 8|n
Derdandat, adm|tted and owned respons|b|||ty for the
bomb|ng of I11, say|ng that |t was done to pressure
Country to re|ease captured members of the
terror|st group. A|| 8aba threatened to repeat |ts terror|st
acts aga|nst Country |f the |atter and |ts a|||es fa||ed to
accede to Ali Babas demands. In response, Country
demanded that Country k surrender and de||ver 8|n
Derdandat to the government author|t|es of Country for
the purpose of tr|a| and "|n the name of [ust|ce." Country k
refused to accede to the demand of Country .

What act|on or act|ons can Country |ega||y take aga|nst A||
8aba and Country k to stop the terror|st act|v|t|es of A||
8aba and d|ssuade Country k from harbor|ng and g|v|ng
protect|on to the terror|st organ|zat|on? Support your
answer w|th reasons. (2002 8ar)

A:

13
noLhlng ln Lhe presenL CharLer precludes Lhe exlsLence of reglonal arrangemenLs or agencles for
deallng wlLh such maLLers relaLlng Lo Lhe malnLenance of lnLernaLlonal peace and securlLy as are
approprlaLe for reglonal acLlon provlded LhaL such arrangemenLs or agencles and Lhelr acLlvlLles are
conslsLenL wlLh Lhe urposes and rlnclples of Lhe unlLed naLlons.

1he Members of Lhe unlLed naLlons enLerlng lnLo such arrangemenLs or consLlLuLlng such agencles
shall make every efforL Lo achleve paclflc seLLlemenL of local dlspuLes Lhrough such reglonal
arrangemenLs or by such reglonal agencles before referrlng Lhem Lo Lhe SecurlLy Councll.
1he SecurlLy Councll shall encourage Lhe developmenL of paclflc seLLlemenL of local dlspuLes Lhrough
such reglonal arrangemenLs or by such reglonal agencles elLher on Lhe lnlLlaLlve of Lhe sLaLes
concerned or by reference from Lhe SecurlLy Councll.

1hls ArLlcle ln no way lmpalrs Lhe appllcaLlon of ArLlcles 34 and 33.
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 32

(1) CounLry ? may exerclse Lhe rlghL of self-defense, as
provlded under Art|c|e S1 of the UN Charter "unLll Lhe
SecurlLy Councll has Laken measure necessary Lo malnLaln
lnLernaLlonal peace and securlLy." Self defense
enables CounLry ? Lo use force agalnsL CounLry x as well as
agalnsL Lhe All 8aba organlzaLlon.

(2) lL may brlng Lhe maLLer Lo Lhe SecurlLy Councll whlch may
auLhorlze sancLlons agalnsL CounLry x, lncludlng measure
lnvoklng Lhe use of force.

under ArLlcle 4 of Lhe un CharLer, CounLry ? may use force
agalnsL CounLry x as well as agalnsL Lhe All 8aba organlzaLlon
by auLhorlLy of Lhe un SecurlLy Councll.

AlLernaLlve A: under Lhe SecurlLy Councll 8esoluLlon no.
1368, Lhe LerrorlsL aLLack of All 8aba may be deflned as a
LhreaL Lo peace, as lL dld ln deflnlng Lhe 11 SepLember 2001
aLLacks agalnsL Lhe unlLed SLaLes. 1he resoluLlon
auLhorlzes mlllLary and oLher acLlons Lo respond Lo LerrorlsL
aLLacks. Powever, Lhe use of mlllLary force musL be
proporLlonaLe and lnLended for Lhe purpose of deLalnlng
Lhe persons allegedly responslble for Lhe crlme and Lo
desLroy mlllLary ob[ecLlves used by Lhe LerrorlsLs.

1he fundamenLal prlnclples of lnLernaLlonal humanlLarlan
law should be respecLed. CounLry ? cannoL be granLed
sweeplng dlscreLlonary powers LhaL lnclude Lhe power Lo
declde whaL sLaLes are behlnd Lhe LerrorlsL organlzaLlons. lL
ls for Lhe SecurlLy Councll Lo declde wheLher force may be
used agalnsL speclflc sLaLes and under whaL condlLlons Lhe
force may be used.

: Is the Un|ted States [ust|f|ed |n |nvad|ng Iraq |nvok|ng |ts
r|ght to defend |tse|f aga|nst an expected attack by Iraq
w|th the use of |ts b|o|og|ca| and chem|ca| weapons of
mass destruct|on?

A: 1he unlLed SLaLes ls lnvoklng lLs rlghL Lo defend lLself
agalnsL an expecLed aLLack by lraq wlLh Lhe use of lLs
blologlcal and chemlcal weapons of mass desLrucLlon. 1here
ls no evldence of such a LhreaL, buL 8ush ls probably lnvoklng
Lhe modern vlew LhaL a sLaLe does noL have Lo walL unLll Lhe
poLenLlal enemy flres flrsL. 1he cowboy from 1exas says LhaL
ouLdrawlng Lhe foe who ls abouL Lo shooL ls an acL of
self-defense.

ArL. 31 says, however, LhaL Lhere musL flrsL be an "armed
aLLack" before a sLaLe can exerclse lLs lnherenL rlghL of self-
defense, and only unLll Lhe SecurlLy Councll, Lo whlch Lhe
aggresslon should be reporLed, shall have Laken Lhe
necessary measures Lo malnLaln lnLernaLlonal peace and
securlLy. lL was Lhe unlLed SLaLes LhaL made Lhe "armed
aLLack" flrsL, Lhus becomlng Lhe aggressor, noL lraq.
lraq ls now noL only exerclslng lLs lnherenL rlghL of self-
defense as recognlzed by Lhe un CharLer.

: W||| the subsequent d|scovery of weapons of mass
destruct|on |n Iraq after |ts |nvas|on by the US [ust|fy the
attack |n|t|ated by the |atter?

A: Even if Iraqs hidden arsenal is discovered - or acLually
used - and Lhe unlLed SLaLes ls [usLlfled ln lLs susplclons, LhaL
clrcumsLance wlll noL valldaLe Lhe procedure Laken agalnsL
lraq. lL ls llke searchlng a person wlLhouL warranL and
curlng Lhe lrregularlLy wlLh Lhe dlscovery of prohlblLed
drugs ln hls possesslon. 1he process cannoL be reversed. 1he
warranL musL flrsL be lssued before Lhe search and selzure
can be made.

1he Amerlcan lnvaslon was made wlLhouL permlsslon
from Lhe SecurlLy Councll as requlred by Lhe un CharLer. Any
subsequenL dlscovery of Lhe prohlblLed blologlcal and
chemlcal weapons wlll noL reLroacLlvely legallze LhaL lnvaslon,
whlch was, legally speaklng, null and vold ab lnlLlo.

: State 8, re|y|ng on |nformat|on gathered by |ts
|nte|||gence commun|ty to the effect that |ts ne|ghbor, State
C, |s p|ann|ng an attack on |ts nuc|ear p|an and research
|nst|tute, undertook a "prevent|ve" attack |n certa|n bases
on State C |ocated near the border of the two states. As a
resu|t, State C presented the |nc|dent to the UN Genera|
Assemb|y but the |atter referred |t to the UN Secur|ty
Counc|| as a matter, wh|ch d|sturbs or threatens
"|nternat|ona| peace and secur|ty". State 8 argued that |t
was act|ng w|th|n the |ega| bounds of Art|c|e S1 of the UN
Charter and that |t was a perm|tted use of force |n se|f-
defense and aga|nst armed attack. Is State 8 respons|b|e
under Internat|ona| Law? D|d State 8 act w|th|n the bounds
set forth |n the UN Charter on the use of force |n se|f-
defense? (198S 8ar)

A: An armed aLLack ls noL a requlremenL for Lhe exerclse of
Lhe rlghL of self-defense. Powever, Lhe aLLack of SLaLe 8 on
SLaLe C cannoL be [usLlfled as an acL of self-defense under ArL.
31 of Lhe un CharLer conslderlng LhaL Lhe danger percelved
by SLaLe 8 was noL lmmlnenL. SLaLe 8 oughL Lo have
exhausLed peaceful and paclflc meLhods of seLLlemenLs
lnsLead of resorLlng Lo Lhe use of force.

: Who can dec|are war?

A: no one! 1he ConsLlLuLlon has wlLhheld Lhls power from
Lhe governmenL. WhaL Lhe ConsLlLuLlon allows ls a
declaraLlon of a "SLaLe of War". under ArL. vl, Sec. 23(1) -
"Congress, by a voLe of 2/3 of boLh Pouses, ln [olnL sesslon
assembled, voLlng separaLely, shall have Lhe sole power Lo
declare Lhe exlsLence of a sLaLe of war. 1hls means LhaL we
are already under aLLack.
16

16
SecLlon 2. 1he hlllpplnes renounces war as an lnsLrumenL of naLlonal pollcy, adopLs Lhe generally
accepLed prlnclples of lnLernaLlonal law as parL of Lhe law of Lhe land and adheres Lo Lhe pollcy of
peace, equallLy, [usLlce, freedom, cooperaLlon, and amlLy wlLh all naLlons (ArLlcle 2).

"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 33

: What are the effects when Congress dec|ares a state of
war?

A:

1. ArL. vl, Sec. 23
17

2. ArL. vll, Sec. 18
18

1hls ls ln llne wlLh Lhe un CharLer, whlch also renounces war.
As charLer-member of Lhe un, our ConsLlLuLlon also
renounces war as an lnsLrumenL of naLlonal pollcy.

kIGn1S CI SCVLkLIGN1 AND INDLLNDLNCL


A: lL ls Lhe supreme, unconLrollable power ln a sLaLe by
whlch LhaL sLaLe ls governed. lL ls Lhe supreme power of Lhe
sLaLe Lo command and enforce obedlence, Lhe power Lo
whlch, legally speaklng, all lnLeresLs are pracLlcally sub[ecL
and all wllls subordlnaLe.

ln lnLernaLlonal law, lL ls Lhe aLLrlbuLe LhaL enables Lhe sLaLe
Lo make lLs own declslon vls-a-vls oLher sLaLes and vesLs lL
wlLh compeLence Lo enLer lnLo relaLlons and agreemenLs wlLh
Lhem.

: What |s Independence?

A: lL ls also known as exLernal soverelgnLy. lL slgnlfles Lhe
freedom of Lhe sLaLe Lo conLrol lLs own forelgn affalrs.

SecLlon 23.1he Congress, by a voLe of Lwo-Lhlrds of boLh Pouses ln [olnL sesslon assembled, voLlng
separaLely, shall have Lhe sole power Lo declare Lhe exlsLence of a sLaLe of war.

ln Llmes of war or oLher naLlonal emergency, Lhe Congress may, by law, auLhorlze Lhe resldenL, for a
llmlLed perlod and sub[ecL Lo such resLrlcLlons as lL may prescrlbe, Lo exerclse powers necessary and
proper Lo carry ouL a declared naLlonal pollcy. unless sooner wlLhdrawn by resoluLlon of Lhe Congress,
such powers shall cease upon Lhe nexL ad[ournmenL Lhereof (ArLlcle 6).

17
Supra

18
SecLlon 18. 1he resldenL shall be Lhe Commander-ln-Chlef of all armed forces of Lhe hlllpplnes and
whenever lL becomes necessary, he may call ouL such armed forces Lo prevenL or suppress lawless
vlolence, lnvaslon or rebelllon. ln case of lnvaslon or rebelllon, when Lhe publlc safeLy requlres lL, he
may, for a perlod noL exceedlng slxLy days, suspend Lhe prlvllege of Lhe wrlL of habeas corpus or place
Lhe hlllpplnes or any parL Lhereof under marLlal law. WlLhln forLy-elghL hours from Lhe proclamaLlon
of marLlal law or Lhe suspenslon of Lhe prlvllege of Lhe wrlL of habeas corpus, Lhe resldenL shall
submlL a reporL ln person or ln wrlLlng Lo Lhe Congress. 1he Congress, voLlng [olnLly, by a voLe of aL
leasL a ma[orlLy of all lLs Members ln regular or speclal sesslon, may revoke such proclamaLlon or
suspenslon, whlch revocaLlon shall noL be seL aslde by Lhe resldenL. upon Lhe lnlLlaLlve of Lhe
resldenL, Lhe Congress may, ln Lhe same manner, exLend such proclamaLlon or suspenslon for a
perlod Lo be deLermlned by Lhe Congress, lf Lhe lnvaslon or rebelllon shall perslsL and publlc safeLy
requlres lL.

1he Congress, lf noL ln sesslon, shall, wlLhln LwenLy-four hours followlng such proclamaLlon or
suspenslon, convene ln accordance wlLh lLs rules wlLhouL need of a call.

1he Supreme CourL may revlew, ln an approprlaLe proceedlng flled by any clLlzen, Lhe sufflclency of Lhe
facLual basls of Lhe proclamaLlon of marLlal law or Lhe suspenslon of Lhe prlvllege of Lhe wrlL or Lhe
exLenslon Lhereof, and musL promulgaLe lLs declslon Lhereon wlLhln LhlrLy days from lLs flllng.

A sLaLe of marLlal law does noL suspend Lhe operaLlon of Lhe ConsLlLuLlon, nor supplanL Lhe funcLlonlng
of Lhe clvll courLs or leglslaLlve assemblles, nor auLhorlze Lhe confermenL of [urlsdlcLlon on mlllLary
courLs and agencles over clvlllans where clvll courLs are able Lo funcLlon, nor auLomaLlcally suspend Lhe
prlvllege of Lhe wrlL.

1he suspenslon of Lhe prlvllege of Lhe wrlL shall apply only Lo persons [udlclally charged for rebelllon or
offenses lnherenL ln or dlrecLly connecLed wlLh lnvaslon.

uurlng Lhe suspenslon of Lhe prlvllege of Lhe wrlL, any person Lhus arresLed or deLalned shall be
[udlclally charged wlLhln Lhree days, oLherwlse he shall be released.

Intervent|on

: What |s |ntervent|on?

A: lL ls "Lhe dlcLaLorlal lnLerference by a SLaLe ln Lhe lnLernal
affalrs of anoLher SLaLe, or ln Lhe relaLlons beLween
oLher SLaLes, whlch ls elLher forclble or backed by Lhe LhreaL
of force."

lL ls an act by wh|ch a state |nterferes w|th the domest|c or
fore|gn affa|rs of another state or states through
emp|oyment of force or threat of force. Such force nay be
physlcal or ln Lhe presenL sLaLe of world affalrs, even pollLlcal
or economlc. Lacklng such pressure, Lhe lnvolvemenL of a
sLaLe ln Lhe affalrs of anoLher, even lf unsollclLed, cannoL be
consldered lnLervenLlon.

1he sLaLe musL absLaln from lnLervenLlon. Lven lf lL expecLs
lLs lndependence Lo be respecLed by oLher SLaLes, so Loo
musL lL respecL Lhelr own lndependence. 1he rlghL of
lndependence carrles wlLh lL, by necessary lmpllcaLlon, Lhe
correlaLlve duLy of non-lnLervenLlon.

NC1L: 1he klnd of lnLervenLlon here musL be dlcLaLorlal
backed up by force or LhreaL of force. ?ou cannoL lnLervene
unLll and unless you have force.

: Is |ntervent|on a||owed under |nternat|ona| |aw?

A:

Gk: lnLervenLlon ls noL sancLloned ln lnLernaLlonal relaLlons.

kN: When lL ls exerclsed as an acL of self-defense or when lL
ls decreed by Lhe SecurlLy Councll as a prevenLlve or
enforcemenL acLlon for Lhe malnLenance of lnLernaLlonal
peace and securlLy. 1hese are Lhe only 2 lnsLances when Lhe
use of force ls allowed under Lhe CharLer of Lhe un. Some
wrlLers would add a Lhlrd [usLlflcaLlon for lnLervenLlon, and
Lhls ls when such acLlon ls agreed upon ln a LreaLy.
lnLervenLlon may also be allowed when requesLed from
fellow sLaLes or from Lhe un by Lhe parLles Lo a dlspuLe or by
a sLaLe beseL of rebelllon.

: G|ve examp|es of [ust|f|ed |ntervent|on?

A:
1. lnLervenLlon as an acL of lndlvldual or collecLlve self-
defense
2. lnLervenLlon by LreaLy sLlpulaLlons or by lnvlLaLlon
3. lnLervenLlon by Lhe unlted Nations authorization
4. lnLervenLlon on human grounds, whlch accordlng Lo
auLhorlLles ln lnLernaLlonal law has now evolved lnLo
an lnLernaLlonal cusLom.

"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 34

Intercess|on

NC1L: lnLervenLlon ls ulfferenL from "lnLercesslon"
lnLercesslon ls allowed!

: Is |ntervent|on a||owed?

A: lL ls prohlblLed.

: G|ve examp|es of |ntercess|on.

A:
1. ulplomaLlc roLesL,
2. 1ender of Advlce
3. uemand for recLlflcaLlon of a wrong done or
commlLLed

Gk: lnLervenLlon ls prohlblLed (urago uocLrlne). lL prohlblLs
lnLervenLlon for Lhe collecLlon of conLracLual debLs, publlc or
prlvaLe.

kN: (When |ntervent|on |s a||owed)

1. lnLervenLlon as an AcL of lndlvldual and CollecLlve
Self-uefense,
2. lnLervenLlon by 1reaLy SLlpulaLlon or by
lnvlLaLlon,
3. 8y un AuLhorlzaLlon and 8esoluLlon- llke whaL
happened ln Lhe korean War and durlng ln lraql
AnnexaLlon of kuwalL ln 1990 (Lhere was a un
8esoluLlon auLhorlzlng Lhe uS-led mulLllaLeral force
Lo lnLervene),
4. Cn humanlLarlan grounds Lhls has evolved by
lnLernaLlonal cusLom and Lhus become a prlmary
source of lnLernaLlonal cusLom (lnLervenLlon ln
Somalla, ln 8osnla and kosovo whereln Lhere was
no un 8esoluLlon buL nA1C lnLervened mlllLarlly ln
Lhe ground LhaL Lhere was eLhnlc cleanslng by Serbs
of Lhe mlnorlLles, lnLervenLlon ln LasL 1lmor Lo
proLecL Lhe LasL 1omorese),

: What |s "Intervent|on by Inv|tat|on"?

A: lL presupposes LhaL Lhe lnvlLlng SLaLe ls noL a mere puppeL
of Lhe lnLervenlng SLaLe Lx.: Pungary.

ln 1936, Pungary was ln lnLernal Lurmoll, and asked Lhe
SovleL forces Lo lnLervene. Whlle Lhe lnLervenLlon was upon
lnvlLaLlon, lL was sLlll condemned because Lhe Pungarlan
governmenL was a mere SovleL puppeL.

N|caragua v. USA, Commun|que 86]8 (Iune 27, 2986)

1hls ls where Lhe uS was found gullLy of lnLervenLlo ln Lhe
affalrs of nlcaragua for sendlng Lroops Lo nlcaragua Lo ald Lhe
conLras, lnasmuch as Lhere was no armed aLLack agalnsL Lhe
laLLer. noLe LhaL Lhe proLesL or demand for recLlflcaLlon or
reparaLlon does noL comprlse lnLervenLlon. 1hus, Lhe acL of
resldenL CllnLon ln dlscoraglng Amerlcans from lnvesLlng ln
8urma was noL consldered as lnLervenLlon.

1he Drago Doctr|ne

Q: What is the Drago Doctrine?

A: lL prohlblLs Lhe lnLervenLlon for Lhe purpose of collecLlng
conLracLual debLs.

Cenerally lnLervenLlon ls rohlblLed (urago uocLrlne). 1hls
ls formulaLed by lorelgn MlnlsLer Luls urago (ArgenLlna), ln
reacLlon Lo Lhe venezuelan lncldenL.

ln 1902, uk, Cermany and lLaly blockaded venezuelan
porLs Lo compel lL Lo pay lLs conLracLual debLs. 1hls ls
Lhe besL example of whaL ls Lermed as pac|f|c b|ockade. 1he
purpose of Lhe blockade ls Lo compel Lhe valenzuelan
governmenL Lo pay lLs conLracLual debLs.

1he acLlon was Lhe sub[ecL of unlversal dlspprobaLlon whlch
led Lhe forelgn MlnlsLer urago Lo formulaLe a docLrlne LhaL
" a pub||c debt cannot g|ve r|se to the r|ght of
intervention. 1hls prlnclple was laLer adopLed ln Lhe
Second nague Conference
19
, buL sub[ecL Lo Lhe quallflcaLlon
LhaL Lhe debLor sLaLe should noL refuse or neglecL Lo reply Lo
an offer of arblLraLlon or afLer accepLlng Lhe offer, prevenL
any compromlse from belng agreed upon, or afLer Lhe
arblLraLlon, fall Lo submlL Lo Lhe award, Lhe quallflcaLlon ls
known as Lhe orter reso|ut|on.

1hls was recognlzed ln Lhe nague Convent|on of 1907
Lhrough a provlslon LhaL Lhe conLracLlng powers agree Lo
have Lhe recourse Lo armed force for Lhe recovery of conLracL
debLs clalmed from Lhe governmnL of one counLry by Lhe
governmenL of anoLher counLry as belng due Lo lLs naLlonals.
1he force of Lhls docLrlne was laLer dlsslpaLed by Lhe orLer
8esoluLlon.

orter keso|ut|on

under Lhls resoluLlon, lnLervnLlon was permlLLed lf Lhe debLor
state refused to an offer to arbitrate the creditors claim, or
havlng agreed Lo arblLraLe, prevenLed agreemenL on Lhe
compromlse, or havlng agreed LhereLo, refused Lo ablde by
Lhe award of Lhe arblLraLor.

Intervent|on by treaty st|pu|at|ons or by |nv|tat|on

: What |s the requ|rement under th|s |ntervent|on?

19
1he conLracLlng powers agree no LoL have recourse Lo armed force for Lhe
recovery of conLracL debLs clalmed from Lhe governmenL of one counLry by
Lhe governmenL of anoLher counLry as belng due Lo lLs naLlonals.
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 33
A: loL lL Lo be [usLlfled, lL presupposes LhaL Lhe lnvlLlng
governmenL musL noL be a mere puppeL of Lhe lnLervenlng
sLaLe.

W2#D*%1` WhaL happened ln Pungary (WesLern Lurope ln
1936)Cold War:
a. SovleL bloc (Pungary was parL)
b. WesLern bloc

: Under our h|story, |s there any |nstance when there was
an Intervent|on by treaty st|pu|at|ons or by |nv|tat|on?

A: In 1989, on the second day of the last coup detat during
Lhe Llme of resldenL Cory, Lhe rebel forces, Lhe 8AM-Sl
aLLacked Lhe Malacanang. AL LhaL Llme, Lhe u.S. fleeL was
here aL Lhe SouLh Chlna Sea. 1he Cory CovernmenL admlLLed
that they invited the Americans to intervene. A coup detat is
an lnLernal affalr ln Lhe hlllpplnes, yeL Lhe Amerlcans
lnLervened mlllLarlly. 1hls was an lnLervenLlon by lnvlLaLlon.

Intervent|on under the UN Charetr

un lLself caLegorlcally blnds lLself noL Lo lnLerven ln maLLers
whlch are essenLlally wlLhln Lhe doemsLlc [urlsdlcLlon of any
sLaLe. ln Lhe un ueclaraLlon of 8lghLs and uuLles of SLaLes, lL
provlded LhaL every sLaLe has Lhe duLy Lo refraln from
lnLervenLlon ln Lhe lnLernal or exLernal affalrs of any oLher
SLaLe.

W2#D*%13`
1. korean War of 1930. 1he u.n. lnLervened ln Lhe
korean War.
2. Culf War of 1990, when Saddam Pusseln lnvaded
and annexed kuwalL and made lL a provlnce of lraq.
1he mulLlnaLlonal force led by Lhe u.S. also
intervened during the so called Operation Dessert
Storm. This was justified.

Charter of the Crgan|zat|on of Amer|can States

1he charLer of Lhe CrganlzaLlon of Amerlcan SLaLes ls more
unequlvocal wlLh Lhe sLaLemenL LhaL:

Art|c|e 19

no SLaLe or group of SLaLes has Lhe rlghL Lo lnLervene,
dlrecLly or lndlrecLly, for any reason whaLever, ln Lhe
lnLernal or exLernal affalrs of any oLher SLaLe. 1he foregolng
prlnclple prohlblLs noL only armed force buL also any oLher
form of lnLerference or aLLempLed LhreaL agalnsL Lhe
personallLy of Lhe SLaLe or agalnsL lLs pollLlcal, economlc,
and culLural elemenLs.

Art|c|e 20

no SLaLe may use or encourage Lhe use of coerclve
measures of an economlc or pollLlcal characLer ln order Lo
force Lhe soverelgn wlll of anoLher SLaLe and obLaln from lL
advanLages of any klnd.

: What |s ac|f|c 8|ockade?

A: lL ls one lmposed durlng Llmes of peace were Lhe counLrles
aL war, Lhen a blockade ls a leglLlmaLe measure ln facL, a
blockade musL noL be vlolaLed by a neuLral SLaLe. lf breached,
Lhe neuLral vessel ls selzed.

ACIIIC 8LCCkADL 8LCCkADL UNDLk 1nL
LAWS CI WAk AND 1nL
LAWS CI NLU1kALI1
noL allowed A leglLlmaLe war measure
LhaL may be underLaken by a
belllgerenL ln Llmes of war.
1he reason why lL ls called
pacific is that there was no
war beLween Lhe blockadlng
sLaLes and Lhe blockaded
porL.
1he purpose ls Lo cuL off Lhe
porL of anoLher sLaLe from
communlcaLlon, commerce
or Lrade.
CommlLLed ln Llmes of peace 8elllgerenL sLaLes may resorL
Lo blockade.

: At the Un|ted Nat|ons, the Arab League, through Syr|a,
sponsors a move to |nc|ude |n the agenda of the Genera|
Assemb|y the d|scuss|on of th|s matter: "1he Mus||m
popu|at|on of M|ndanao, h|||pp|nes has expressed the
des|re to secede from the kepub||c of the h|||pp|nes |n
order to const|tute a separate and |ndependent state
and has drawn attent|on to the probab|||ty that the
cont|nuat|on of the armed conf||ct |n M|ndanao const|tutes
a threat to peace." ou are asked by the h|||pp|ne
Government to draft a pos|t|on paper oppos|ng the move.
8r|ef|y out||ne your arguments support|ng the h|||pp|ne
pos|t|on, spec|f|ca||y d|scuss|ng the tenab|||ty of Arab
Leagues action from the standpoint of International Law.
(1984
8ar)

A: 1he Musllm secesslonlsL movemenL ls noL an lnLernaLlonal
dlspuLe, whlch under ArLlcle 33(1) of Lhe un CharLer, a
member of Lhe unlLed naLlons may brlng Lo Lhe aLLenLlon of
Lhe SecurlLy Councll or Lhe Ceneral Assembly. Such dlspuLe
can arlse only beLween Lwo or more SLaLes. 1he aLLempL of
Lhe Arab League Lo place on Lhe agenda of Lhe Ceneral
Assembly Lhe Musllm problem ln Mlndanao can only be vlews
as an lnLerference wlLh a purely domesLlc affalr.

: When |s the use of force a||owed under the UN Charter
by the UNSC reso|ut|on?

A:

1. ArLlcle 41
20

20
supra
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 36
2. ArLlcle 42
21

3. ArLlcle 31
22

NC1L: 1here ls a llmlLed deflnlLlon of armed aLLacks -
nlcargua v. unlLed SLaLes.

N|caragua v. Un|ted States

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6'>1346'$ 6' F=5D# N#3 '&4 9&'3671517 #3 6'415>1'46&'+

ln Lhe case of lndlvldual self-defense, Lhe exerclse of Lhls rlghL
ls sub[ecL Lo Lhe SLaLe concerned havlng been Lhe vlcLlm of
an armed aLLack. 8ellance on collecLlve self-defense of
course does noL remove Lhe need for Lhls. 1here appears now
Lo be general agreemenL on Lhe naLure of Lhe acLs whlch
can be LreaLed as consLlLuLlng armed aLLacks. ln parLlcular,
lL may be consldered Lo be agreed LhaL an armed aLLack musL
be undersLood as lncludlng noL merely acLlon by regular
armed forces across an lnLernaLlonal border, buL also 'Lhe
sendlng by or on behalf of a SLaLe of armed bands,
groups, lrregulars or mercenarles, whlch carry ouL acLs of
armed force agalnsL anoLher SLaLe of such gravlLy as Lo
amounL Lo' (lnLer alla) an acLual armed aLLack conducLed by
regular forces, 'or lLs subsLanLlal lnvolvemenL Lhereln'. 1hls
descrlpLlon, conLalned ln ArLlcle 3, paragraph (g), of Lhe
ueflnlLlon of Aggresslon annexed Lo Ceneral Assembly
resoluLlon 3314 (xxlx), may be Laken Lo reflecL cusLomary
lnLernaLlonal law. 1he CourL sees no reason Lo deny LhaL, ln
cusLomary law, Lhe prohlblLlon of armed aLLacks may apply Lo
Lhe sendlng by a SLaLe of armed bands Lo Lhe LerrlLory of
anoLher SLaLe, lf such an operaLlon, because of lLs scale and
effecLs, would have been classlfled as an armed aLLack
raLher Lhan as a mere fronLler lncldenL had lL been carrled
ouL by regular armed forces. 8uL Lhe CourL does noL belleve
LhaL Lhe concepL of 'armed aLLack' lncludes noL only acLs by
armed bands where such acLs occur on a slgnlflcanL

21
Should Lhe SecurlLy Councll conslder LhaL measures provlded for ln ArLlcle
41 would be lnadequaLe or have proved Lo be lnadequaLe, lL may Lake such
acLlon by alr, sea, or land forces as may be necessary Lo malnLaln or
resLore lnLernaLlonal peace and securlLy. Such acLlon may lnclude
demonsLraLlons, blockade, and oLher operaLlons by alr, sea, or land forces of
Members of Lhe un.
22
noLhlng ln Lhe presenL charLer shall lmpalr Lhe lnherenL rlghL of lndlvldual
or collecLlve self-defense lf an armed aLLack occurs agalnsL a Member of Lhe
un, unLll Lhe SC has Laken measures necessary Lo malnLaln lnLernaLlonal
peace and securlLy. Measures Laken by Members ln Lhe exerclse of Lhls
rlghL of self-defense shall be lmmedlaLely reporLed Lo Lhe
SC and shall noL ln any way affecL Lhe auLhorlLy and responslblllLy of Lhe
SC under Lhe presenL CharLer Lo Lake aL any Llme such acLlon as lL deems
necessary ln order Lo malnLaln or resLore lnLernaLlonal peace and securlLy.

scale buL also asslsLance Lo rebels ln Lhe form of Lhe provlslon
of weapons or loglsLlcal or oLher supporL. Such asslsLance
may be regarded as a LhreaL or use of force, or amounL
Lo lnLervenLlon ln Lhe lnLernal or exLernal affalrs of oLher
SLaLes."

kIGn1 CI LUALI1

UN Charter
Art|c|e 2

1he CrganlzaLlon and lLs Members, ln pursulL of Lhe urposes
sLaLed ln ArLlcle 1, shall acL ln accordance wlLh Lhe followlng
rlnclples.

1. 1he Crgan|zat|on |s based on the pr|nc|p|e of the
sovere|gn equa||ty of a|| |ts Members.
2. All Members, ln order Lo ensure Lo all of Lhem Lhe
rlghLs and beneflLs resulLlng from membershlp, shall
fulflll ln good falLh Lhe obllgaLlons assumed by Lhem
ln accordance wlLh Lhe presenL CharLer.
3. All Members shall seLLle Lhelr lnLernaLlonal dlspuLes
by peaceful means ln such a manner LhaL
lnLernaLlonal peace and securlLy, and [usLlce, are noL
endangered.
4. All Members shall refraln ln Lhelr lnLernaLlonal
relaLlons from Lhe LhreaL or use of force agalnsL Lhe
LerrlLorlal lnLegrlLy or pollLlcal lndependence of any
sLaLe, or ln any oLher manner lnconslsLenL wlLh Lhe
urposes of Lhe unlLed naLlons.
3. All Members shall glve Lhe unlLed naLlons every
asslsLance ln any acLlon lL Lakes ln accordance wlLh
Lhe presenL CharLer, and shall refraln from glvlng
asslsLance Lo any sLaLe agalnsL whlch Lhe unlLed
naLlons ls Laklng prevenLlve or enforcemenL acLlon.
6. 1he CrganlzaLlon shall ensure LhaL sLaLes whlch are
noL Members of Lhe unlLed naLlons acL ln
accordance wlLh Lhese rlnclples so far as may be
necessary for Lhe malnLenance of lnLernaLlonal
peace and securlLy.
7. noLhlng conLalned ln Lhe presenL CharLer shall
auLhorlze Lhe unlLed naLlons Lo lnLervene ln maLLers
whlch are essenLlally wlLhln Lhe domesLlc [urlsdlcLlon
of any sLaLe or shall requlre Lhe Members Lo submlL
such maLLers Lo seLLlemenL under Lhe presenL
CharLer, buL Lhls prlnclple shall noL pre[udlce Lhe
appllcaLlon of enforcemenL measures under ChapLer
vll.

LquallLy among sLaLes does noL slgnlfy parlLy ln physlcal
power, pollLlcal lnfluence or economlc sLaLus or presLlge. lL
means LhaL all Lhe rlghLs of a sLaLe, regardless of Lhelr
number, musL be observed and respecLed by Lhe
lnLernaLlonal communlLy ln Lhe same manner LhaL Lhe rlghLs
of oLher sLaLes are observed and respecLed.

"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 37
Accordlngly, all members of Lhe un have each one voLe ln Lhe
Ceneral Assembly, all voLes havlng equal welghL, and are
generally ellglble for poslLlons ln Lhe varlous organs of Lhe
un. Lach sLaLe has Lhe rlghLs Lo Lhe proLecLlon of lLs
naLlonals, Lo make use of Lhe open seas, or Lo acqulre or
dlspose of LerrlLory.

under Lhe rule of *#5 6' *#51D '&' E#B14 6D*156=D, even Lhe
sLrongesL sLaLe cannoL assume [urlsdlcLlon over anoLher
sLaLe, no maLLer how weak, or quesLlon Lhe valldlLy of lLs acLs
ln so far as Lhey are made Lo Lake effecL wlLhln lLs LerrlLory.
All sLaLes, lncludlng Lhe smallesL and Lhe leasL lnfluenLlal, are
also enLlLled Lo Lhelr dlgnlLy and Lhe proLecLlon of Lhelr honor
and repuLaLlon.

kIGn1 1C kCLk1 AND IUkISDIC1ICN

: What are the bases of the r|ght to [ur|sd|ct|on under
|nternat|ona| |aw?

A:
1. 1errlLorlallLy
2. naLlonallLy
3. roLecLlve
4. unlversallLy

1err|tor|a||ty r|nc|p|e

: What |s the terr|tor|a||ty pr|nc|p|e?

A: WlLh respecL Lo all persons, Lhlngs, LransacLlons, or
happenlngs wlLhln lLs LerrlLorlal [urlsdlcLlon, a sLaLe exerclses
excluslve [urlsdlcLlon.

1hls ls Lhe mosL common basls of [urlsdlcLlon.

: What are the except|ons?

A:
1. lorelgn heads of sLaLes
2. ulplomaLs and consuls (ulplomaLlc lmmunlLles and
prlvlleges).

NC1L: under Lhe vlenna ConvenLlon on Consular 8elaLlons,
dlplomaLs and consuls en[oy lmmunlLy from local [urlsdlcLlon.

1he lmmunlLles and prlvlleges of dlplomaLs are broader Lhan
Lhe lmmunlLles and prlvlleges of consuls.

k|ght of |egat|on

: D|scuss the r|ght of |egat|on.

A: 1he exerclse of Lhe rlghL of legaLlon ls one of Lhe mosL
effecLlve ways of faclllLaLlng and promoLlng lnLercourse
among naLlons. 1hrough Lhe acLlve rlghL of sendlng
dlplomaLlc represenLaLlves and Lhe passlve rlghL of recelvlng
Lhem, SLaLes are able Lo deal more dlrecLly and closely wlLh
each oLher ln Lhe lmprovemenL of Lhelr muLual lnLercourse.

: Is the State ob||ged to ma|nta|n d|p|omat|c re|at|ons w|th
other States?

A: no, as Lhe rlghL of legaLlon ls purely consensual. lf lL wanLs
Lo, a SLaLe may shuL lLself from Lhe resL of Lhe world, as !apan
dld unLll Lhe close of Lhe 19Lh cenLury. Powever, a pollcy of
lsolaLlon would hlnder Lhe progress of a SLaLe slnce lL would
be denylng lLself of Lhe many beneflLs avallable from Lhe
lnLernaLlonal communlLy.

: Who are the agents of d|p|omat|c |ntercourse?

A:
1. Pead of SLaLe
2. lorelgn secreLary or mlnlsLer
3. Members of dlplomaLlc servlce
4. Speclal dlplomaLlc agenLs appolnLed by head of Lhe
SLaLe
3. Lnvoys ceremonlal

: What |s d|p|omat|c corps?

A: lL ls a body conslsLlng of Lhe dlfferenL dlplomaLlc
represenLaLlves who have been accredlLed Lo Lhe same local
or recelvlng SLaLe. lL ls headed by a doyun de corps, who, by
LradlLlon, ls Lhe oldesL member wlLhln Lhe hlghesL rank or, ln
CaLhollc counLrles, Lhe papal nunclo.

: What are the funct|ons of a d|p|omat|c m|ss|on?

A:
1. 8epresenL sendlng SLaLe ln recelvlng SLaLe
2. roLecL ln recelvlng SLaLe lnLeresL of sendlng SLaLe
and lLs naLlonals
3. negoLlaLe wlLh governmenL of recelvlng SLaLe
4. romoLe frlendly relaLlons beLween sendlng and
recelvlng SLaLes and developlng Lhelr economlc,
culLural, and sclenLlflc relaLlons
3. AscerLaln by all lawful means condlLlons and
developmenLs ln recelvlng SLaLe and reporLlng
Lhereon Lo governmenL of sendlng SLaLe
6. ln some cases, represenL frlendly governmenLs aL
Lhelr requesL

: What are the c|asses of heads of a d|p|omat|c m|ss|on?

A:
1. Ambassadors or nunclos accredlLed Lo Peads of
SLaLe and oLher heads of mlsslons of equlvalenL rank
2. Lnvoys mlnlsLers and lnLernunclos accredlLed Lo
heads of SLaLe
3. Charge d affaires accredited to ministers of foreign
affalrs

"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 38
:Is the rece|v|ng State ob||ged to accept a representat|ve
from another State?

A: no, Lhe appolnLmenL of dlplomaLs ls noL merely a maLLer
of munlclpal law for Lhe recelvlng SLaLe ls noL obllged Lo
accepL a represenLaLlve who ls a persona non graLa Lo lL.
lndeed, Lhere have been cases when duly accredlLed
dlplomaLlc represenLaLlves have been re[ecLed, resulLlng ln
sLralned relaLlons beLween Lhe sendlng and recelvlng SLaLe.

: What does persona non grata mean?

A: ln lnLernaLlonal law and dlplomaLlc usage, lL means a
person noL accepLable (for reasons pecullar Lo hlmself) Lo Lhe
courL or governmenL Lo, whlch lL ls proposed Lo accredlL hlm
ln Lhe characLer of an ambassador or mlnlsLer.

Agreat|on

: What |s agreat|on?

A: lL ls a pracLlce of Lhe SLaLes before appolnLlng a parLlcular
lndlvldual Lo be Lhe chlef of Lhelr dlplomaLlc mlsslon ln order
Lo avold posslble embarrassmenL.

lL conslsLs of Lwo acLs:

1. 1he lnqulry, usually lnformal, addressed by Lhe
sendlng SLaLe Lo Lhe recelvlng SLaLe regardlng Lhe
accepLablllLy of an lndlvldual Lo be lLs chlef of
mlsslon, and
2. 1he agreemenL, also lnformal, by whlch Lhe recelvlng
SLaLe lndlcaLes Lo Lhe sendlng sLaLe LhaL such person,
would be accepLable.

Letter of credence

: What |s a |etter of credence?

A: 1hls ls Lhe documenL by whlch Lhe envoy ls accredlLed by
Lhe sendlng SLaLe Lo Lhe forelgn SLaLe Lo whlch he ls belng
senL. lL deslgnaLes hls rank and Lhe general ob[ecL of hls
mlsslon, and asks LhaL he be recelved favorably and LhaL full
credence be glven Lo whaL he says on behalf of hls SLaLe.

Letter of atent

: What |s a |etter patent?

A: 1he appolnLmenL of a consul ls usually evldenced by a
commlsslon, known someLlmes as leLLer paLenL or
letredprovision, issued by the appointing authority of the
sendlng SLaLe and LransmlLLed Lo Lhe recelvlng SLaLe Lhrough
dlplomaLlc channels.

: What are the pr|v||eges and |mmun|t|es of d|p|omat|c
representat|ves?

A:
1. ersonal lnvlolablllLy members of dlplomaLlc
mlsslon shall noL be llable for any form of arresL or
lmprlsonmenL
2. lnvlolablllLy of premlses premlses, furnlshlngs and
means of LransporL shall be lmmune from search,
selzure, aLLachmenL or execuLlon.
3. Archlves or documenLs shall be lnvlolable
4. ulplomaLlc agenLs are lmmune from crlmlnal, clvll or
admlnlsLraLlve llablllLy.
3. 8ecelvlng SLaLe shall proLecL offlclal communlcaLlon
and offlclal correspondence of dlplomaLlc mlsslon.
6. 8ecelvlng SLaLe shall ensure all members of
dlplomaLlc mlsslon freedom of movemenL and
Lravel.
7. A dlplomaLlc agenL ls exempLed Lo glve evldence as
a wlLness.
8. LxempLlon from general duLles and Laxes lncludlng
cusLom duLles wlLh cerLaln excepLlons.
9. use of flag and emblem of sendlng SLaLe on premlses
of recelvlng SLaLe.

: What are the except|ons to the pr|v||eges and |mmun|t|es
of d|p|omat|c representat|ves?

A:

1. Any real acLlon relaLlng Lo prlvaLe lmmovables
slLuaLed ln Lhe LerrlLory recelvlng SLaLe unless Lhe
envoy holds Lhe properLy ln behalf of Lhe sendlng
SLaLe
2. AcLlons relaLlng Lo successlon where dlplomaLlc
agenL ls lnvolved as execuLor, admlnlsLraLor, helrs or
legaLee as a prlvaLe person and noL on behalf of Lhe
sendlng SLaLe
3. An acLlon relaLlng Lo any professlonal or commerclal
acLlvlLy exerclsed by Lhe dlplomaLlc agenL ln Lhe
recelvlng SLaLe ouLslde hls offlclal funcLlons

: Who may wa|ve d|p|omat|c |mmun|ty and pr|v||eges?

A: 1he walver may be made expressly by Lhe sendlng SLaLe. lL
may also be done lmplledly, as when Lhe person enLlLled Lo
Lhe lmmunlLy from [urlsdlcLlon commences llLlgaLlon ln Lhe
local courLs and Lhereby opens hlmself Lo any counLerclalm
dlrecLly connecLed wlLh Lhe prlnclpal clalm.

NC1L: Walver of lmmunlLy from [urlsdlcLlon wlLh regard Lo
clvll and admlnlsLraLlve proceedlngs shall noL be held Lo mean
lmplled walver of Lhe lmmunlLy wlLh respecL Lo Lhe execuLlon
of [udgmenL, for whlch a separaLe walver shall be necessary.

: Is d|p|omat|c |mmun|ty a po||t|ca| quest|on?

"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 39
A: ulplomaLlc lmmunlLy ls essenLlally a pollLlcal quesLlon and
Lhe courLs should refuse Lo look beyond Lhe deLermlnaLlon by
Lhe execuLlve branch.

: Who e|se bes|des the head of the m|ss|on are ent|t|ed to
d|p|omat|c |mmun|t|es and pr|v||eges?

A: 1hey are also en[oyed by Lhe dlplomaLlc sulLe or reLlnue,
which consists of the official and non-official staff of the
mlsslon. 1he offlclal sLaff ls made up of Lhe admlnlsLraLlve
and Lechnlcal personnel of Lhe mlsslon, lncludlng Lhose
performlng clerlcal work, and Lhe member of Lhelr respecLlve
families. The non-official staff is composed of the household
help, such as Lhe domesLlc servanLs, buLlers, and cooks and
chauffeurs employed by Lhe mlsslon.

NC1L: As a rule, however, domesLlc servanLs en[oy
lmmunlLles and prlvlleges only Lo Lhe exLenL admlLLed by Lhe
recelvlng SLaLe and lnsofar as Lhey are connecLed wlLh Lhe
performance of Lhelr duLles.

: What are the grounds for term|nat|on of d|p|omat|c
re|at|ons under mun|c|pa| |aw?

A: kADAk
1. 8eslgnaLlon
2. AccompllshmenL of Lhe purpose
3. ueaLh
4. AbollLlon of Lhe offlce
3. 8emoval

: What are the grounds for term|nat|on of d|p|omat|c
re|at|on under |nternat|ona| |aw?

A:

1. War ouLbreak beLween Lhe sendlng and Lhe
recelvlng SLaLes.
2. LxLlncLlon of elLher Lhe sendlng SLaLe or Lhe
recelvlng SLaLe
3. 8ecall demanded by Lhe recelvlng SLaLe when Lhe
forelgn dlplomaL becomes persona non graLa

: W||| the term|nat|on of d|p|omat|c re|at|ons a|so
term|nate consu|ar re|at|ons between the send|ng and
rece|v|ng States?

A: no. Consuls belong Lo a class of SLaLe agenLs dlsLlncL from
LhaL of dlplomaLlc offlcers. 1hey do noL represenL Lhelr SLaLe
ln lLs relaLlons wlLh forelgn SLaLes and are noL lnLermedlarles
Lhrough whom maLLers of SLaLe are dlscussed beLween
governmenLs.

Consuls look malnly afLer Lhe commerclal lnLeresL of Lhelr
own SLaLe ln Lhe LerrlLory of a forelgn SLaLe. 1hey are noL
cloLhed wlLh dlplomaLlc characLer and are noL accredlLed Lo
Lhe governmenL of Lhe counLry where Lhey exerclsed Lhelr
consular funcLlons, Lhey deal dlrecLly wlLh local auLhorlLles.

: What |s the d|fference between d|p|omats and consu|s?

A: ulplomaLs are concerned wlLh pollLlcal relaLlons of SLaLes
whlle consuls are noL concerned wlLh pollLlcal maLLers. 1he
laLLer aLLend raLher Lo admlnlsLraLlve and economlc lssues.

: What are the two k|nds of consu|?

A:

1. Consulesmlssl rofesslonal or career consuls who
are naLlonals of Lhe sendlng SLaLe and are requlred
Lo devoLe Lhelr full Llme Lo Lhe dlscharge of Lhelr
duLles.
2. ConsuleselecLl May or may noL be naLlonals of Lhe
sendlng SLaLe and perform Lhelr consular funcLlons
only ln addlLlon Lo Lhelr regular calllngs.

NC1L: Lxamples of regular calllngs lnclude acLlng as noLary,
clvll reglsLrar and slmllar admlnlsLraLlve capaclLles and
proLecLlng and asslsLlng Lhe naLlonals of Lhe sendlng SLaLe.

: What are the ranks of consu|s?

A:
1. Consul-general Peads several consular dlsLrlcLs, or
one excepLlonally large consular dlsLrlcL,
2. Consul 1akes charge of a small dlsLrlcL or Lown or
porL,
3. Vice-consul AsslsL Lhe consul, and
4. Consular agenL usually enLrusLed wlLh Lhe
performance of cerLaln funcLlons by Lhe consul.

: What are the dut|es of consu|s?

A:
1. roLecLlon of Lhe lnLeresLs of Lhe sendlng SLaLe and
lLs naLlonals ln Lhe recelvlng SLaLe.
2. romoLlon of Lhe commerclal, economlc, culLural,
and sclenLlflc relaLlons of Lhe sendlng and recelvlng
SLaLes.
3. Cbserves Lhe condlLlons and developmenLs ln Lhe
recelvlng SLaLe and reporL Lhe same Lo Lhe sendlng
SLaLe.
4. lssuance of passporLs and oLher Lravel documenLs Lo
naLlonals of Lhe sendlng SLaLe and vlsas or
approprlaLe documenLs Lo persons wlshlng Lo Lravel
Lo Lhe sendlng SLaLe.
3. Supervlslon and lnspecLlon of vessels and alrcrafL of
Lhe sendlng SLaLe.

: Where do consu|s der|ve the|r author|ty?

"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 40
A: Consuls derlve Lhelr auLhorlLy from Lwo prlnclpal sources,
Lo wlL:

1. Letter patent or letter de provision whlch ls Lhe
commlsslon lssued by Lhe sendlng SLaLe, and
2. LxequaLur whlch ls Lhe permlsslon glven Lhem by
Lhe recelvlng SLaLe Lo perform Lhelr funcLlons
Lhereln.

: Do consu|s en[oy the|r own |mmun|t|es and pr|v||eges?

A: ?es, buL noL Lo Lhe same exLenL as Lhose en[oyed by Lhe
dlplomaLs. Llke dlplomaLs, consuls are enLlLled Lo:

1. lnvlolablllLy of Lhelr correspondence, archlves and
oLher documenLs
2. lreedom of movemenL and Lravel
3. lmmunlLy from [urlsdlcLlon for acLs performed ln
Lhelr offlclal capaclLy, and
4. LxempLlon from cerLaln Laxes and cusLoms duLles

Powever, consuls are llable Lo:
1. ArresL and punlshmenL for grave offenses, and
2. May be requlred Lo glve LesLlmony, sub[ecL Lo
cerLaln excepLlons.

NC1L: Members of a consular posL are under no obllgaLlon Lo
glve evldence on Lhe followlng slLuaLlons:
a. Concernlng maLLers connecLed wlLh Lhe exerclse of
Lhelr funcLlons
b. 1o produce offlclal correspondence and documenLs
c. 1o glve evldence as experL wlLness wlLh regard Lo
Lhe law of Lhe sendlng SLaLe

1he consular offlces are lmmune only:
1. WlLh respecL Lo LhaL parL where Lhe consular work ls
belng performed, and
2. May be exproprlaLed by Lhe recelvlng sLaLe for
purposes of naLlonal defense or publlc uLlllLy.

WlLh respecL Lo exproprlaLlon by Lhe recelvlng SLaLe, sLeps
shall be Laken Lo avold lmpedlng Lhe performance of consular
funcLlons, and prompL, adequaLe and effecLlve compensaLlon
shall be pald by Lhe sendlng SLaLe.

: What are the d|fferences between D|p|omat|c Immun|ty
and Consu|ar Immun|ty?

A:

DILCMA1IC CCNSULAk
Premises of the mission
lncludes Lhe bulldlng or parLs of
bulldlng and Lhe land
lrrespecLlve of Lhe ownershlp
used for Lhe purpose of Lhe
mlsslon lncludlng Lhe resldence
of Lhe head of mlsslon
Consular premises includes
Lhe bulldlngs or parLs of
bulldlngs and Lhe land
lrrespecLlve of ownershlp used
excluslvely for Lhe purposes of
consular posLs

Gk: 1he agenLs of Lhe recelvlng
sLaLe may noL enLer Lhe
premlses of Lhe mlsslon
kN: consenL of Lhe head of Lhe
mlsslon
Gk: 1he agenLs of Lhe recelvlng
sLaLe may noL enLer Lhe consular
premlses
kN: consenL of Lhe head of Lhe
consular posL consenL ls
assumed ln case of flre or oLher
dlsasLers requlrlng prompL
proLecLlve acLlon
ersonal baggage of a
dlplomaLlc agenL shall noL be
opened

Consular bag shall noL be
opened
lL may be requesLed LhaL Lhe bag
be opened ln Lhelr presence by
an auLhorlzed represenLaLlve of
Lhe recelvlng sLaLe lf Lhey have
serlous reason Lo belleve LhaL
Lhe bag conLalns ob[ecLs of
oLher arLlcles, documenLs,
correspondence or arLlcles
noL obllged Lo glve evldence as a
wlLness
May be called upon Lo aLLend as
a wlLness, lf decllned, no
coerclve measure or penalLy
may be applled

: D|scuss the d|fferences, |f any, |n the pr|v||eges or
|mmun|t|es of d|p|omat|c envoys and consu|ar off|cers from
the c|v|| and cr|m|na| [ur|sd|ct|on of the rece|v|ng State.

A: A dlplomaLlc agenL shall en[oy lmmunlLy from Lhe crlmlnal
[urlsdlcLlon of Lhe recelvlng SLaLe. Pe shall also en[oy
lmmunlLy from lLs clvll and admlnlsLraLlve [urlsdlcLlon excepL
ln Lhe case of:
1. A real acLlon relaLlng Lo prlvaLe lmmovable properLy
slLuaLed ln Lhe LerrlLory of Lhe recelvlng SLaLe, unless
he holds lL on behalf of Lhe sendlng SLaLe for Lhe
purpose of Lhe mlsslon,
2. An acLlon relaLlng Lo successlon ln whlch Lhe
dlplomaLlc agenL ls lnvolved as execuLor,
admlnlsLraLor, helr or legaLee as prlvaLe person and
noL on behalf of Lhe sendlng SLaLe,
3. An acLlon relaLlng Lo any professlonal or commerclal
acLlvlLy exerclsed by Lhe dlplomaLlc agenL ln Lhe
recelvlng SLaLe ouLslde of hls offlclal funcLlons.
(ArLlcle 32, vlenna ConvenLlon of ulplomaLlc
8elaLlons)

A consular offlcer does noL en[oy lmmunlLy from Lhe crlmlnal
[urlsdlcLlon of Lhe recelvlng SLaLe and are noL amenable Lo
Lhe [urlsdlcLlon of Lhe [udlclal or admlnlsLraLlve auLhorlLles of
Lhe recelvlng SLaLe ln respecL of acLs performed ln Lhe
exerclse of consular funcLlons.

Powever, Lhls does noL apply ln respecL of a clvll acLlon
elLher:
1. Arlslng ouL of a conLracL concluded by a consular
offlcer ln whlch he dld noL enLer expressly or
lmplledly
2. 8y a Lhlrd parLy for damages arlslng from an accldenL
ln Lhe recelvlng SLaLe caused by a vehlcle, vessel or
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 41
alrcrafL. (ArLlcle 41 and 43, vlenna ConvenLlon on
Lhe Consular 8elaLlons)

: What are the grounds for term|nat|on of consu|ar off|ce?

A:
1. ueaLh
2. 8ecall
3. ulsmlssal
4. noLlflcaLlon by Lhe recelvlng SLaLe Lo Lhe sendlng
SLaLe LhaL lL has ceased Lo conslder as member of
Lhe consular sLaff
3. WlLhdrawal of hls exequaLur by Lhe recelvlng SLaLe.
6. War- outbreak of war between home sLaLe and
recelvlng sLaLe

: Aga|n, what are the except|ons to the terr|tor|a||ty
pr|nc|p|e?

A:
1. lorelgn heads of sLaLes
2. ulplomaLs pursuanL Lo Lhe vlenna ConvenLlon on
ulplomaLlc 8elaLlons and consuls Lo a llmlLed exLenL
pursuanL Lo Lhe vlenna ConvenLlon on Consular
8elaLlons
3. lorelgn naval vessels and embassy compounds
based on Lhe rlnclple of LxLerrlLorlallLy
4. lorelgn merchanL marlne vessels under elLher Lhe
lrench 8ule or Lhe Lngllsh 8ule
3. lorelgn armles passlng Lhrough or sLaLloned ln
anoLher sLaLe by Lhe provlslons of a LreaLy

Nat|ona||ty r|nc|p|e

: What do you mean by the Nat|ona||ty r|nc|p|e?

A: A sLaLe may punlsh offenses commlLLed by lLs naLlonals
anywhere ln Lhe world. ln clvll maLLers Lhe personal laws of
Lhe counLry follows Lhelr naLlonals wherever Lhey are.

ln Lhe hlllpplnes, ArL. 13 of Lhe nCC follow Lhe naLlonallLy
prlnclple.

rotect|ve r|nc|p|e

: State the rotect|ve r|nc|p|e?

A: A sLaLe may clalm exLra[udlclal commlLLed abroad whlch
are pre[udlclal Lo Lhelr naLlonal securlLy or vlLal lnLeresLs even
where Lhe offenses are perpeLraLed by non-naLlonals.

ArL. 2 of Lhe 8C follows Lhe roLecLlve rlnclple.

Un|versa||ty r|nc|p|e

: State the Un|versa||ty r|nc|p|e. Is |t a||owed?

A: As a general rule, Lhe unlversallLy rlnclple ls noL allowed.
under Lhe unlversallLy rlnclple, exLraLerrlLorlal [urlsdlcLlon ls
clalmed by sLaLes over all crlmes regardless of where Lhey are
commlLLed or who commlLLed Lhem wheLher naLlonals or
noL.

lor example, lf a crlme as commlLLed ln Alaska by a non-
llllplno naLlonal, we cannoL clalm [urlsdlcLlon as Lhls ls
generally forbldden ln lnLernaLlonal law.

: What |s the except|on?

A: When Lhe unlversallLy rlnclple ls lnvoked wlLh respecL Lo
crlme whlch LhreaLen Lhe lnLernaLlonal communlLy as a whole
and whlch are consldered crlmlnal offenses ln all counLrles,
such as:
a. War crlmes
b. Cenoclde
c. lracy
d. Slavery
e. Pl[acklng
f. 1errorlsm and Lhe llke

NA1ICNALI1 AND S1A1LLLSSNLSS

: What |s nat|ona||ty?

A: lL ls membershlp ln a pollLlcal communlLy wlLh all lLs
concomlLanL rlghLs and obllgaLlons. lL ls Lhe Lle LhaL blnds an
lndlvldual Lo hls sLaLe, from whlch he can clalm proLecLlon
and whose laws he ls obllged Lo obey.

: What |s c|t|zensh|p?

A: lL has a more excluslve meanlng ln LhaL lL applles only Lo
cerLaln members of hls sLaLe accorded more prlvlleges LhaL
Lhe resL of Lhe people who are aL alleglance. lLs slgnlflcance ls
munlclpal and noL lnLernaLlonal.

: What |s mu|t|p|e nat|ona||ty?

A: lL ls Lhe possesslon by an lndlvldual of more Lhan one
naLlonallLy. lL ls acqulred as Lhe resulL of Lhe concurrenL
appllcaLlon Lo hlm of Lhe confllcLlng munlclpal laws of Lwo or
more SLaLes clalmlng hlm as Lhelr naLlonal.

Acqu|s|t|on of Nat|ona||ty

: now may nat|ona||ty be acqu|red?

A:

1. 8y blrLh
2. 8y naLurallzaLlon

"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 42
An lndlvldual acqulres Lhe naLlonallLy of Lhe sLaLe where he ls
born P=51 3&%6 or Lhe naLlonallLy of hls parenLs P=51 3#'$=6'63.

: What |s natura||zat|on?

A: lL ls a process by whlch a forelgner acqulres, volunLarlly or
by operaLlon of law, Lhe naLlonallLy of anoLher sLaLe.

Mu|t|p|e Nat|ona||ty

An lndlvldual may someLlmes flnd hlmself possessed of more
Lhan one naLlonallLy because of Lhe concurrenL appllcaLlon Lo
hlm of Lhe mulLlple laws of Lhe sLaLes clalmlng hlm as Lhelr
naLlonal. lor example, a chlld born ln Lhe uS of llllplno
parenLage would be a clLlzen of LhaL counLry under Lhe P=3
3&%6 as prescrlbed by Amerlcan law and aL Lhe same Llme a
clLlzen of Lhe hlllpplnes under our ConsLlLuLlon, whlch
recognlzes only Lhe P=3 3#'$=6'63.

Loss of Nat|ona||ty

naLlonallLy may be losL volunLarlly or lnvolunLarlly. 1he
volunLarlly meLhods lnclude renunclaLlon, express or lmplled,
and requesL for release, boLh of whlch usually precede Lhe
acqulslLlon of new naLlonallLy. 1he lnvolunLary meLhods are
forfelLure as a resulL of some dlsquallflcaLlon or prohlblLed
acL llke enllsLmenL ln a forelgn army or long conLlnued
resldence ln a forelgn sLaLe and subsLlLuLlon of one
naLlonallLy for anoLher followlng a change of soverelgnLy or
any acL conferrlng derlvaLlve naLurallzaLlon.

S1A1LLLSSNLSS

: What |s state|essness?

A: lL ls Lhe condlLlon or sLaLus of an lndlvldual who ls born
wlLhouL any naLlonallLy or who loses hls naLlonallLy wlLhouL
reLalnlng or acqulrlng anoLher.

Lxample of Lhe flrsL case would be LhaL o a chlld born ln a
sLaLe where only Lhe P=3 3#'$='63 ls recognlzed Lo parenLs
whose sLaLe observes only Lhe [us soll. 1he second case may
be lllusLraLed by an lndlvldual who afLer renounclng hls
orlglnal naLlonallLy ln order Lo be naLurallzed ln anoLher sLaLe
ls subsequenLly denaLurallzed and ls LhereafLer denled
repaLrlaLlon by hls former counLry.

DL IUkL S1A1LLLSS
LkSCNS
DL IAC1C S1A1LLLSS
LkSCNS
sLrlpped of Lhelr naLlonallLy
by Lhelr former governmenL
and wlLhouL havlng an
opporLunlLy Lo acqulre
anoLher
Lhose who possess a
naLlonallLy whose counLry
does noL glve Lhem
proLecLlon ouLslde Lhelr own
counLry and who are
commonly referred Lo as
refugees

1he Pague ConvenLlon of 1930 adopLed cerLaln rules
calculaLed Lo avold Lhe condlLlon of sLaLelessness and all lLs
aLLendanL lnconvenlences. ln Lhe case of naLurallzaLlon, Lhe
wlfe and chlldren reLaln Lhelr exlsLlng naLlonallLy lf Lhey are
also blL naLurallzed and, moreover, Lhe wlfe wlll acqulre her
husbands new nationality, if permitted, only with her
consent. The adopted childs existing nationality is also not
lost if he does not acquire the adopters nationality. In other
cases, lL ls provlded LhaL chlldren shall have Lhe naLlonallLy of
Lhe sLaLe of Lhelr blrLh, whenever Lhelr parenLs are:

1. unknown
2. SLaLeless or of unknown naLlonallLy
3. A faLher who ls sLaLeless or of unknown naLlonallLy
and a moLher who ls a naLlonal of Lhe sLaLe where
Lhey are born.

k|ghts of a state|ess person

: What |s a state|ess person suffered a wr|ng through the
act or om|ss|on of another state?

A: A sLaLeless lndlvldual ls powerless Lo asserL any rlghL LhaL
oLherwlse would be avallable Lo hlm under lnLernaLlonal law
where he ls a naLlonal of a parLlcular sLaLe. Any wrong
suffered by hlm Lhrough Lhe acL or omlsslon of a sLaLe would
be 7#D'=D #B3O=1 6'P=56# for ln Lheory, no sLaLe has been
offended and no lnLernaLlonal dellcL commlLLed.

: What are the r|ghts that a state|ess person may |nvoke?

A:

1. 8lghL Lo rellglon
2. Access Lo Lhe courLs
3. 8aLlonlng of producLs, ln shorL supply
4. LlemenLary educaLlon
3. ubllc rellef and asslsLance
6. Labor leglslaLlon
7. Soclal securlLy

1hey also agree Lo accord Lo Lhem LreaLmenL noL less
favorable Lhan LhaL accorded Lo allens generally ln Lhe same
clrcumsLances. 1he ConvenLlon also provldes for Lhe lssuance
of Lhe ldenLlLy papers and Lravel documenLs Lo Lhe sLaLeless
persons.

NC1L: 1he Lerms of Lhe unlversal ueclaraLlon of Puman
8lghLs are sufflclenLly bound Lo encompass Lhe sLaLeless
person wlLh lLs proLecLlon and sympaLhy as a member of Lhe
human famlly.

: What are the consequences of state|essness?

A:

"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 43
1. no sLaLe can lnLervene or complaln ln behalf of
sLaLeless person for an lnLernaLlonal dellnquency
commlLLed by anoLher sLaLe ln lnfllcLlng ln[ury upon
hlm,
2. Pe cannoL be expelled by Lhe sLaLe lf he ls lawfully ln
lLs LerrlLory excepL on grounds of naLlonal securlLy or
publlc order,
3. Pe cannoL avall hlmself of Lhe proLecLlon and
beneflLs of clLlzenshlp llke securlng for hlmself a
passporL or vlsa and personal documenLs.

1kLA1MLN1 CI ALILNS

Q: What is the Doctrine of State Responsibility to Aliens?

A: A sLaLe ls under obllgaLlon Lo make reparaLlon Lo anoLher
sLaLe for Lhe fallure Lo fulflll lLs prlmary obllgaLlon Lo afford, ln
accordance wlLh lnLernaLlonal law, Lhe proper proLecLlon due
Lo an allen who ls a naLlonal of Lhe laLLer sLaLe.

under Lhls docLrlne, a sLaLe may be held responslble for:

a. An lnLernaLlonal dellnquency,
b. ulrecLly or lndlrecLly lmpuLable Lo lL,
c. Whlch causes ln[ury Lo Lhe naLlonal of anoLher sLaLe.

Gk: SLaLe has no legal obllgaLlon Lo admlL allens

kN: SLaLe may be held responslble for an lnLernaLlonal
dellnquency dlrecLly or lndlrecLly lmpuLable Lo lL whlch causes
ln[ury Lo Lhe naLlonal of anoLher SLaLe. LlablllLy wlll aLLach Lo
Lhe SLaLe where lLs LreaLmenL of Lhe allen falls below Lhe
lnLernaLlonal sLandard of [usLlce or where lL ls remlss ln
accordlng hlm Lhe proLecLlon or redress LhaL ls warranLed by
Lhe clrcumsLances.

Q: What are the requisites for the application of Doctrine
of State Responsibility to Aliens?

A:

1. An acL or omlsslon ln vlolaLlon of lnLernaLlonal law
2. Whlch ls lmpuLable or aLLrlbuLable Lo Lhe sLaLe
3. Whlch resulLs ln an ln[ury Lo Lhe clalmanL sLaLe
elLher dlrecLly or lndlrecLly Lhrough damage Lo a
naLlonal

DIkLC1 S1A1L
kLSCNSI8ILI1 or
IN1LkNA1ICNAL
DLLINULNC 8 SULkICk
GOVT OFFICIALS
INDIkLC1 S1A1L
kLSCNSI8ILI1 or
IN1LkNA1ICNAL
DLLINULNC 8 INILkICk
GOVT OFFICIALS
Lx: chlef execuLlve, naLlonal
leglslaLure

lf commlLLed by lnferlor
governmenL offlclals, or
more so, prlvaLe lndlvlduals,
LlablllLy wlll aLLach
lmmedlaLely as Lhelr acLs
may noL be effecLlvely
prevenLed or reversed under
Lhe consLlLuLlon or laws of
Lhe sLaLe
Lhe SLaLe wlll be held llable
only lf, by reason of lLs
lndlfference ln prevenLlng or
punlshlng lL, lL can be
consldered Lo have connlved
ln effecL ln lLs commlsslon

: What are the cond|t|ons for the enforcement of c|a|m
under the doctr|ne?

A:

1. naLlonallLy of clalm
2. LxhausLlon of local remedles
3. no walver
4. no unreasonable delay ln flllng clalm
3. no lmproper behavlor by ln[ured allen

NC1L: 1he docLrlne of sLaLe responslblllLy ls applled more
frequenLly Lo LorLuous raLher Lhan conLracLual llablllLy
because of Lhe unwllllngness of mosL sLaLes Lo acL as
collection agencies for their nationals entering into private
agreemenLs wlLh or ln forelgn counLrles.

1hls ls slmllar Lo cu|pa aqu|||ana or quas|-de||ct under Lhe
Clvll Code or torts under common law sysLem, LhaL ls why lL ls
loosely referred Lo as international tort

1he more recenL example ls Lhe LuneLa hosLage-Laklng
lncldenL. 1he governmenL of Pong kong asks for lndemnlLy
from Lhe hlllpplnes because of Lhe fallure of our auLhorlLles
Lo proLecL Lhelr naLlonals.

Avo|dance of State kespons|b|||ty

1he docLrlne of sLaLe responslblllLy ls applled more frequenLly
Lo LorLuous raLher Lhan conLracLual llablllLy because of Lhe
unwillingness of most states to act as collection agencies
for Lhelr naLlonals enLerlng lnLo prlvaLe agreemenLs wlLh or ln
foreign countries. Yet, to avoid the intervention of the aliens
sLaLe ln conLracLs of Lhls naLure, Lhe local sLaLe someLlmes
lncorporaLes Lhereln whaL ls known as Lhe Ca|vo Doctr|ne.

CALvC uCC18lnL

1hls ls a sLlpulaLlon by whlch Lhe allen walves or resLrlcLs hls
rlghL Lo appeal Lo hls own sLaLe ln connecLlon wlLh any clalm
arlslng from Lhe conLracL and agrees Lo llmlL hlmself Lo
remedles avallable under Lhe laws of Lhe local sLaLe.

lnsofar as lL requlres Lhe allen Lo exhausL Lhe remedles
avallable ln Lhe local sLaLe, Lhe Calvo Clause may be enforced
as a lawful condlLlon of Lhe conLracL.

Lk1kADI1ICN AND DLCk1A1ICN

: What |s extrad|t|on?
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 44

A: lL ls Lhe surrender of a person by one sLaLe Lo anoLher
sLaLe where he ls wanLed for prosecuLlon or lf already
convlcLed, for punlshmenL. lL ls based on:

a. 1reaLy, or ln lLs absence
b. 1he local sLaLe may granL asylum Lo Lhe fuglLlve
c. lf surrender ls made, Lhe same ls merely a gesLure of
comlLy

: now |s |t d|fferent from deportat|on?

A:

Lk1kADI1ICN DLCk1A1ICN
lL ls effecLed aL Lhe requesL of
Lhe sLaLe of orlgln
whereas deporLaLlon ls Lhe
unllaLeral acL of Lhe local
sLaLe,
L ls based on offenses
generally commlLLed ln Lhe
sLaLe of orlgln
whereas deporLaLlon ls based
on causes arlslng ln Lhe local
sLaLe,
lL calls for Lhe reLurn of Lhe
fuglLlve Lo Lhe sLaLe of orlgln
whereas an undeslrable allen
may be deporLed Lo a sLaLe
oLher Lhan hls own or Lhe
sLaLe of orlgln.

8as|s of Lxtrad|t|on

LxLradlLlon ls requlred only lf Lhere ls a LreaLy beLween Lhe
sLaLe of refuge and Lhe sLaLe of orlgln. ln Lhe absence of such
LreaLy, Lhe local sLaLe has every rlghL Lo granL asylum Lo Lhe
fuglLlve and Lo refuse even lf Lhere Lo dellver hlmself back Lo
Lhe laLLer sLaLe even lf he ls lLs naLlonal.

Iundamenta| r|nc|p|es

1. 8ased on Lhe consenL of Lhe SLaLe of asylum as
expressed ln a LreaLy or manlfesLed as an acL of
goodwlll,
2. rlnclple of 8*196#%4: a fuglLlve who ls exLradlLed
may be Lrled only for Lhe crlme speclfled ln Lhe
requesL for exLradlLlon and lncluded ln Lhe llsL of
offenses ln Lhe exLradlLlon LreaLy. lf he ls charged
wlLh any oLher offense commlLLed before hls escape,
Lhe sLaLe of refugeand noL Lhe accused--has Lhe
rlghL Lo ob[ecL, neverLheless Lhe prosecuLlon wlll be
allowed lf Lhe exLradlLlng sLaLe agrees or does noL
complaln,
3. Any person may be exLradlLed, wheLher he be a
naLlonal of Lhe requesLlng SLaLe, of Lhe SLaLe of
refuge or of anoLher SLaLe. Pe need noL be a clLlzen
of Lhe requesLlng SLaLe. 1he pracLlce of many sLaLes
now, however, ls noL Lo exLradlLe Lhelr own
naLlonals buL Lo punlsh Lhem under Lhelr own laws ln
accordance wlLh Lhe naLlonallLy prlnclple of crlmlnal
lnvesLlgaLlon.
4. ollLlcal or rellglous offenders are generally noL
sub[ecL Lo exLradlLlon. As held, Lo consLlLuLe an
offense of a pollLlcal characLer, Lhere musL be 2 or
more parLles ln Lhe sLaLe, each seeklng Lo lmpose Lhe
governmenL of Lhelr own cholce on Lhe oLher.

NC1L: F$$*($"($ #,"'&* ls a provlslon ln an exLradlLlon LreaLy
whlch sLaLes LhaL Lhe murder or assasslnaLlon of Lhe head of a
sLaLe or any member of hls famlly wlll noL be consldered as a
pollLlcal offense and Lherefore exLradlLable. nelLher ls Lhe
crlme of genoclde, whlch may conslsL of nay of Lhe followlng
acLs, commlLLed wlLh lnLenL Lo desLroy, ln whole or ln parL, a
naLlonal, eLhnlc, raclal, or rellglous group as such:

a. kllllng members of Lhe group,
b. Causlng serlous bodlly or menLal harm Lo
members of Lhe group,
c. uellberaLely lnfllcLlng on Lhe group condlLlons of
llfe calculaLed Lo brlng abouL lLs physlcal
desLrucLlon ln whole or ln parL,
d. lmposlng measures lnLended Lo prevenL blrLhs
wlLhln Lhe group,
e. lorclbly Lransferrlng chlldren of Lhe group Lo
anoLher group.

3. 1he offense musL have been commlLLed wlLhln Lhe
LerrlLory of Lhe requesLlng SLaLe or agalnsL lLs
lnLeresL,
6. Q&=B%1 V56D6'#%64: A=%1 1he acL for whlch Lhe
exLradlLlon ls soughL musL be punlshable ln boLh
SLaLes

r|nc|p|e of spec|a|ty

: What |s the pr|nc|p|e of spec|a|ty?

A: A fuglLlve who ls exLradlLed may be Lrled only for Lhe crlme
speclfled ln Lhe requesL for exLradlLlon and lncluded ln Lhe llsL
of offlces ln Lhe exLradlLlon LreaLy

Attentat C|ause

Gk: ollLlcal and rellglous leaders are generally noL sub[ecL Lo
exLradlLlon

: What |s the Attentat C|ause?

A: 1he murder of Lhe head of sLaLe or any member of hls
famlly ls noL regarded as a pollLlcal offense.

ku|e of doub|e cr|m|na||ty

: What |s the ru|e of doub|e cr|m|na||ty?

A: 1he acL for whlch Lhe exLradlLlon ls soughL musL be
punlshable ln boLh Lhe requesLlng and requesLed sLaLe

"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 43
rocedure

: What |s the procedure for extrad|t|on when a fore|gn State
requests from the h|||pp|nes?

A:

1. llle/lssue requesL Lhrough dlplomaLlc represenLaLlve wlLh:
a. ueclslon of convlcLlon
b. Crlmlnal charge and warranL of arresL
c. 8eclLal of facLs
d. 1exL of appllcable law deslgnaLlng Lhe offense
e. erLlnenL papers

2. ulA forwards requesL Lo uC!
3. uC! flles peLlLlon for exLradlLlon wlLh 81C
4. upon recelpL of a peLlLlon for exLradlLlon and lLs
supporLlng documenLs, Lhe [udge musL sLudy Lhem and
make, as soon as posslble, a *56D# ;#961 ;6'76'$ wheLher
(a) Lhey are sufflclenL ln form and subsLance, (b) Lhey show
compllance wlLh Lhe LxLradlLlon 1reaLy and Law, and (c)
Lhe person soughL ls exLradlLable. AL hls dlscreLlon, Lhe
[udge may requlre Lhe submlsslon of furLher
documenLaLlon or may personally examlne Lhe afflanLs
and wlLnesses of Lhe peLlLloner. lf, ln splLe of Lhls sLudy
and examlnaLlon, no *56D# ;#961 ;6'76'$ ls posslble, Lhe
peLlLlon may be dlsmlssed aL Lhe dlscreLlon of Lhe [udge.
3. Cn Lhe oLher hand, lf Lhe presence of a prlma facle case ls
deLermlned, Lhen Lhe maglsLraLe musL lmmedlaLely lssue a
warranL for Lhe arresL of Lhe exLradlLee, who ls aL Lhe
same Llme summoned Lo answer Lhe peLlLlon and Lo
appear aL scheduled summary hearlngs.
6. Pearlng (provlde counsel de offlclo lf necessary),
7. Appeal Lo CA wlLhln Len days whose declslon shall be flnal
and execuLory,
8. ueclslon forwarded Lo ulA Lhrough Lhe uC!,
9. lndlvldual placed aL Lhe dlsposal of Lhe auLhorlLles of
requesLlng SLaLe cosLs and expenses Lo be shouldered by
requesLlng SLaLe.

Iur|sprudence

Secretary of
Iust|ce v.
Lant|on, Ian.
18, 2000
(uno,
D|ssent|ng
Cp|n|on)
LxLradlLlon ls Lhe process by whlch persons
charged wlLh or convlcLed of crlme agalnsL
Lhe law of a SLaLe and found ln a forelgn
SLaLe are reLurned by Lhe laLLer Lo Lhe former
for Lrlal or punlshmenL.
a. lL applles Lo Lhose who are merely
charged wlLh an offense buL have
noL been broughL Lo Lrlal, Lo Lhose
who have been Lrled and convlcLed
and have subsequenLly escaped
from cusLody, and Lhose who have
been convlcLed ln absenLla.
b. lL does noL apply Lo persons merely
suspecLed of havlng commlLLed an
offense buL agalnsL whom no
charges has been lald or Lo a person
whose presence ls deslred as a
wlLness or for obLalnlng or enforclng
a clvll [udgmenL.
Secretary of
Iust|ce v.
Lant|on, Cct.
27, 2000
(uno)

Su| Gener|s nature

An exLradlLlon proceedlng ls &') 2*(*+)&. lL
ls not a cr|m|na| proceed|ng whlch wlll call
lnLo operaLlon all Lhe rlghLs of an accused as
guaranLeed by Lhe 8lll of 8lghLs. 1o begln
wlLh, Lhe process of exLradlLlon does noL
lnvolve Lhe deLermlnaLlon of Lhe gullL or
lnnocence of an accused. Pls gullL or
lnnocence wlll be ad[udged ln Lhe courL of
Lhe sLaLe where he wlll be exLradlLed. Pence,
as a rule, consLlLuLlonal rlghLs LhaL are only
relevanL Lo deLermlne Lhe gullL or lnnocence
of an accused cannoL be lnvoked by an
exLradlLee especlally by one whose
exLradlLlon papers are sLlll undergolng
evaluaLlon.

Lxtrad|t|on v. Cr|m|na| proceed|ng

F& $/ ("$'+* /E !+/#**1)(2

1. An exLradlLlon proceedlng ls
summary ln naLure whlle crlmlnal
proceedlngs lnvolve a full-blown
Lrlal.

F& $/ "!!,)#"$)/( /E G',*& /E -9)1*(#*

2. ln conLradlsLlncLlon Lo a crlmlnal
proceedlng, Lhe rules of evldence ln
an exLradlLlon proceedlng allow
admlsslon of evldence under less
sLrlngenL sLandards.

F& $/ H'"($'3 /E *9)1*(#* +*I')+*1

3. ln Lerms of Lhe quanLum of evldence
Lo be saLlsfled, a crlmlnal case
requlres proof beyond reasonable
doubL for convlcLlon whlle a fuglLlve
may be ordered exLradlLed "upon
showlng of Lhe exlsLence of a prlma
facle case."

F& $/ :=*( $=* 0'123*($ 4*#/3*&
*.*#'$/+<

4. llnally, unllke ln a crlmlnal case
where [udgmenL becomes execuLory
upon belng rendered flnal, ln an
exLradlLlon proceedlng, our courLs
may ad[udge an lndlvldual
exLradlLable buL Lhe resldenL has
Lhe flnal dlscreLlon Lo exLradlLe hlm.
1he unlLed SLaLes adheres Lo a
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 46
slmllar pracLlce whereby Lhe
SecreLary of SLaLe exerclses wlde
dlscreLlon ln balanclng Lhe equlLles
of Lhe case and Lhe demands of Lhe
naLlon's forelgn relaLlons before
maklng Lhe ulLlmaLe declslon Lo
exLradlLe
Govt f USA
v. urganan,
Sept. 24,
2002
(angan|ban)

urpose of extrad|t|on

1he ulLlmaLe purpose of exLradlLlon
proceedlngs ln courL ls only Lo deLermlne
wheLher Lhe exLradlLlon requesL complles
wlLh Lhe LxLradlLlon 1reaLy, and wheLher Lhe
person soughL ls exLradlLable.

Nature of extrad|t|on

LxLradlLlon proceedlngs are noL equlvalenL Lo
a crlmlnal case ln whlch gullL or lnnocence ls
deLermlned.

An exLradlLlon case ls noL one ln whlch Lhe
consLlLuLlonal rlghLs of Lhe accused are
necessarlly avallable.

xLradlLlon ls essenLlally an execuLlve, noL a
[udlclal, responslblllLy arlslng ouL of Lhe
presldenLlal power Lo conducL forelgn
relaLlons and Lo lmplemenL LreaLles.

k|ghts of an extrad|te

oLenLlal exLradlLees are enLlLled Lo Lhe
rlghLs Lo due process and Lo fundamenLal
falrness. uue process does noL always call for
a *56&5 opporLunlLy Lo be
heard. A 3=B31O=1'4 opporLunlLy ls sufflclenL
due Lo Lhe fllghL rlsk lnvolved. lndeed,
avallable durlng Lhe hearlngs on Lhe peLlLlon
and Lhe answer ls Lhe full chance Lo be heard
and Lo en[oy fundamenLal falrness LhaL
ls 9&D*#46B%1 N64E 4E1 3=DD#5: '#4=51of
exLradlLlon.
Govt of
nong kong v.
C|a||a, Apr||
19, 2007
(Sandova|-
Gut|errez)

Modern trend |n IL: Cn human d|gn|ty

1he modern trend |n pub||c |nternat|ona|
|aw |s the pr|macy p|aced on the worth of
the |nd|v|dua| person and the sanct|ty of
human r|ghts. Slowly, Lhe recognlLlon LhaL
Lhe lndlvldual person may properly be a
sub[ecL of lnLernaLlonal law ls now Laklng
rooL. 1he vulnerable docLrlne LhaL Lhe
sub[ecLs of lnLernaLlonal law are llmlLed only
Lo sLaLes was dramaLlcally eroded Lowards
Lhe second half of Lhe pasL cenLury. lor one,
Lhe nuremberg and 1okyo Lrlals afLer World
War ll resulLed ln Lhe unprecedenLed
specLacle of lndlvldual defendanLs for acLs
characLerlzed as vlolaLlons of Lhe laws of war,
crlmes agalnsL peace, and crlmes agalnsL
humanlLy.

1he hlllpplnes, along wlLh Lhe oLher
members of Lhe famlly of naLlons, commlLLed
Lo uphold Lhe fundamenLal human rlghLs as
well as value Lhe worLh and dlgnlLy of every
person.

k|ght to ba||
lf ball can be granLed ln deporLaLlon cases,
we see no [usLlflcaLlon why lL should noL also
be allowed ln exLradlLlon cases. Llkewlse,
conslderlng LhaL Lhe unlversal ueclaraLlon of
Puman 8lghLs applles Lo deporLaLlon cases,
Lhere ls no reason why lL cannoL be lnvoked
ln exLradlLlon cases. AfLer all, boLh are
admlnlsLraLlve proceedlngs where Lhe
lnnocence or gullL of Lhe person deLalned ls
noL ln lssue.
Clearly, Lhe rlghL of a prospecLlve exLradlLee
Lo apply for ball ln Lhls [urlsdlcLlon musL be
vlewed ln Lhe llghL of Lhe varlous LreaLy
obllgaLlons of Lhe hlllpplnes concernlng
respecL for Lhe promoLlon and proLecLlon of
human rlghLs. under Lhese LreaLles, Lhe
presumpLlon lles ln favor of human llberLy.

: Shou|d the [udge |nform the potent|a| extrad|tee of the
pend|ng pet|t|on for extrad|t|on pr|or to the |ssuance of
warrant of arrest?

A: no. rlor Lo Lhe lssuance of Lhe warranL, Lhe [udge musL
noL lnform or noLlfy Lhe poLenLlal exLradlLee of Lhe pendency
of Lhe peLlLlon, lesL Lhe laLLer be glven Lhe opporLunlLy Lo
escape and frusLraLe Lhe proceedlngs. 1he foregolng
procedure will best serve the ends of justice in extradlLlon
cases.

: Can a State compe| another State to extrad|te a cr|m|na|
w|thout go|ng through the |ega| process?

A: no.

: Is an extrad|t|on proceed|ng a cr|m|na| proceed|ng?

A: no. LxLradlLlon ls noL a crlmlnal proceedlng whlch wlll call
lnLo operaLlon all Lhe rlghLs of an accused provlded ln Lhe blll
of rlghLs.

: Is a pet|t|on for ba|| va||d |n extrad|t|on cases?
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 47

A: ?es. 1he hlllpplnes, along wlLh oLher members of Lhe
famlly of naLlons, commlLLed Lo uphold Lhe fundamenLal
human rlghLs as well as value Lhe worLh and dlgnlLy of every
person. 1he commlLmenL ls enshrlned ln SecLlon 11, ArLlcle ll
of our ConsLlLuLlon whlch provldes: The State values the
76$'64: &; 1>15: E=D#' *153&' #'7 $=#5#'4117 ;=%% 513*194
for human rights. 1he hlllpplnes, Lherefore, has Lhe
responslblllLy of proLecLlng and promoLlng Lhe rlghL of every
person Lo llberLy and due process, ensurlng LhaL Lhose
deLalned or arresLed can parLlclpaLe ln Lhe proceedlngs
before a courL, Lo enable lL Lo declde wlLhouL delay on Lhe
legallLy of Lhe deLenLlon and order Lhelr release lf [usLlfled. ln
oLher words, Lhe hlllpplne auLhorlLles are under obllgaLlon
Lo make avallable Lo every person under deLenLlon such
remedles whlch safeguard Lhelr fundamenLal rlghL Lo llberLy.
1hese remedles lnclude Lhe 56$E4 4& B1 #7D64417 4& B#6%.

k|ghts of a person arrested and deta|ned |n another state

: What are the r|ghts of a person arrested and deta|ned |n
another State?

A:
1. 8lghL Lo have hls requesL complled wlLh by Lhe
recelvlng SLaLe Lo so lnform Lhe consular posL of hls
condlLlon
2. 2. 8lghL Lo have hls communlcaLlon addressed Lo Lhe
consular posL forwarded by Lhe recelvlng SLaLe
accordlngly
3. 8lghL Lo be lnformed by Lhe compeLenL auLhorlLles
of Lhe recelvlng wlLhouL delay hls rlghLs as
menLloned above

: Is the retroact|ve app||cat|on of the extrad|t|on treaty
amount|ng to an ex post facto |aw?

A: no. ln b56$E4 >+ V&=54 &; T**1#%3( H+A+ I&+,,J-,J( T=$=34
,/(,^^X( lL was held LhaL Lhe reLroacLlve appllcaLlon of Lhe
1reaLy of LxLradlLlon does noL vlolaLe Lhe prohlblLlon agalnsL
ex posL facLo laws, because Lhe 1reaLy ls nelLher a plece of
crlmlnal leglslaLlon nor a crlmlnal procedural sLaLuLe. lL
merely provlded for Lhe exLradlLlon of persons wanLed for
offenses already commlLLed aL Lhe Llme Lhe LreaLy was
raLlfled.

Lxtrad|t|on v. Deportat|on

Lk1kADI1ICN DLCk1A1ICN
lL ls Lhe surrender of a person
by one sLaLe Lo anoLher sLaLe
where he ls wanLed for
prosecuLlon or lf already
convlcLed, for punlshmenL.

1he surrender ls made aL Lhe
requesL of Lhe laLLer sLaLe on
Lxpulslon of an allen who ls
consldered undeslrable by
Lhe local sLaLe, usually buL
noL necessarlly Lo hls own
sLaLe.

lL ls a unllaLeral acL of Lhe
local sLaLe and ls made ln lLs
Lhe basls of an exLradlLlon
LreaLy
own lnLeresL.
lL ls Lhe surrender of a person
by one sLaLe Lo anoLher sLaLe
where he ls wanLed for
prosecuLlon or lf already
convlcLed, for punlshmenL.
8ased on causes arlslng ln
Lhe local SLaLe
Calls of Lhe reLurn of Lhe
fuglLlve Lo Lhe SLaLe or orlgln

undeslrable allen may be
deporLed Lo a SLaLe oLher
Lhan hls own or Lhe SLaLe of
orlgln

k|ght of Asy|um, kefugees, State|ess ersons

: What |s the k|ght of asy|um?

A: SLaLe lnferred from lLs LerrlLorlal supremacy Lo allow a
prosecuLed allen Lo enLer and Lo remaln on lLs LerrlLory under
lLs proLecLlon and Lhereby granL asylum Lo hlm.

ln Lhe absence of any lnLernaLlonal LreaLy sLlpulaLlng Lo Lhe
conLrary, no SLaLe ls, under lnLernaLlonal law, obllged Lo
refuse admlsslon lnLo lLs LerrlLory such fuglLlve, or ln case he
has been admlLLed, Lo expel hlm or dellver hlm up Lo Lhe
prosecuLlng offlce.

NC1L: 1he 8lghL of asylum ls noL a rlghL possessed by an allen
Lo demand LhaL a SLaLe proLecL hlm and granL hlm asylum. AL
presenL, lL ls [usL a prlvllege granLed by a SLaLe Lo allow an
allen escaplng from Lhe persecuLlon of hls counLry for
pollLlcal reasons remaln and granL hlm asylum.

: Who are refugees?

A: Any person who ls ouLslde Lhe counLry of hls naLlonallLy or
Lhe counLry of hls former hablLual resldence because he has
or had well founded fear of persecuLlon by reason of hls race,
rellglon, naLlonallLy, membershlp of a pollLlcal group or
pollLlcal oplnlon and ls unable or, because of such fear, ls
unwllllng Lo avall hlmself of Lhe proLecLlon of Lhe governmenL
of Lhe counLry of hls naLlonallLy, or, lf he has no naLlonallLy,
Lo reLurn Lo Lhe counLry of hls former hablLual resldence.

: What are the e|ements before one may be cons|dered as
a refugee?

A:

1. 1he person ls ouLslde Lhe counLry of hls naLlonallLy,
or ln Lhe case of SLaLeless persons, ouLslde Lhe
counLry of hablLual resldence,
2. 1he person lacks naLlonal proLecLlon,
3. 1he person fears persecuLlon ln hls own counLry.

1he person fears persecuLlon ln hls own counLry.

"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 48
NC1L: 1he second elemenL makes, a refugee a SLaLeless
person. 8ecause a refugee approxlmaLes a SLaLeless person,
he can be compared Lo a vessel on Lhe open sea noL salllng
under Lhe flag of any SLaLe, or be called flo Lsam and 513
'=%%6=3. Cnly a person who ls granLed asylum by anoLher SLaLe
can apply for refugee sLaLus, Lhus Lhe refugee LreaLles lmply
Lhe prlnclple of asylum.

kLIUGLLS IN1LkNALL DISLACLD
LkSCN
eople who have fled Lhelr
counLrles
1hose who have noL lefL Lhelr
countrys territory

r|nc|p|e of Non-kefou|ment

: What |s the r|nc|p|e of Non-Refoulment?

A: lL poslLs LhaL a SLaLe may noL deporL or expel refugees Lo
Lhe fronLlers of LerrlLorles where Lhelr llfe or freedom would
be puL ln danger or aL rlsk.

NC1L: 1he rlnclple of Lhe non-refoulmenL was declared Lo
be a generally accepLed prlnclple by Lhe ConvenLlon relaLlng
Lo Lhe sLaLus of sLaLeless persons.

IN1LkNA1ICNAL nUMAN kIGn1S LAW

Internat|ona| Dec|arat|on of numan k|ghts (UDnk)

: What |s the so-ca||ed Internat|ona| Dec|arat|on of numan
k|ghts (UDnk)?

A: lL ls Lhe flrsL comprehenslve caLalogue of human rlghLs
proclalmed by an lnLernaLlonal organlzaLlon.

: Is UDnk a treaty?

A: no. lL has no obllgaLory characLer because lL was adopLed
by Lhe un Ceneral Assembly as 8esoluLlon 217 (lll). As a
resoluLlon, lL ls merely recommendaLory.

: What are the 3 generat|on of r|ghts?

A:

IIkS1 GLNLkA1ICN a. Clvll rlghLs
b. ollLlcal rlghLs

lncludes:

1. 8lghL Lo llfe, LlberLy, rlvacy,
SecurlLy of person
2. rohlblLlon agalnsL slavery
3. 1he rlghL noL Lo be
sub[ecLed Lo arblLrary arresL,
deLenLlon or exlle
4. 1he rlghL Lo falr Lrlal and
presumpLlon of lnnocence
3. 1he rlghL Lo naLlonallLy
6. 1he rlghL of freedom of
LhoughL, consclence, and
rellglon
7. 8lghL Lo freedom of oplnlon
and expresslon
8. 1he rlghL Lo peaceful
assembly and assoclaLlon
9. 1he rlghL Lo Lake parL ln Lhe
governmenL of hls counLry
SLCCND
GLNLkA1ICN
a. Lconomlc rlghLs
b. Soclal rlghLs
c. CulLural rlghLs

lncludes:

1. 1he rlghL Lo soclal securlLy
2. 1he rlghL Lo work and
proLecLlon agalnsL
unemploymenL
3. 1he rlghL Lo equal pay for
equal work
4. 1he rlghL Lo form and [oln
Lrade unlons
3. 1he rlghL Lo resL and lelsure
1nIkD GLNLkA1ICN a. 8lghL Lo envlronmenL
b. 8lghL Lo peace
c. 8lghL Lo developmenL

: What are human r|ghts?

A: 1hose llberLles, lmmunlLles and beneflLs, whlch all human
beings should be able to claim as a righL of Lhe socleLy ln
whlch Lhey llve Louls Penkln

: now are human r|ghts c|ass|f|ed?

A:

1. lndlvldual rlghLs
2. Collective rights (right to self-determination of
people, Lhe permanenL soverelgnLy over naLural
resources)

Internat|ona| Covenant on C|v|| and o||t|ca| k|ghts (ICCk)

: What |s the so-ca||ed Internat|ona| Covenant on C|v|| and
o||t|ca| k|ghts (ICCk)?

A: lL ls an lnLernaLlonal covenanL and ls blndlng on Lhe
respecLlve sLaLe parLles.

NC1L: lL lncludes Lhe f|rst generat|on of human r|ghts
alLhough lL llsLs more rlghLs Lhan Lhe uuP8:
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 49

a. 1he rlghL Lo own properLy
b. 1he rlghL Lo seek ln oLher counLrles asylum from
prosecuLlon
c. 1he rlghL of members of eLhnlc, rellglous or llngulsLlc
groups noL Lo be delned Lo en[oy Lhelr own culLure,
Lo profess and pracLlce Lhelr own rellglon, or Lo use
Lhelr own language
d. 1he rlghL Lo compensaLlon ln case of unalwful arresL
e. 1he rlghL Lo legal asslsLance om crlmlnal prosecuLlon
f. 1he rlghL agalsnL self-lncrlmlnaLlon
g. roLecLlon agalnsL double-[eopardy
h. 1he rlghL Lo revlew by hlgher Lrlbunal ln case of
crlmlnal convlcLlon
l. 8lghL of every chlld Lo naLlonallLy
[. 8lghL Lo prorecLlon of a chlld as requlred by hls
sLaLus as mlnor
k. 8lghL of persons below 18 years old noL Lo be
senLenced Lo deaLh for crlmes
l. 8lghL agalnsL Lhe carrylng ouL of deLaLh senLence on
Lhe parL of a pregnanL woman

Internat|ona| Covenant on Lconom|c, Soc|a| and Cu|tura|
k|ghts (ICLSCk)

: What |s the Internat|ona| Covenant on Lconom|c, Soc||a
and Cu|tura| k|ghts (ICLSCk)?

A: Llke Lhe lCC8, lL ls an lnLernaLlonal covenanL and ls
blndlng on Lhe respecLlve SLaLe arLles.

NC1L: 1hls embodles Lhe second generat|on of human
r|ghts, alLhough lL llsLs more rlghLs:

a. 8lghL Lo healLh
b. 8lghL Lo sLrlke
c. 8lghL Lo be free from hunger
d. 8lghLs Lo en[oy Lhe beneflLs of sclenLlflc progress
e. lreedom of sclenLlflc research and creaLlvlLy

IN1LkNA1ICNAL nUMANI1AkIAN LAW (InL) AND
NLU1kALI1

: What |s Internat|ona| numan|tar|an Law (InL)?

A: lL ls Lhe branch of lL whlch governs armed confllcLs Lo Lhe
end LhaL Lhe use of vlolence ls llmlLed and LhaL human
sufferlng ls mlLlgaLed or reduced by regulaLlng or llmlLlng Lhe
means of mlllLary operaLlons and by proLecLlng persons who
do noL or no longer parLlclpaLe ln hosLlllLles. lL ls also known
as Lhe law of armed confllcL or Lhe law of war.

: What are the two branches of InL?

A:

1. ?#N &; H1'1># deslgned Lo safeguard mlllLary
personnel who are no longer Laklng parL ln Lhe
flghLlng and people noL acLlvely.
2. ?#N &; 4E1 Y#$=1 esLabllshes Lhe rlghLs and
obllgaLlons of belllgerenLs ln Lhe conducL of mlllLary
operaLlons, and llmlLs Lhe means of harmlng Lhe
enemy.

Armed conf||ct

: What |s armed conf||ct?

A: All cases of declared war or any oLher armed confllcL whlch
may arlse beLween 2 or more of Lhe PlghesL conLracLlng
parLles, even lf sLaLe of war ls noL recognlzed by one of Lhem
(T54+ -( H1'1># V&'>1'46&' &; ,^X^0.

Categor|es of armed conf||cts

Internat|ona|
armed conf||cts
a. LxlsLs when Lhere ls resorL Lo
Lhe use of force beLween 2
sLaLes
Interna| or Non-
|nternat|ona|
armed conf||ct
b. 8eLween Lhe governmenL
auLhorlLles and an organlzed
armed group
c. 8eLween such groups wlLhln
Lhe same LerrlLory
War of nat|ona|
||berat|on
a. An armed confllcL may be of
such naLure ln whlch peoples
are flghLlng agalnsL colonlal
domlnaLlon and allen
occupaLlon and agalnsL raclsL
reglmes ln Lhe exerclse of Lhelr
rlghL Lo self-deLermlnalLon
b. lL ls consldered an 6'415'#46&'#%
#5D17 9&';%694 under roLocol 1

: What are the categor|es on the wars for nat|ona| ||berat|on?

A: lLs caLegorles are:

1. Colonlal domlnaLlon
2. Allen occupaLlon, and
3. Racist regimes when the peoples oppressed by these
regimes are fighting for self-determination.

CCkL IN1LkNA1ICNAL C8LIGA1ICNS CI S1A1LS IN InL

: What are the essent|a| ru|es of InL?
A:

1. 1he parLles Lo a confllcL musL aL all Llmes dlsLlngulsh
beLween Lhe clvlllan populaLlon and combaLanLs
2. nelLher Lhe clvlllan populaLlon as a whole nor
lndlvldual clvlllans may be aLLacked
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 30
3. ALLacks may be made sole agalnsL mlllLary ob[ecLlves
4. eople who do noL or can no longer Lake parL ln Lhe
hosLlllLles are enLlLled Lo respecL for Lhelr llves and
for Lhelr physlcal and menLal lnLegrlLy and musL be
LreaLed wlLh humanlLy, wlLhouL any unfavorable
dlsLlncLlon whaLever.
3. lL ls forbldden Lo klll or wound an adversary who
surrenders or who can no longer Lake parL ln Lhe
flghLlng
6. nelLher Lhe parLles Lo Lhe confllcL nor members of
Lhelr armed forces have an unllmlLed rlghL Lo choose
meLhods and means of warfare
7. lL ls forbldden Lo use weapons or meLhods of
warfare LhaL are llkely Lo cause unnecessary losses
and excesslve sufferlng.
8. 1he wounded and slck musL be collecLed and cared
for by Lhe parLy Lo Lhe confllcL whlch has Lhem ln lLs
power.
9. Medlcal personnel and medlcal esLabllshmenLs,
LransporLs and equlpmenL musL be spared. 1he red
cross or red crescenL ls Lhe dlsLlncLlve slgn lndlcaLlng
LhaL such persons and ob[ecLs musL be respecLed
10. CapLured combaLanLs and clvlllans who flnd
Lhemselves under Lhe auLhorlLy of Lhe adverse parLy
are enLlLled Lo respecL for Lhelr llves, Lhelr dlgnlLy,
Lhelr personal rlghLs and Lhelr pollLlcal, rellglous and
oLher convlcLlons and musL be proLecLed agalnsL all
acLs of vlolence or reprlsals, enLlLled Lo exchange of
news wlLh Lhelr famllles and recelve ald and en[oy
baslc [udlclal guaranLees.

kINCILLS CI IN1LkNA1ICNAL nUMANI1AkIAN LAW

: What are the fundamenta| pr|nc|p|es of the InL?

A:

1. art|es to armed confllcL are prohlblLed from
employlng weapons or means of warfare LhaL cause
unnecessary damage or excesslve sufferlng.(rlnclple
of prohlblLlon of use of weapons of a naLure Lo cause
superfluous ln[ury or unnecessary sufferlng)
2. arLles Lo armed confllcL shall dlsLlngulsh beLween
clvlllan populace from combaLanLs and spare Lhe
former from mlllLary aLLacks.(rlnclple of dlsLlncLlon
beLween clvlllans and combaLanLs)
3. ersons hors de combaL and Lhose who do noL Lake
parL ln hosLlllLles shall be proLecLed and LreaLed
humanely wlLhouL any adverse dlsLlncLlon.
4. lL ls prohlblLed Lo klll or ln[ure an enemy who
surrenders or who ls a hors de combaL.
3. 1he wounded and Lhe slck shall be proLecLed and
cared for by Lhe parLy who ls ln cusLody of Lhem.
6. arLles who capLured clvlllans and combaLanLs shall
respecL Lhelr rlghLs Lo llfe, dlgnlLy, and oLher
personal rlghLs.

nors de combat

: When |s a person cons|dered as J/+& 1* #/34"$?

A:

a. Pe ls ln Lhe power of an adverse parLy Lo Lhe confllcL
b. lncapable of defendlng hlmself provlded he absLalns
away from any hosLlle acL and does noL aLLempL Lo
escape
c. Pe clearly expresses an lnLenLlon Lo surrender

1reatment of c|v|||ans

: What |s the Martens c|ause]r|nc|p|e of human|ty?

A: ln cases noL covered by oLher lnLernaLlonal agreemenLs,
clvlllans and combaLanLs remaln under Lhe proLecLlon and
auLhorlLy of Lhe prlnclples of lnLernaLlonal law derlved from
esLabllshed cusLom, from Lhe prlnclples of humanlLy and from
Lhe dlcLaLes of publlc consclence.

r|soners of war

: What are the r|ghts and pr|v||eges of pr|soners of war?

A:
1. 1hey musL be LreaLed humanely, shall noL be
sub[ecLed Lo physlcal or menLal LorLure, shall be
allowed Lo communlcaLe wlLh Lhelr famllles, and
may recelve food, cloLhlng, educaLlonal and rellglous
arLlcles.
2. 1hey may noL be forced Lo reveal mlllLary daLa
excepL Lhe name, rank, serlal number, army and
reglmenLal number and daLe of blrLh, Lhey may noL
be compelled Lo work for mlllLary servlces
3. All Lhelr personal belonglng excepL Lhelr arms and
mlllLary papers remaln Lhelr properLy.
4. 1hey musL be lnLerned ln a healLhful and hyglenlc
place.
3. AfLer Lhe concluslon of peace, Lhelr speedy
repaLrlaLlon musL be accompllshed as soon as ls
pracLlcable

LAW CN NLU1kALI1

: What |s neutra||ty?

A: It is non-participation, directly or indirectly, in a war
beLween conLendlng belllgerenLs. 1hls exlsLs only durlng war
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 31
Llme and ls governed by Lhe law of naLlons. Lxamples of Lhese
sLaLes are SwlLzerland, Sweden, 1he vaLlcan ClLy, CosLa 8lca.

NC1L: An #4464=71 &; 6D*#546#%64: adopLed by Lhlrd SLaLes
Lowards belllgerenLs and recognlzed by Lhe belllgerenLs, such
aLLlLude creaLlng rlghLs and duLles beLween Lhe lmparLlal
SLaLes and Lhe belllgerenLs.

Q: What is non-alignment (Neutralism)?

A: 1hls refers Lo peaceLlme forelgn pollcles of naLlons deslrlng
Lo remaln deLached from confllcLlng lnLeresLs of oLher naLlons
or power groups.

: What |s a neutra||st po||cy?

A: lL ls Lhe pollcy of Lhe sLaLe Lo remaln neuLral ln fuLure wars.
Non-alignment is the implemenLaLlon of neuLrallsm.

: D|st|ngu|sh neutra||ty from neutra||zat|on.

A:

NLU1kALI1 NLU1kALI2A1ICN
CbLalns only durlng war

A condlLlon LhaL applles ln
peace and war
A sLaLus creaLed under
lnLernaLlonal law, by
means of a sLand on Lhe
parL of a sLaLe noL Lo
slde wlLh any of Lhe
parLles aL war

A sLaLus creaLed by means of
a LreaLy

8roughL abouL by a unllaLeral
declaraLlon by neuLral sLaLe

CannoL be effecLed by
unllaLeral acL only buL musL
be recognlzed by oLher
sLaLes.

: D|st|ngu|sh neutra||ty from non-a||gnment.

A:

NLU1kALI1 NCN-ALIGNMLN1
resupposes Lhe exlsLence of
war or confllcL
LxlsLs durlng peace Llme
Avolds lnvolvemenL ln a war 8e[ecLs lmperlallsm and
colonlallsm by Lhe world
powers
Pre-determined position

LvaluaLes Lhe world pollLlcal
events based on case-to-case
merlLs

: When |s a State cons|dered as a neutra||zed State?

A: Where lLs lndependence and lnLegrlLy are guaranLeed by
an lnLernaLlonal convenLlon on Lhe condlLlon LhaL such SLaLe
obllgaLes lLself Lo never Lake up arms agalnsL any oLher SLaLe,
except for self-defense, or enter into such international
obllgaLlons as would lndlrecLly lnvolve a war.

: What are the r|ghts and dut|es of a neutra| State?

A:
1. AbsLaln from Laklng parL ln Lhe hosLlllLles and from
glvlng asslsLance Lo elLher belllgerenL,
2. revenL lLs LerrlLory and oLher resources from belng
used ln Lhe conducL of hosLlllLles(8lghL of LerrlLorlal
lnLegrlLy), and
3. Acqulesce ln cerLaln resLrlcLlons and llmlLaLlons Lhe
belllgerenLs may flnd necessary Lo lmpose.
4. 1o conLlnue dlplomaLlc relaLlons wlLh oLher neuLral
sLaLes and wlLh Lhe belllgerenLs (8lghL of dlplomaLlc
communlcaLlons).

ku|es of Neutra||ty

: What are the ru|es of neutra||ty?

A:

1. 1he LerrlLory of Lhe neuLral power ls lnvlolable
2. 8elllgerenLs are forbldden Lo move Lroops or
munlLlons of war and supplles across Lhe LerrlLory of
a neuLral power
3. A neuLral power ls forbldden Lo allow belllgerenLs Lo
use lLs LerrlLory for movlng Lroops, esLabllshlng
communlcaLlon faclllLles, or formlng corps of
combaLanLs
4. 1roops of belllgerenL armles recelved by a neuLral
power ln lLs LerrlLory shall be lnLerned by way from
Lhe LheaLer of war
3. 1he neuLral power may supply Lhem wlLh food,
cloLhlng, and rellef requlred by humanlLy
6. lf Lhe neuLral power recelves escaped prlsoners of
war, lL shall leave Lhem a place of resldence lf lL
allows Lhem Lo remaln ln lLs LerrlLory
7. 1he neuLral power may auLhorlze Lhe passage lnLo
lLs LerrlLory of Lhe slck and wounded lf Lhe means of
LransporL brlnglng Lhem does noL carry personnel or
maLerlals of war.

Cther concepts

: What are some restra|nts on neutra| States?

A: 1he followlng are some resLralnLs:

1. 8lockade
2. ConLraband of war
3. lree shlps make free goods

8|ockade

: What |s a b|ockade?
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 32

A: lL ls a hosLlle operaLlon by means of whlch vessels and
alrcrafL of one belllgerenL prevenL all oLher vessels, lncludlng
Lhose of neuLral SLaLes, from enLerlng or leavlng Lhe porLs or
coasLs of Lhe oLher belllgerenL, Lhe purpose belng Lo shuL off
Lhe place from lnLernaLlonal commerce and communlcaLlons
wlLh oLher SLaLes.

Contraband

: What |s contraband?

A: lL refers Lo goods whlch, alLhough neuLral properLy, may
be selzed by a belllgerenL because Lhey are useful for war and
are bound for a hosLlle desLlnaLlon.

1hey may be #B3&%=41, such as guns or ammunlLlon, whlch
are useful for war under all clrcumsLances, 9&'7646&'#%, such
as food and cloLhlng, whlch have boLh clvlllan and mlllLary
uLlllLy, or under Lhe ;511 %634, such as medlclnes, whlch are
exempL from Lhe law on conLraband for humanlLarlan
reasons.

Doctr|ne of Infect|on

: What |s the doctr|ne of Infect|on?

A: lnnocenL goods shlpped wlLh conLraband may also be
selzed.

Doctr|ne of U|t|mate Consumpt|on

: What |s the doctr|ne of U|t|mate Consumpt|on?

A: Coods lnLended for clvlllan use whlch may ulLlmaLely flnd
Lhelr way Lo and be consumed by belllgerenL forces may be
selzed on Lhe way.

Doctr|ne of U|t|mate Dest|nat|on

: What |s the doctr|ne of U|t|mate Dest|nat|on?

A: 1he llablllLy of Lhe conLraband from belng capLured ls
deLermlned noL by Lhelr osLenslble buL by Lhelr real
desLlnaLlon.

Doctrine of Free ships make free goods

: What |s the Doctrine of Free ships make free goods?

A: A ships nationality determines the status of its cargo.
1hus, enemy goods on a neuLral shlp, excepLlng conLraband,
would noL be sub[ecL Lo capLure on Lhe hlgh seas.

Concept of V|s|t and Search

: What |s the concept of V|s|t and Search?

A: 8elllgerenL warshlps and alrcrafL have Lhe rlghL Lo vlslL and
search neuLral merchanL vessels on Lhe hlgh seas Lo
deLermlne wheLher Lhey are ln any way connecLed wlLh Lhe
hosLlllLles.

Unneutra| serv|ce

What |s unneutra| serv|ce?

A: lL conslsLs of acLs, of a more hosLlle characLer Lhan carrlage
of conLraband or breach of blockade, whlch are underLaken
by merchanL vessels of a neuLral SLaLe ln ald of any of Lhe
belllgerenLs.

k|ght of Angary

: What |s the k|ght of Angary?

A: 8y Lhe rlghL of angary, a belllgerenL may, upon paymenL of
[usL compensaLlon, selze, use or desLroy, ln case of urgenL
necesslLy for purposes of offenses or defense, neuLral
properLy found ln enemy LerrlLory, or on Lhe hlgh seas.

: What are the requ|s|tes before k|ght of Angary may be
exerc|sed?

A:
1. 1haL Lhe properLy ls ln Lhe LerrlLory under Lhe conLrol or
[urlsdlcLlon of Lhe belllgerenL,
2. 1haL Lhere ls urgenL necesslLy for Lhe Laklng, and
3. 1haL [usL compensaLlon ls pald Lo Lhe owner.

: When |s neutra||ty term|nated?

A: When Lhe neuLral SLaLe lLself [olns Lhe war or upon Lhe
concluslon of peace.

IN1LkNA1ICNAL LNVIkCNMLN1AL LAW

: What |s Internat|ona| Lnv|ronmenta| Law (ILL)?

A: lL ls Lhe branch of publlc lnLernaLlonal law comprlslng
"Lhose subsLanLlve, procedural and lnsLlLuLlonal rules whlch
have as Lhelr prlmary ob[ecLlve Lhe proLecLlon of Lhe
envlronmenL," Lhe Lerm envlronmenL belng undersLood as
encompasslng "boLh Lhe feaLures and Lhe producLs of Lhe
naLural world and Lhose of human clvlllzaLlon.

r|nc|p|e 21 of the Stockho|m Dec|arat|on

: What |s the Stockho|m Dec|arat|on?

A: 1he SLockholm ueclaraLlon, or Lhe ueclaraLlon of Lhe
unlLed naLlons Conference on Lhe Puman LnvlronmenL, was
"#$%&'#( () *)+)$,- ./0/& 33
adopLed on !une 16, 1972 ln SLockholm, Sweden. lL conLalns
26 prlnclples and 109 recommendaLlons regardlng Lhe
preservaLlon and enhancemenL of Lhe rlghL Lo a healLhy
envlronmenL.

SLaLe have, ln accordance wlLh Lhe ChapLer of Lhe un and Lhe
prlnclple of lnLernaLlonal Law, Lhe soverelgn rlghL Lo explolL
Lhelr own resources pursuanL Lo Lhelr own resources
pursuanL Lo Lhelr own resources pursuanL Lo Lhelr
envlronmenLal pollcles, and Lhe responslblllLy Lo ensure LhaL
acLlvlLles wlLhln Lhelr [urlsdlcLlon or conLrol do noL cause
damage Lo Lhe envlronmenL of oLher SLaLes or areas beyond
Lhe llmlLs of naLlonal [urlsdlcLlon.

: What |s r|nc|p|e 21 of the Stockho|m Dec|arat|on?

A: 1hls ls one of Lhe 26 prlnclples conLalned ln Lhe SLockholm
ueclaraLlon on Lhe Puman LnvlronmenL whlch was adopLed
by acclamaLlon f 113 sLaLes ln Lhe unlLed naLlons Conference
on Lhe Puman LnvlronmenL ln 1972. 1hls ls a landmark ln Lhe
developmenL of lnLernaLlonal law on Lhe proLecLlon of Lhe
envlronmenL.

: What does r|nc|p|e 21 of the Stockho|m Dec|arat|on
prov|de?

A: 1hls declares LhaL SLaLes have

1. 1he soverelgn rlghL Lo explolL Lhelr own resources
pursuanL Lo Lhelr own envlronmenLal pollcles, and
2. 1he responslblllLy Lo ensure LhaL acLlvlLles wlLhln
Lhelr [urlsdlcLlon or conLrol do noL cause damage Lo
Lhe envlronmenL of oLher SLaLes or of areas beyond
Lhe llmlLs of naLlonal [urlsdlcLlon.

: Is r|nc|p|e 21 of the Stockho|m Dec|arat|on a part of
customary |aw?

A: ?es. 1he CourL recognlzes LhaL Lhe envlronmenL ls dally
under LhreaL and LhaL Lhe use of nuclear weapons could
consLlLuLe a caLasLrophe for Lhe envlronmenL. 1he courL also
recognlzes LhaL Lhe envlronmenL ls noL an absLracLlon buL
represenLs Lhe llvlng space, Lhe quallLy of llfe and Lhe very
human belngs, lncludlng generaLlons unborn. 1he exlsLence
of Lhe general obllgaLlon of SLaLes Lo ensure LhaL acLlvlLles
wlLhln Lhelr [urlsdlcLlon and conLrol respecL Lhe envlronmenL
of oLher SLaLes or of areas beyond naLlonal conLrol ls now
parL of Lhe corpus of lnLernaLlonal law relaLlng Lo Lhe
envlronmenL. !T7>63&5: M*6'6&' &' 4E1 ?1$#%64: &; 4E1 UE51#4
&5 a31 &; I=9%1#5 b1#*&'3( <=%: K( ,^^c0. 1he CourL has also
no dlfflculLy ln acknowledglng LhaL Lhe concerns expressed by
Pungaray for lLs naLural envlronmenL ln Lhe reglon affecLed
by the Gabcikovo-Nagyamaros Project related to an
essential interes of the State, within the meaning given to
LhaL expresslon ln ArLlcle 33 of Lhe urafL of Lhe lnLernaLlonal
Law Commlsslon.

kLILkLNCLS:

Cruz, ubllc lnLernaLlonal Law, 2003
Magallona, ubllc lnLernaLlonal Law, 2003
uS1 Colden noLes 2011
LlberLas noLes on ubllc lnLernaLlonal Law 2008

Hizon Notes - Public International Law

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NC1LS CN U8LIC IN1LkNA1ICNAL LAW

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