[SOUND].

[MUSIC]
So, as I told you before, nuclear
[UNKNOWN] in
involved in tools that are estimations of
expected values.
But this region is closely functionally
connected to another important area.
It's called our bit of frontal cortex, so
on this key you see that graph color
indicated
a close connection of the ventral straight
or
the nuclear [UNKNOWN] with our bit of
frontal cortex.
And our bit of frontal cortex is the key
structure in
decision making and also in the variation
process during the decision making.
I will try to explain you the role of
orbitofrontal cortex in the next slides.
So, according to newer economics theory,
nucleus accumbens
in involved into the calculation of the
anticipated
gain magnitude, but orbitofrontal cortex
is critical for
their choice, for their comparison of
different options.
I'll try to illustrate this idea in the
next slides.
Actually, orbitofrontal cortex is closely
connected to nucleus accumbens and so the
hypothesis is that orbitofrontal cortex
somehow supervises nucleus acumbens.
So, maybe the frontal cortex is a quite
large area.
It's a basement of our brain, just above
our eyes.
So, particularly important is the medial
part of the orbitofrontal cortex.
So, interestingly, our orbitofrontal
cortex is closely
linked to the very controversial story of
lobotomy.
Perhaps you remember Antonio Moniz
invented lobotomy
to deal with some symptoms of psychotic
patients.
So, he suggested an operation.
When you disconnect a bit of frontal
cortex from the rest of the brain.
So, this operation helped some patients to
cope with certain symptoms.
For example, patients became more calm,
more adjusted to normal life.
So Antonio Moniz got a Nobel prize for
this medical treatment.
So overall it's a very controversial
story, for example Simon
Tuvast word of lobotomy word like Walter
Freeman invented lobotomobiles.
So, some portable operation rooms, when he
suggested
to make hundreds of operations in schools
and basements of schools in
order to, to deal with deviant behavior of
children and so on.
So he even invented the fast version of
lobotomy, so-called transorbital lobotomy.
So with this operation you can just make
lobotomy through the eye holes.
You can use a metallic device and enter
brain just above the
eyelid and this connect, prefrontal cortex
from the rest of the brain.
Actually without anaesthesia.
So, he conducted thousands of operations,
in the United States.
So, for example 40 thousand operations
where conducted in Great-Britain, in other
countries.
A lot of lobotomy operations were
conducted.
So currently, in m, many countries these
operations are banned.
Because they have very serious side
effects.
So people suffer from apathy, from
cognitive alterations.
People, after this operation sometimes
lose an opportunity
to really understand social interactions
and
it leads to very serious problems
sometimes in emotional life.
So now days we know that this region is
critical for decision making.
And let's try to understand the functional
role of this region.
This is a quite large region and this
region consist of different sub-regions.
So here they indicated by different
colors.
So yellow color indicates the most
important.
[INAUDIBLE] Orbitofrontal cortex that is
involved in the evaluation process.
So, a lot of new economic studies focus on
this region.
So, let's now try to understand the
functional role of this region.
How can we investigate the process of
choice?
How can we estimate our preferences?
For example, I can offer you two types of
drinks, and I ask you to select one drink.
For example, I offer you drink A and drink
B, and
perhaps you show a strong preference for
drink A, and select.
Drink A.
I can, next time offer you two glasses of
drink B, versus one glass of drink A.
Perhaps you still will select drink A.
But, next time I can offer you four, 11
glasses of drink B and
at some point you will switch and you will
select drink B perhaps.
So I can actually resist procedure to
estimate your
preferences for example you will be in
difference between
two drinks if I will offer you one glass
of drink A versus 3 glasses of drink b.
So with this procedure I can estimate your
preferences.
You can actually apply the same procedures
to monkeys.
So, you can indicate drinks A and B by
different colors.
So drink A will be indicated by blue
color, drink B will be indicated by red
color.
So in this care, monkey can select between
one drop of.
Juice E, and three drops of juice B.
So, we can measure preferences of monkeys.
And this graph, you see, is at monkey will
always select drink B
if it is offered by six drops of juice B
versus one drop of juice A.
And, monkey will never select juice B if
it will be selected
by only one drop of juice B versus one
drop of juice A.
So this monkey strongly prefer juice A.
So what would be ideal signal in the
brain, coding relative preferences for
drink A and B.
It should have a U shape.
So relative difference is highest for
offers on the left of this graph, so
A almost always prefer drink A, on the
left side of this graph.
And relatively the highest for the choices
in
the situation on the right side of this
graph.
So monkey always select drink b, so ideal
signal coding relative preferences.
We have this U shape, it will be maximum
for
offers on the left and on the right of
this graph.
So, let's make a look to the behavior of
neurons in a bit of frontal cortex of the
monkey.
So, black graph indicates the proportion
on choice B.
So we see is that here monkey strongly
preferred drink A to drink B,
but activity are a bit of frontal cortex
neurons, has a U shape form.
So it actually encodes relative values of
the offer.
So the neurons in the bit of frontal
cortex are particularly active.
When animal prefer one option to the
second option.
So in this case you see the results of
their experiment when
we can record [INAUDIBLE] orbitalfrontal
cortex neurons,
when the subject or the animal selects
between drink A and B.
You see on the left of this graph
that neuron orbitafrontal cortex strongly
encodes relative preferences.
Yeah, so it attracts to the situation
where
one option is clearly better than another
one.
If we will exchange drink A to the drink C
that is even less preferred than drink B.
How would this neuron react?
So in the, at the center of the slide, we
see is that, the
activity of this neuron is re-organized
and
now this neuron codes is a relative
preferences.
For the drink b and c.
So the few that is newer is not dependent
on this specific pair of options.
It's more abstract.
It simply compares to options and reacts
when
one option is clearly better than the
second one.
If you will return the option a and now
ask any malt to select in-between drink a
and b.
This neurons once again, will compare this
options and en, encode relative values.
So on the right side of this graph,
you see, that this neuron carries the
relative value
of this two options and this neuron is
particular
active when one option is better than
another one.
So orbitofrontal cortex plays a key role
in the processing of rewards.
It integrates multiple sources of
information and it
compares different options and arrive of
final various thing.
So perhaps this region is closely linked
to another very important region,
prefrontal cortex.
There's a lateral prefrontal cortex.
Well will discuss this brain region and
the functional
role of this brain region in the follow up
lectures.
This region is actually involved in
cognitive control.
And, we'll read a hypothesis that
our prefrontal cortex somehow supervises
nucleus [INAUDIBLE].
So overall, orbitalfrontal cortex is
involved into the calculation of the
relative values of the options available
for outward decisions.
Interestingly, some studies show that
activity
of this region is modulated by marketing.
I will give you one example.
Can you predict the quality of this wine?
So you see the price, perhaps you will
think that it's a relatively good wine.
Now, please estimate the quality of this
bottle.
So, perhaps price is too low and you will
think this is not
a good wine, but in fact, these are two
identical bottles, with different prices.
So, normally price affect very much our
expectations about the quality of the
wine.
So, this phenomena was studied
by [INAUDIBLE] Collins, so, [INAUDIBLE]
[INAUDIBLE]
plasma asked subject to swallow drops of
wine inside the [INAUDIBLE] ray
scanner and the same wine was sometimes
cued as a cheap wine, cost $5,
sometimes as quite expensive wine with a
price of $45.
So actually actually used two different
types of wine, and in
both cases, the same wine was cued as very
expensive or quite cheap.
And she asks subjects to swallow, the
drops of wine inside of this can.
She also measured how much subjects liked
this wine.
So as you see on the right side of this
slide the same wine presented as very
expensive wine was estimated as more tasty
and nice by students.
It was liked more, so if the same wine was
presented as the cheap one, it was like
much less.
So as you see on this slide, our
orbitofrontal cortex is differentially
activated by the same wine presented as a
cheap wine or as an expensive wine.
On the left side, you see the reaction of
prefrontal cortex to, do, two different
types of wine.
But in both cases, the same wine is
presented as a very expensive or quite
cheap.
So we can conclude the activity of
this very important region is modulated by
marketing.
So, let's try to sum up now, some main
ideas of this lecture.
So, nucleus accumbens, codes anticipated
gained
magnitude and then read the frontal
cortex.
Guilds relative preferences for one option
versus another one and integrates multiple
information to come up with the final
value signal.
[SOUND]
[MUSIC]