Rochester Institute of Technology

Manufacturing & Mechanical Engineering Technology

& Packaging Science

American Society of Engineering Educators
Mid-Atlantic Section







Static Fixturing and Testing of
Torsional Shafts in Combined Loading

By: Robert Aldi
Advised by: Professors Carl Lundgren and Hany Ghoneim
Date: April 10, 2009







Table of Contents

Robert Aldi 4/22/09
Rochester Institute of Technology, ASEE
Page 2 of 14
1.0 ABSTRACT...............................................................................................................................................3
2.0 INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE.......................................................................................................4
3.0 COMPOSITE TEST SAMPLE SHAFTS...............................................................................................4
4.0 TESTING METHOD ...............................................................................................................................6
4.1 FIXTURE DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING................................................................................................6
4.2 LOADING SCENARIO ................................................................................................................................7
5.0 TEST PROCEDURES AND DATA COLLECTION............................................................................7
6.0 RESULTS ..................................................................................................................................................8
7.0 CONCLUSIONS .....................................................................................................................................13
8.0 APPENDIX..............................................................................................................................................14
8.1 FEA FRINGE PLOTS ...............................................................................................................................14



Robert Aldi 4/22/09
Rochester Institute of Technology, ASEE
Page 3 of 14
1.0 Abstract

This project was out of necessity while in the process of developing composite drive-shafts and
the need to be capable of creating test scenarios with combined bending and torsional loading. The
new processing technique and novel fiber orientation for composite shafts aim to produce mechanical
properties with high torsional stiffness while allowing angular misalignment. The shafts should allow
for a similar result as a constant velocity shaft or universal joint except that the angular misalignment
capabilities are provided through fiber orientation. In order to then analyze these shafts a test fixture
was created to modify a torsion tester so that one side can be moved off alignment like a universal
joint thus inducing a bending moment. This bending load is then in conjunction with torque applied by
the torsion tester to create a combined static loading scenario.
Aluminum rods were then tested to analyze the legitimacy of the fixture and loading scenario.
Each shaft was first loaded into one end of the tester chuck-jaws so that the other end floated as a
cantilever beam. A load was applied to which the resultant deflection was measured with a dial indi-
cator. This deflection was then recreated with the new test fixturing by having curved faces that
matched the radius of creating a bending moment on the axially fixed end of the tester with out the
need for load cells along that face. This then helps to minimize fixed end conditions that would alter
the loading as a cantilever beam versus pinned-pinned end conditions. The test results were then
compared to a Finite Element Analysis (FEA) model to determine the legitimacy of the loading sce-
nario. Comparison of the test results to the FEA model did not confirm the setup and experimental
data only matched the FEA data typically by 20 or 25%. The results of the FEA and experimental
testing confirm the need to continue to refine the loading scenario in the FEA model. Consequently
the composites test samples were tested under a pure torsional situation with out any misalignment.
These initial results indicated the need for better design and manufacturing of the samples in addition
to the FEA model situation. Generalizations about the composite fiber orientations were justified to
conclude that:
A fiber orientation that creates a steeper central diameter with a length to diameter ratio
favoring the length will have decreased torsional properties but larger allowable mis-
alignment capabilities.
An orientation that is less steep with a similar length to diameter ratio favors higher tor-
sional stiffness as well as bending stiffness.


Robert Aldi 4/22/09
Rochester Institute of Technology, ASEE
Page 4 of 14
2.0 Introduction and Purpose
Approximately one year and 2 months ago as part of a composites design and manufacturing course, I had
built a composite drive-shaft for my car to transmit engine power from the transmission to the rear differential.
It was manufactured utilizing an existing steel drive-shaft where the center tubular steel section was replaced
with a composite tube made of carbon fiber and epoxy. The method however did no yield the proper weight re-
duction desired in a carbon drive-shaft (only approximately 15%) due to the fact that the majority of the weight
was residual in the steel yokes, differential flange and splines at the ends of the tube. Considering this issue,
thoughts lead to the possibility of creating composite shafts that have the ability to rigidly transmit torque while
permitting a certain amount of misalignment. In order to gain experimental information to form valid character-
istics of different composite tubes a test method had to be created that combines a torsional and bending load
while constraining both ends of the test member. If it were possible to eliminate universal or constant velocity
(CV) joints from existing drive-trains, there is potential to reduce losses, weight and improve efficiency.
3.0 Composite Test Sample Shafts
Currently in the College of Engineering here at RIT, Dr. Hany Ghonheim is doing research work with tor-
sional composite couplings. Using his new idea for fiber orientation was the source of inspiration for this drive-
shaft. Essentially Dr. Ghonheims method involves wrapping fiber reinforcements directly from one end of the
shaft to the other with a radial transverse of less than 180 degrees. An example of this orientation can be seen
in Figure 1. The thick rectangular areas in the two-dimensional representations indicate the shaft ends and
where the fibers are anchored. The line between the two circles (tube ends) is the fiber and goes straight from
one point at the disc to a predetermined position on the other. The position on the other can be located by an
angle relative of transverse to each end as seen by the side view below the top view. Orientating fibers in this
manner should not allow the shaft to easily deflect under a torsional load. Fibers would then also be wrapped
in both positive and negative transverse directions to keep symmetry in the wrap. In creating an orientation in
this manner, the diameter at the middle of the shaft becomes smaller and forms a tapered shape. It can be
seen that as the angle between the start and end points increases, the diameter at the center reduces. An an-
gular transverse of 90 degrees reduces the
diameter of the discs by 50% at the mid-
dle.
Manufacturing was accomplished with
the aid of Professor Carl Lundgren through
creating a mandrel similar to the one used
for the initial drive-shaft process seen in
Figure 2. It was capable of aligning fibers
at the desired shaft ends with notches
around the circumference of a high density


Robert Aldi 4/22/09
Rochester Institute of Technology, ASEE
Page 5 of 14
polyethylene (HDPE) flange. HDPE was used because epoxy is incompatible with it and thus the mandrel can
be cleaned in between laminations. The notches were CNC cut on a mill and were spaced accordingly to the
width of the carbon fiber strands to be wound. In the case of the mandrel that produced this presentations
samples the notches were 10 degrees apart. The new mandrel is approximately one third the size of the origi-
nal mandrel with a crucial improve-
ment, a fiber pre-tensioning mecha-
nism. The new mandrel (Figure 2)
incorporates our improved ideas and
has one of the flanges floating axially
yet is located tangentially to prevent
twisting. The ability to increase the
flange gap by 0.38mm and put a faint
amount of pretension in the fibers
made great strides in retaining the in-
tended fiber orientation as compared
to the original mandrel which was
susceptible to operator skill and fiber
sag. The device worked well enough so that rotating the mandrel during curing was no longer necessary as in
the case of the original mandrel.
Fibers were hand wound onto the mandrel dry once in each direction and the slack would be removed with
the tensioning mechanism. In order to approximate the necessary amount of epoxy resin required to ade-
quately wick out the carbon fiber (and obtain the optimum 50/50 ratio between resin and fiber weight), a weight
of the fiber was determined per length. Since the mandrel had 36 notches and one circumferential transverse
per direction it was a simple calculation to approximate the fiber length used. Based on this a fiber weight was
determined. The calculated amount was then increased by approximately 3 grams for consideration of contact
losses on the mixing and application components as well as to simplify the measuring of the portions of resin
and hardener for the resin system used.
The samples were then cut off the mandrel with a band saw and sanded to length. In order to anchor the
sample shafts to the chuck-jaws of the tester, steel inserts were post secondary bonded to the ends. Since the
samples ends were not perpendicular to the circular ends of the shaft due to the parabolic shape, a taper was
turned on a lathe into the inserts originating from plain carbon steel hexagon bar stock. The same laminating
epoxy resin was used to bond the shafts to the inserts except it was thickened with amorphous silica (cab-o-sil)
to increase the viscosity and mechanical properties of the resin. Details of the materials used for the samples
are located below in Table 1.


Robert Aldi 4/22/09
Rochester Institute of Technology, ASEE
Page 6 of 14


4.0 Testing Method
4.1 Fixture Design and Manufacturing
Inherently there exists a necessity to develop a testing method for quantifying the properties of these novel
fiber orientations in combined bending (misalignment) and torsion. In order to accomplish this, a fixture was
designed that essentially locates one end of a Tinius Olsen torsion tester off axis. Pictures of the fixture can be
seen below in Figure 3. It is
made of one inch thick steel
plate (1018) in order to mini-
mize cost and simplify manu-
facturing. However as one
can see there is a radius ma-
chined into the edge of the
two side plates accompanied
by two concentric slots. There
are also two adjoining shoes
that fit into the plates and as-
semble with the load cell to
guide the load cell on the ra-
dius. These features were
created using CNC machining. All other machining was performed with a manual vertical mill. Figure 4 below
shows the assembly as separate components of the fixture. The floating assembly with the load cell is kept in
place against the rigid assembly through the use of a lock bar that fits in the slot machined concentrically to the
mating curved face of the side plate. A through hole in the lock bar tightens into a threaded hole in the center
of the square plate that butts against the load cell flange in order to pull the two assemblies together tight.
The curved mating faces are also machined with a raised section that inter-lock so that the torque applied
to the floating assembly is not transferred through the lock bar but rather through the thick steel plates of the


Robert Aldi 4/22/09
Rochester Institute of Technology, ASEE
Page 7 of 14
fixture providing for a very rigid setup. The radi-
uses of the mating faces were dictated by the dis-
tance from the non-movable chuck-jaw to the back-
side of the steel plate that mounts to the load cell
flange. The purpose for this was to create a mo-
ment at the point near the non-movable end of the
tester and minimize end conditions. The goal of
this design feature was to recreate a scenario that
made the setup equivalent to a cantilevered beam
in combined bending and torsional loading.
4.2 Loading Scenario
Before testing of the carbon fiber samples could
begin, a verification of the above mentioned loading
scenario was performed with aluminum samples in
conjunction with a Finite Element Analysis (FEA).
In order to properly apply the bending load, initial
assumptions suggested that measuring the deflec-
tion of the fixture would be equivalent to a resultant
deflection of a bending load applied to a cantile-
vered beam. An aluminum sample was loaded at
the end with weights and the resultant deflection
was measured with a dial indicator. A test run was performed then at that deflection and the resultant peak
torque was recorded. These values were then applied in the FEA model for a cantilevered aluminum rod which
indicated a combined stress value far above the limits of the material. Also the cantilevered FEA model did not
accurately indicate the location of stress concentrations of where the sample was actually beginning to fracture.
The aluminum samples were simple ! (~12mm) in diameter and did not have raised end diameters to elimi-
nate the stress concentrations of the end conditions. Consequently the majority of samples would break at the
end of the chuck-jaw teeth. Iterations of the solid model, loading and constraints for the FEA model eventually
closely approximated what was occurring in the experimental setup.
5.0 Test Procedures and Data Collection
For the samples (aluminum and carbon), testing began by first ensuring the fixturing was properly located.
An angle gauge was used to level the assembly so that its centerline was concentric with the unmovable chuck-
jaw. A dial indicator with a magnetic base was then set on the fixture and zeroed so that if testing required
misalignment, the deflection could be accurately measured. The samples were tightened into the jaws at no
deflection with the lock bar snug. Once the jaws were tight, the lock bar was slowly loosened so that soft taps
with a scrap piece of wood would move the fixture to the appropriate misalignment. The lock bar would then be


Robert Aldi 4/22/09
Rochester Institute of Technology, ASEE
Page 8 of 14
tightened and the torsion testers reading for load and angular deflection would be zeroed out. All torsional
data was collected in real time using LabView 8.5 through a serial port cable directly out of the Tinius Olsen
machine. The data rate was set to collect every 100 milliseconds. The angular speed on the tester was set at
20 degrees per minute prior to yielding. Once the curve began to level out, the speed was slowly increased to
the maximum of 360 degrees per minute. Once the sample broke the machine was stopped and the fixture end
of the tester was moved away to clear and remove the sample.
6.0 Results
Seen below is a summary of the results for the Aluminum testing. Since the number of carbon samples
was limited, testing was performed on the Aluminum first in order to become familiar with the new method and
equipment. The Al. samples were applied with different bending loads to try and form a trend between increas-
ing bending load and the maximum torque load. Since the measuring point of the fixture deflection is greater
than the length of the samples, a quick conversion factor was calculated to determine the percent increase of
deflection for the increased radius. As seen in Table 2 these deflections and experimental peak torques at
breaking show little correlation to changes in the applied bending load. The reason for this is likely either due
to the fixed-fixed end conditions or the fact that the bending loads are relatively small and may be too little to
create a noticeable difference. The FEA results are summarized in Table 2 as well and depict the Von Mises
combined stress value for each sample. Stress fringe plots depicting the graphical results of the FEA model
are located in Appendix 8.1. Unfortunately the values are approximately 10 Ksi (~70MPa) from the ultimate
tensile strength of the aluminum which likely indicate that further refinement of the FEA model is required to get
a full understanding of the loading scenario. This is especially necessary in the future to truly ensure that a
measured deflection on the fixture is similar to applying a bending load with the fixed-fixed end conditions.
Graphical displays of the data summarized in Table 2 are shown on Figure 7 depicting torque vs. angular de-
flection. The vertical gridlines of Figure 6 indicate divisions of 1 complete rotation of the test apparatus.

A summary of the carbon fiber data as specific as the aluminum would unfortunately be premature. Below
in Figure 7 are results for the aluminum samples and Figure 8 displays results for the carbon fiber samples. As
can be seen by the graph in Figure 8, there are many jagged drops during the testing from zero to 30 degrees.
Also 9 samples were made and only results for seven are being presented. All the jagged drops in the torque-


Robert Aldi 4/22/09
Rochester Institute of Technology, ASEE
Page 9 of 14
deflection curves indicate spots where the epoxy bridging between the fibers broke. The general consensus for
all the carbon samples was a failure in the
epoxy and not the carbon. In fact, instead of
the carbon fibers snapping, they started to
buckle in on themselves as depicted to the
left in Figure 5. Another failure was the de-
lamination of the tubes to the steel inserts in
the case of two tubes. If one looks at the
data in Figure 8 for the failed insert data, it
can be seen that the strength of its bonded
counterparts were much greater.
Also in accordance with the buckling
issue, the carbon fiber did not physically
break thus it is hard to determine the tor-
sional and misalignment capacities of the
shafts. Consequently none of the carbon samples were tested in combined loading, only pure torsion. How-
ever considering the fact that the fibers are still continuous, it may be possible to reinforce the samples with
carbon fiber biaxial sleeves secondarily bonded to the outside surface. A separate sample could then be made
of the sleeve alone to determine the strength of the sleeve. This strength could then be subtracted from the
cumulative strength of the sleeve reinforced samples to relatively approximate the strength of the fiber orienta-
tion. Despite the varied results of the carbon testing, the results did at least support the premonition that the
tubes with greater angles of transverse on the opposite side were stiffer in torsion and resisted bending. The
tubes with steeper wrap angles however produced
more torsionally flexible shafts yet increased the
ability to deflect from the central axis. This justifi-
cation was based on hanging a 100 Newton lab
weight from all the different shafts and measuring
the deflection. Although the results were not re-
corded (measurements used to confirm hypothe-
sis), they did allow for a general confirmation of
expected sample properties. A picture of this
measurement can be seen below in Figure 6.


Robert Aldi 4/22/09
Rochester Institute of Technology, ASEE
Page 10 of 14



Robert Aldi 4/22/09
Rochester Institute of Technology, ASEE
Page 11 of 14


Robert Aldi 4/22/09
Rochester Institute of Technology, ASEE
Page 12 of 14



Robert Aldi 4/22/09
Rochester Institute of Technology, ASEE
Page 13 of 14
7.0 Conclusions
Many different issues and realizations were discovered in the process of exploring this new test method.
The first main topic is the verification of determining the bending load. As presented earlier, the FEA results for
the test data do not strongly correspond with known information (UTS of 6061-T6 approx. 49 ksi). The reason
for this could again simply be a mistake in the loads and constraints applied to the FEA model. In a situation
where it is difficult to determine the static conditions, there needs to first be a way to confidently induce a de-
sired bending load. The main issue is that a cantilevered beam has a slope at the deflection side. Even though
the fixture side moves to meet this deflection angle, the slope (relative to the chuck jaws) is ultimately zero
(fixed end condition). Considering the FEA model is still based on the mathematics used to determine a resul-
tant deflection for a given load by hand calculation, it is easy to understand how a wrong scenario in the FEA
model can create skewed answers. The refinement of the FEA model to ensure assumptions is surely the sub-
ject of future attention and work.
Another key area for improvement is the manufacturing and assembly of the carbon fiber test sections.
Work is currently underway to further improve the mandrel and manufacturability of the shafts because with the
current tooling it can become rather tedious and time consuming. Design changes will likely include biaxial
carbon fiber sleeving to create a shell that keeps the fibers of interest in the proper orientation with fiber and
resin instead of mainly resin. Also for the inserts it may be wise to mill low depth keyways into the tapered
surface of the inserts so that epoxy and filler mechanically lock the sample to the insert. In addition to changing
the construction process and materials, it may be beneficial to alter sample geometry as well. A ratio can be
created that relates the distance from tube end to end and the diameter of the end. A sample such as present
in the paper would then have a large length:diameter ratio and would clearly more suited for a bending stiffness
with some torsional stiffness. Better torsional properties with increased flex properties could be created if this
ratio shifts more towards the diameter and thus a greater parabolic shape in the sample.
Regardless of the numerical results, it can be demonstrated that this testing method presented in this paper
is a potentially viable way of performing combined torsion and bending. If further development is successful,
the idea may have the potential to readily become a fatigue tester which would insert a friction brake at the un-
driven end of the shafts. Ultimately if composite shafts are to confidently be made with out universal or CV
joints, a way to ensuring their performance must be developed and is worth continued effort. I also appreciate
particularly the aid and effort of Carl Lundgren and Hany Ghoneim who have supported my undergraduate
scholastic endeavors. Thank you.



Robert Aldi 4/22/09
Rochester Institute of Technology, ASEE
Page 14 of 14
8.0 APPENDIX
8.1 FEA Fringe Plots