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I. INTRODUCTION
ISTRIBUTION cables within cities in the United States
may be installed within covered troughs where the top
cover is flush with the surrounding surface. These sidewalk
troughs are constructed of precast reinforced concrete placed
on a 6-inch gravel bed. The trough has a 6-inch-thick concrete
lid designed for H20 traffic loading. The precast sections are
72 inches long and 48 inches wide with 6-inch-thick concrete
walls 12 inches tall. A number of cables may be laid on the
base of such a trough.
The purpose of this study was to develop a theoretical model
for determining the current rating of cables installed in a sidewalk trough. Two complementary approaches were adopted, re-
sulting in two analytical expressions for cable rating calculations. One approach is based on the analysis of the work already
done in this area and extraction of the most suitable model. The
other approach involved numerical studies with finite element
analysis and development of a new rating formula.
The paper is organized as follows. Section II presents some
background on the existing empirical equation given in the
standard IEC 60287 and outlines several other published
approaches. One of these approaches is selected as a recommended method of analysis of such installations. Section III
briefly describes the numerical studies applying finite element
method and the resulting analytical developments. Section IV
compares the results obtained with different methods. Section V
contains a numerical example. Section VI provides comments
on possible methods for improving current ratings for cables in
troughs.
II. PUBLISHED CALCULATION METHODS
Since the IEEE standard 835-1994 [5] does not address the
issue of cable rating for trough installation, the investigations focused on the work done outside North America. The commonly
used approach is that published in the IEC standard 60287 [1],
and this Chapter reviews the method presented there followed
by the discussion of other published approaches.
A. IEC 60287
IEC 60287 is a standard, published by the International Electrotechnical Committee that sets out methods for calculating
the current rating of cables under a range of different installation conditions. Many of the equations given in the standard are
based on fundamental heat transfer theory, and others are empirical or semi-empirical equations derived from test work. The
standard includes an empirical approach to the determination of
current ratings for cables in unfilled troughs where the top cover
is flush with the ground surface. The approach used is to calculate the current rating for the cable in air but with an addition to
the ambient temperature that takes account of the effect of the
is given by
trough. The increase in ambient temperature
(1)
where:
Manuscript received December 30, 2009; revised April 06, 2010. Date of publication August 23, 2010; date of current version September 22, 2010. Paper no.
TPWRD-00970-2009.
G. J. Anders is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland (e-mail: george.anders@attglobal.net).
M. Coates is with Cobham plc., London KT22 7SA, U.K. (e-mail: mark.
coates@cobham.com).
M. Chaaban is with IREQ, Montreal, QC J3X 1S1, Canada (e-mail (mohamed.chaaban@ireq.com).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2010.2051239
2065
C. ECRC Report
ERA Technology carried out measurements of temperature
rise of two sizes of cable in two sizes of trough during 1968.
This work was carried out for the Electricity Council Research
Centre (ECRC), and reported in [3]. The Electricity Council
was a body that represented U.K. electricity distribution companies. A review of the contents of the report is presented in
Appendix B.
The report provides empirical equations for the temperature
difference between the cable surface and the inside of the trough
and from the trough wall to ambient. The report includes a comparison between the test results and those obtained by the calculation method given in IEC 60287. This comparison shows
that the IEC equation gave a current rating that was about 14%
lower than that obtained from the test results. It was concluded
that the IEC method is very conservative.
The report also states that, if the trough is exposed to solar radiation, the ambient temperature used in the calculations should
be increased by 9 C.
D. Slaninka Paper
A paper by P. Slaninka, [4] sets out a theoretical approach to
the calculation of the thermal resistance of a cable channel. As
with the IEC 60287 method, Slaninkas approach leads to an additional temperature rise, which is added to the ambient air temperature to derive a rating for the cable in a trough. Slaninka assumed isothermal conditions for both the ground surface and the
inner surface of the enclosure as well as made certain assumptions that are only valid for troughs of roughly square cross-section. The resulting equation equivalent to (1) uses an increase in
, given by
the ambient temperature,
(2)
where
is derived in Appendix C.
Slaninka compared his theoretical approach with the test results and demonstrated that he obtained significantly better correlation than was obtained with the IEC 60287 equation.
E. Other Work
Further work has been carried out to extend Slaninkas solution to a situation with non-isothermal conditions and troughs
that are not roughly square. This work also attempted to develop
a method for calculating the heat transfer between the cable surface and the inner surface of the trough. The method divided the
trough along a horizontal axis that ran through the centreline of
the cables. Heat transfer to the upper part of the enclosure was
taken to be by convection and radiation, while that to the lower
part was taken to be by radiation only. Heat transfer by conduction for cables laid on the base of the trough was not considered.
The attempt to develop a general calculation method was
abandoned, because it was considered too complex for normal
use as it required the use of many precalculated graphs and tables of factors as well as an iterative calculation.
F. Proposed Analytical Solution Based on Previous Work
An extension of the Slaninkas method is set out below. The
unpublished work compares the calculated results with those
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(5)
(6)
(7)
Fig. 1. Sketch of the installation under study. Cables are numbered from 1 to
6, from left to right.
(8)
where
thermal resistivity of the cover material (in K.m/W);
A. Introduction
This section describes the numerical analysis of heat dissipation from six cables installed on the floor of a shallow trough.
The cover of the trough, made of concrete, is exposed to the ambient air and to the sun. The floor and the walls, also made of
concrete, are in contact with compacted rock and native soil. A
sketch of the installation is shown in Fig. 1.
B. Approach
The analysis of this installation is done by coupling the finite
element technique to solve for the heat dissipation in the solid
region (soil, concrete, rock) with an analytical approach inside
the air cavity where the cables are installed. The solid domain
is discretized into small elements to enable the solution of the
2-D partial differential equation of heat conduction. Inside the
cavity, several heat balance equations are written between the
cables, the walls, and the air inside. This calculation leads to
an algebraic system of equations that is solved, at each iteration
(time step), and the results are fed back as input into the finite
element analysis.
C. Results of the Analysis
The study was conducted in transient mode due to the fluctuation of sun radiation and outside air temperature. Fig. 2 shows
the results, which give the required temperature distribution at
the quasi-steady-state conditions.
D. Discussions
The results of the analysis are summarized in Table I.
To compare these results with the available guides and standard IEC-60287, both circuits were analyzed in free air at 40 C
and inside a trough with an assumed ambient temperature of
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TABLE I
SUMMARY OF CABLES DAILY TEMPERATURE VARIATION IN THE TROUGH
TABLE II
CABLE TEMPERATURE IN FREE AIR ACCORDING TO IEC-60287 (I-750
418 A,
=
200 A)
MCM =
I04 0 =
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TABLE III
CALCULATED THERMAL RESISTANCES OF THE TROUGH
Fig. 4. Cable conductor temperature computed from the finite element analysis
and (9).
The method given by (3) was compared with test results for
a 0.61-m-wide 0.31-m-deep trough with a 0.075m-thick lid.
The calculated thermal resistance using the proposed method
is 0.101 (K.m/W), and the value derived from the test work is
0.103 (K.m/W). The value derived from Slaninkas method 1 is
0.054 (K.m/W). This result suggests that Slaninkas method 1
may not be appropriate for troughs that are not approximately
square or those that have thin covers.
The values corresponding to (9) are similar to the IEC
method, but they take into account the soil thermal resistivity.
These values are slightly larger than the IEC results because of
the design of (9), where an additional term is added.
From the above, it is suggested that the proposed method is
used for the shallow trough installations, but a further allowance
should be made to allow for heat transfer by direct conduction
to the base.
It should be noted that, from the results shown in Table II, the
conductor temperature computed with the IEC method is below
the range of the design value of 90 C. Since this method is
more pessimistic than the proposed approach, we can conclude
that the cables in the utility sidewalk can be safely loaded to
their full design ampacity of 200 and 418 A for the 4/0 and 750
MCM constructions, respectively.
However, the results obtained before should be verified by
either laboratory or field measurements. These tests would
permit suitable adjustment of the proposed model parameters.
The measures that can be applied to increase current ratings are
discussed in Section VI.
The following section presents a numerical example employing the proposed approach.
V. EXAMPLE CALCULATION
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TABLE IV
CALCULATED PARAMETERS
Eq. (5)
Eq. (4)
Eq. (3)
The thermal resistance of the trough is an additional external
thermal resistance, and as such, is added to the value of
given
above for a cable in air. In this case, because there are three
has to be mulsingle-core cables in the trough, the value of
tiplied by 3 to give a per-cable value. This is not necessary for
a three-core cable in a trough because the factor , number of
cores, is included in the current rating equation. The cable rating
is then recalculated using this new value of
where the ac conductor resistance R, the various thermal resistances T, and the loss factors are calculated using the equations
set out in the different sections of IEC 60287. These values are
given in Table IV.
The thermal resistance of the trough is calculated using the
equations given in Section II-F as follows:
Eq. (8)
Eq. (8)
Ea. (7)
A. Background
The current rating of a cable is dictated by the maximum
permitted conductor temperature and the rate at which the conductor can dissipate heat to the environment. This rate of heat
dissipation is governed by the temperature difference between
the conductor and the environment and the thermal resistance
in the heat flow path. If the current rating of a cable is to be
increased, for a given temperature difference, then the thermal
resistance must be decreased.
For a cable in a trough, the thermal resistance can be divided
into four components:
1) internal thermal resistance of the cable (a function of the
cable materials and construction);
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2) thermal resistance from the cable surface to the inner surface of the trough;
3) thermal resistance of the trough walls, base, and cover;
4) thermal resistance from the outer surface of the trough to
the environment.
Since the internal thermal resistance of the cable is a function
of its design, this measure cannot be changed significantly if the
cable is to remain capable of reliably distributing electricity.
There are a number of possible methods of reducing the
thermal resistance from the cable to the inner surface of the
trough. These methods will be discussed later in this section.
The thermal resistance through the walls, base, and cover of
the trough is a function of the material used and its thickness. In
a concrete trough, the walls and base have a similar thermal resistivity to the surrounding soil, and there is little to be gained by
attempting to improve the resistivity of the walls and the base.
However, as a significant proportion of the heat loss from the
trough will be through the cover, there will be advantages in replacing the concrete lid with one having low solar absorptivity.
If the sidewalk is shielded from solar radiation, a cover with
low thermal resistivity would improve heat dissipation. The obvious choice in this case would be a fabricated steel lid. A steel
lid could be readily constructed to have the required strength.
However, a steel lid has a number of disadvantages when used
in a public thoroughfare. It may create a noise nuisance by rattling when traffic passes over it. It will become slippery when
wet and cause a slip or skid hazard.
Alternatively adding cast in fins to the underside of the concrete trough cover should improve the heat transfer to the cover.
The extent of such an improvement has not been quantified.
To reduce the external thermal resistance, it is necessary to
reduce the thermal resistivity of the material surrounding the
trough. As the existing, nominal, thermal resistivity of the soil
is taken as 0.9 K m/W, it is unlikely that this resistivity could be
improved. It is noted that the trough is laid on a gravel bed. The
thermal resistivity of the gravel, if dry, would be expected to be
closer to 2 K m/W. Replacing the gravel with a weak sand/cement/gravel mix would improve the heat transfer from the base
of the trough. However, this would also prevent water draining
out through the opening in the base of the trough, and another
approach would have to be adopted for drainage.
B. CableTrough Thermal Resistance
A significant proportion of the total thermal resistance between the cable conductors and the environment is that between
the cable surface and the inner surface of the trough. Reducing
this resistance will increase the current rating of the cable.
The simplest means of reducing this thermal resistance would
be to fill the trough with a material having a relatively low
thermal resistivity. One option would be to fill the trough with
a weak mix cement-bound sand, CBS. A 14:1 CBS mix is often
used as a bedding material for HV cable systems to improve
the thermal properties of the material immediately around the
cable and reduce the risk of thermal runaway should the backfill around the cable dry out. The thermal resistivity of dry CBS
can be better than 1.2 (K m/W) if the sand is carefully selected.
CBS is usually compacted around the cables to give a dry density of at least 1600 kg/m . Due to the compaction required, no
due to the trough. Since the first factor would increase the cable
rating and the second factor would reduce it, the two factors may
balance out to some extent.
The finite element analysis considers heat transfer in all directions from the cables, and the radiation considers the presence
of walls and other cables. These types of studies are very involved and time consuming; therefore, only limited sensitivity
runs were performed. However, it appears that a simple analytical solution derived from these investigations may overcome
some of the major limitations of the IEC method.
The amount of test data available relating to the temperature
rise of cables in troughs is very limited. None of the test data
found relate to troughs that are relatively wide and shallow, as
is the utility sidewalk.
All of the methods that have been considered for improving the
current rating of cables in troughs have significant disadvantages.
If a higher rating is required, increasing the conductor size
or using cables with copper conductors may be the best
option.
The test work required to validate any theoretical model
should be carried out on a full-size trough. Tests in a laboratory
are preferred, because this will eliminate the problems caused
by changes in the environmental conditions during the tests. A
design of the tests can be discussed separately.
APPENDIX A
EXTRACT FROM BS7671:1992
IEE Wiring Regulations: The IEE Wiring Regulations, BS
7671, is a U.K. standard that sets out the requirements for lowvoltage electrical installations in domestic commercial and industrial properties in the U.K. The aims of BS 7671 are similar
to those of the National Electric Code in the U.S. in that it sets
out requirements to minimize the risk of danger from electric
shock or fire. Although the aims of the U.K. and U.S. documents are similar, the detailed requirements are different.
BS 7671 contains tables of ratings and rating factors for commonly used types of low-voltage cables. Included in these tables
is a table of rating factors for cables in closed troughs. Three
sizes of trough are included: 18 inches wide by 12 inches deep,
18 inches wide by 24 inches deep, and 24 inches wide by 30
inches deep. All three troughs have a 4-in.-thick concrete cover.
Rating factors are given for up to 3 circuits in the smallest trough
and 12 circuits in the largest trough. The rating factors given
are applied to the tabulated rating for cables in free air. For the
smallest trough, the cables are assumed to lie on the bottom of
the trough, and for the other two troughs, they are supported on
brackets fixed to the side of the trough. The cables are assumed
to be separated by at least 2 in.
These derating factors were first introduced into the standard
in the 13th edition, which was published in 1955 and have remained unchanged, other than metrication of the dimensions,
since then.
The origin of the derating factors given in BS 7671 is not
known. However, it is considered likely that they were derived
from equations given in an anonymous document probably prepared in about 1950. The equation given in the document for the
2071
where
internal height of the trough (in meters);
internal width of the trough (in meters).
The cable derating factor
is then given by
where
total thermal resistance of the cable in air (in K-m/W);
total number of cables in the trough.
It is stated in the document that the equation uses published
data on heat losses through various types of floor, walls, ceilings,
and roofs. This suggests that data available on heat losses from
buildings were used. It is also stated that a ground temperature of
25 C was used, and it was assumed that the heat loss, per unit
area, through the trench walls is the same as that through the
base. It is clear that the equation assumes that the inside surface
of the trough is an isotherm.
Since the equation was based on heat flow data for buildings,
it is probably only applicable to troughs within buildings where
conditions are generally drier, and thermal resistivities will be
higher, than for outdoor troughs.
APPENDIX B
EXTRACT OF THE REPORT FOR ELECTRICITY COUNCIL
RESEARCH CENTRE, ECRC IN THE U.K.
The work performed at ERA was limited to tests on a 12-in.wide 6-in. deep concrete trough containing three cables 2 in.
in diameter and tests on a 24-in.-wide 12-in.-deep trough, first
containing three cables 2 in. in diameter and then containing
three cables 4 in. in diameter. The test work was carried out outside between February and July 1968. The report indicates the
difficulties of obtaining stable temperature results when there
are continuous changes in the ambient conditions, such as wind
speed, rainfall, temperature, solar radiation, and soil conditions.
The report provides empirical equations for the temperature
difference between the cable surface and the inside of the trough
and from the trough wall to ambient. These equations are:
For 2-in.-diameter cable in the 12 6-in. trough, the cable
surface to trough wall
2072
where
thermal resistivity of the material surrounding the
sides of the trough (in K m/W)
For a 12
For a 24
where
power dissipation from one cable (in watts per
meter);
temperature difference between the cable surface and
the inner wall of the trough (in Kelvin);
temperature difference between the inner wall of the
trough and ambient (in Kelvin).
It should be noted that the equations shown before were obtained by curve fitting of the best fit lines drawn through the
test results. Because of this, the equations may only be valid
for the test conditions at the time of the selected results. The selected results were the averages of those recorded over a 24-hour
period on three days, one in April, one in May, and one in June
1968. These days were chosen, because ambient conditions had
been stable for sufficient time, and the average wind speed was
less than 2 mph. The reported thermal resistivity of the backfill
around the troughs at these times was about 0.60 K m/W, and
that at different positions away from the troughs was between
0.45 and 1.03 K m/W.
APPENDIX C
SLANINKAS METHOD
In this method, the thermal resistance of the trough can be
divided into three parts: 1) from the base of the trough to ambient soil, 2) from the sides of the trough to ambient soil, and
3) from the top of the trough to ambient air. This approach allows different thermal resistivities to be used for the material
surrounding each portion of the trough. The equations are
1) For the thermal resistance from the inner surface of the
cover to ambient air
where
thermal resistivity of the material under the base of the
trough (in K.m/W).
The overall thermal resistance of the trough
by
is then given
where
thermal resistivity of the cover material (in
K m/W);
internal width of the trough (in meters);
thickness of the cover (in meters).
Mark Coates , photograph and biography not available at the time of publication.