Confucianism

1
Confucianism
Confucianism
The Dacheng Hall, the main hall of the Temple of Confucius in Qufu
Chinese

Transcriptions
Mandarin
- Hanyu Pinyin Rji
Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese
philosopher Confucius ( Kng Fz, or K'ung-fu-tzu, lit. "Master Kong", 551479 BC). Confucianism
originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed
metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han Dynasty.
[1]
Following the abandonment of Legalism in China
after the Qin Dynasty, Confucianism became the official state ideology of China, until it was replaced by the "Three
Principles of the People" ideology with the establishment of the Republic of China, and then Maoist Communism
after the ROC was replaced by the People's Republic of China in Mainland China.
The core of Confucianism is humanism,
[2]
the belief that human beings are teachable, improvable and perfectible
through personal and communal endeavour especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. Confucianism
focuses on the cultivation of virtue and maintenance of ethics, the most basic of which are ren, yi, and li.
[3]
Ren is an
obligation of altruism and humaneness for other individuals within a community, yi is the upholding of righteousness
and the moral disposition to do good, and li is a system of norms and propriety that determines how a person should
properly act within a community.
[3]
Confucianism holds that one should give up one's life, if necessary, either
passively or actively, for the sake of upholding the cardinal moral values of ren and yi.
[4]
Although Confucius the
man may have been a believer in Chinese folk religion, Confucianism as an ideology is humanistic
[2]
and
non-theistic, and does not involve a belief in the supernatural or in a personal god.
[5]
Cultures and countries strongly influenced by Confucianism include mainland China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan and
Vietnam, as well as various territories settled predominantly by Chinese people, such as Singapore. Although
Confucian ideas prevail in these areas, few people outside of academia identify themselves as Confucian,
[6][7]
and
instead see Confucian ethics as a complementary guideline for other ideologies and beliefs, including democracy,
[8]
Marxism,
[9]
capitalism,
[10]
Christianity,
[11]
Islam
[12]
and Buddhism.
[13]
Confucianism
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Names and Etymology
Strictly speaking, there is no term in Chinese which directly corresponds to "Confucianism." Several different terms
are used in different situations, several of which are of modern origin:
"School of the scholars" (Chinese: ; pinyin: Rji)
"Teaching of the scholars" (Chinese: ; pinyin: Rjio)
"Study of the scholars" (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Rxu)
"Teaching of Confucius" (Chinese: ; pinyin: Kngjio)
"Kong Family's Business" (Chinese: ; pinyin: Kngjidin)
[14]
Three of these use the Chinese character r, meaning "scholar". These names do not use the name "Confucius" at
all, but instead center on the figure or ideal of the Confucian scholar; however, the suffixes of ji, jio, and xu carry
different implications as to the nature of Confucianism itself.
Rji contains the character ji, which literally means "house" or "family". In this context, it is more readily
construed as meaning "school of thought", since it is also used to construct the names of philosophical schools
contemporary with Confucianism: for example, the Chinese names for Legalism and Mohism end in ji.
Rjio and Kngjio contain the Chinese character jio, the noun "teach", used in such as terms as "education", or
"educator". The term, however, is notably used to construct the names of religions in Chinese: the terms for Islam,
Judaism, Christianity, and other religions in Chinese all end with jio.
Rxu contains xu 'study'. The term is parallel to -ology in English, being used to construct the names of academic
fields: the Chinese names of fields such as physics, chemistry, biology, political science, economics, and sociology
all end in xu.
Themes in Confucian thought
Six books
Confucius taught six books to followers when he was in state of lu,there were:
Classic of Poetry ),is a collection of former prophecy
Book of Documents ,is a collection of history recorded by vassals.
Book of Rites ,is a collection of fomer laws.
Book of Music ,is a collection about former rituals.
I Ching or Classic of Change( ,this book is described "Classic of all Classics", "Primate Classic" by
Confucians even today
Spring and Autumn Annals ,annuals of the whole land during that period, maybe written by
Confucius to reveal the Classic of Change.
The six books' name is traditionally written in a sequence " ".When the Classic of
Change( is verbal,it could read as "Poetry,documents,rites,music changed the annals of Spring and Autumn."
There is also a Chinese idiom "A big dream such like Spring and Autumn"( .
Humanism
Humanism is at the core in Confucianism.
[2]
A simple way to appreciate Confucian thought is to consider it as being
based on varying levels of honesty, and a simple way to understand Confucian thought is to examine the world by
using the logic of humanity. In practice, the primary foundation and function of Confucianism is as an ethical
philosophy to be practiced by all the members of a society.
[15]
Confucian ethics is characterized by the promotion of
virtues, encompassed by the Five Constants, or the Wuchang ( ), extrapolated by Confucian scholars during the
Han Dynasty.
[16]
The five virtues are:
[16]
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Rn ( , Humaneness)
Y ( , Righteousness or Justice)
L ( , Propriety or Etiquette)
Zh ( , Knowledge)
Xn ( , Integrity).
These are accompanied by the classical Sz ( ) with four virtues:
Zhng ( , Loyalty)
Xio ( , Filial piety)
Ji ( , Continency)
Y ( , Righteousness).
There are still many other elements, such as Chng ( , honesty), Sh ( , kindness and forgiveness), Lin ( ,
honesty and cleanness), Ch ( , shame, judge and sense of right and wrong), Yng ( , bravery), Wn ( , kind and
gentle), Ling ( , good, kindhearted), Gng ( , respectful, reverent), Jin ( , frugal), Rng ( , modestly,
self-effacing). Among all elements, Ren and Yi are fundamental.
Ren
Ren is one of the basic virtues promoted by Confucius, and is an obligation of altruism and humaneness for other
individuals within a community.
[3]
Confucius' concept of humaneness (Chinese: ; pinyin: rn) is probably best
expressed in the Confucian version of the ethic of reciprocity, or the Golden Rule: "Do not do unto others what you
would not have them do unto you."
Confucius never stated whether man was born good or evil,
[17]
noting that 'By nature men are similar; by practice
men are wide apart'
[18]
implying that whether good or bad, Confucius must have perceived all men to be born with
intrinsic similarities, but that man is conditioned and inuenced by study and practise. Xunzi's opinion is that men
originally just want what they instinctively want despite positive or negative results it may bring, so cultivation is
needed. In Mencius' view, all men are born to share goodness such as compassion and good heart, although they may
become wicked. The Three Character Classic begins with "People at birth are naturally good (kind-hearted)", which
stems from Mencius' idea. All the views eventually lead to recognize the importance of human education and
cultivation.
Rn also has a political dimension. If the ruler lacks rn, Confucianism holds, it will be difficult if not impossible for
his subjects to behave humanely. Rn is the basis of Confucian political theory: it presupposes an autocratic ruler,
exhorted to refrain from acting inhumanely towards his subjects. An inhumane ruler runs the risk of losing the
"Mandate of Heaven", the right to rule. A ruler lacking such a mandate need not be obeyed. But a ruler who reigns
humanely and takes care of the people is to be obeyed strictly, for the benevolence of his dominion shows that he has
been mandated by heaven. Confucius himself had little to say on the will of the people, but his leading follower
Mencius did state on one occasion that the people's opinion on certain weighty matters should be considered.
Etiquette
In Confucianism, the term "li" (Chinese: ; pinyin: l), sometimes translated into English as rituals, customs, rites,
etiquette, or morals, refers to any of the secular social functions of daily life, akin to the Western term for culture.
Confucius considered education and music as various elements of li. Li were codified and treated as a
comprehensive system of norms, guiding the propriety or politeness which colors everyday life. Confucius himself
tried to revive the etiquette of earlier dynasties.
It is important to note that, although li is sometimes translated as "ritual" or "rites", it has developed a specialized
meaning in Confucianism, as opposed to its usual religious meanings. In Confucianism, the acts of everyday life are
considered rituals. Rituals are not necessarily regimented or arbitrary practices, but the routines that people often
engage in, knowingly or unknowingly, during the normal course of their lives. Shaping the rituals in a way that leads
Confucianism
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to a content and healthy society, and to content and healthy people, is one purpose of Confucian philosophy.
Loyalty
Loyalty (Chinese: ; pinyin: zhng) is the equivalent of filial piety on a different plane. It is particularly relevant for
the social class to which most of Confucius' students belonged, because the only way for an ambitious young scholar
to make his way in the Confucian Chinese world was to enter a ruler's civil service. Like filial piety, however,
loyalty was often subverted by the autocratic regimes of China. Confucius had advocated a sensitivity to the
realpolitik of the class relations in his time; he did not propose that "might makes right", but that a superior who had
received the "Mandate of Heaven" (see below) should be obeyed because of his moral rectitude.
In later ages, however, emphasis was placed more on the obligations of the ruled to the ruler, and less on the ruler's
obligations to the ruled.
Loyalty was also an extension of one's duties to friends, family, and spouse. Loyalty to one's family came first, then
to one's spouse, then to one's ruler, and lastly to one's friends. Loyalty was considered one of the greater human
virtues.
Confucius also realized that loyalty and filial piety can potentially conflict.
Filial piety
"Filial piety" (Chinese: ; pinyin: xio) is considered among the greatest of virtues and must be shown towards both
the living and the dead (including even remote ancestors). The term "filial" (meaning "of a child") characterizes the
respect that a child, originally a son, should show to his parents. This relationship was extended by analogy to a
series of five relationships (Chinese: ; pinyin: wln):
[19]
The Five Bonds
Ruler to Ruled
Father to Son
Husband to Wife
Elder Brother to Younger Brother
Friend to Friend
Specific duties were prescribed to each of the participants in these sets of relationships. Such duties were also
extended to the dead, where the living stood as sons to their deceased family. This led to the veneration of ancestors.
The only relationship where respect for elders wasn't stressed was the Friend to Friend relationship. In all other
relationships, high reverence was held for elders.
The idea of Filial piety influenced the Chinese legal system: a criminal would be punished more harshly if the culprit
had committed the crime against a parent, while fathers often exercised enormous power over their children. A
similar differentiation was applied to other relationships. Now filial piety is also built into law. People have the
responsibility to provide for their elderly parents according to the law.
The main source of our knowledge of the importance of filial piety is the Classic of Filial Piety, a work attributed to
Confucius and his son but almost certainly written in the 3rd century BCE. The Analects, the main source of the
Confucianism of Confucius, actually has little to say on the matter of filial piety and some sources believe the
concept was focused on by later thinkers as a response to Mohism.
Filial piety has continued to play a central role in Confucian thinking to the present day.
Confucianism
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Relationships
Relationships are central to Confucianism. Particular duties arise from one's particular situation in relation to others.
The individual stands simultaneously in several different relationships with different people: as a junior in relation to
parents and elders, and as a senior in relation to younger siblings, students, and others. While juniors are considered
in Confucianism to owe their seniors reverence, seniors also have duties of benevolence and concern toward juniors.
This theme of mutuality is prevalent in East Asian cultures even to this day.
Social harmonythe great goal of Confucianismtherefore results in part from every individual knowing his or her
place in the social order, and playing his or her part well. When Duke Jing of Qi asked about government, by which
he meant proper administration so as to bring social harmony, Confucius replied:
There is government, when the prince is prince, and the minister is minister; when the father is father,
and the son is son. (Analects XII, 11, trans. Legge)
Mencius says: "When being a child, yearn for and love your parents; when growing mature, yearn for and love your
lassie; when having wife and child(ren), yearn for and love your wife and child(ren); when being an official (or a
staffer), yearn for and love your sovereign (and/or boss)."
[20]
The gentleman
The term jnz (Chinese: ; literally "lord's child") is crucial to classical Confucianism. Confucianism exhorts all
people to strive for the ideal of a "gentleman" or "perfect man". A succinct description of the "perfect man" is one
who "combines the qualities of saint, scholar, and gentleman." In modern times the masculine translation in English
is also traditional and is still frequently used. Elitism was bound up with the concept, and gentlemen were expected
to act as moral guides to the rest of society.
They were to:
cultivate themselves morally;
show filial piety and loyalty where these are due;
cultivate humanity, or benevolence.
The great exemplar of the perfect gentleman is Confucius himself. Perhaps the tragedy of his life was that he was
never awarded the high official position which he desired, from which he wished to demonstrate the general
well-being that would ensue if humane persons ruled and administered the state.
The opposite of the Jnz was the Xiorn (Chinese: - ; pinyin: xiorn; literally "small person"). The character
in this context means petty in mind and heart, narrowly self-interested, greedy, superficial, or materialistic.
Rectification of names
Confucius believed that social disorder often stemmed from failure to perceive, understand, and deal with reality.
Fundamentally, then, social disorder can stem from the failure to call things by their proper names, and his solution
to this was Zhngmng (Chinese: [ ]; pinyin: zhngmng; literally "rectification of terms"). He gave an
explanation of zhengming to one of his disciples.
Zi-lu said, "The vassal of Wei has been waiting for you, in order with you to administer the government.
What will you consider the first thing to be done?"
The Master replied, "What is necessary to rectify names."
"So! indeed!" said Zi-lu. "You are wide off the mark! Why must there be such rectification?"
The Master said, "How uncultivated you are, Yu! The superior man cannot care about the everything,
just as he cannot go to check all himself!
If names be not correct, language is not in accordance with the truth of things.
If language be not in accordance with the truth of things, affairs cannot be carried on to success.
When affairs cannot be carried on to success, proprieties and music do not flourish.
Confucianism
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When proprieties and music do not flourish, punishments will not be properly awarded.
When punishments are not properly awarded, the people do not know how to move hand or foot.
Therefore if the superior have got everything the a propriate name,he would find it convient to give
orders.If he give orders ,it will be always appropriately carried out.Then,he cannot blame you,because
you can always appropicately.."
(Analects XIII, 3, tr. Legge)
Xun Zi chapter (22) "On the Rectification of Names" claims the ancient sage-kings chose names (Chinese: [ ];
pinyin: mng) that directly corresponded with actualities (Chinese: [ ]; pinyin: sh), but later generations confused
terminology, coined new nomenclature, and thus could no longer distinguish right from wrong.
Governance
Confucian temple in Kaohsiung, Taiwan,
Republic of China
To govern by virtue, let us compare it to the North Star: it
stays in its place, while the myriad stars wait upon it.
(Analects II, 1)
Another key Confucian concept is that in order to govern others one
must first govern oneself. When developed sufficiently, the king's
personal virtue spreads beneficent influence throughout the kingdom.
This idea is developed further in the Great Learning, and is tightly
linked with the Taoist concept of wu wei (simplified Chinese: ;
traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: w wi): the less the king does, the
more gets done. By being the "calm center" around which the kingdom
turns, the king allows everything to function smoothly and avoids
having to tamper with the individual parts of the whole.
This idea may be traced back to early Chinese shamanistic beliefs, such as the king being the axle between the sky,
human beings, and the Earth. Another complementary view is that this idea may have been used by ministers and
counselors to deter aristocratic whims that would otherwise be to the detriment of the state's people.
Meritocracy
In teaching, there should be no distinction of classes. (Analects XV, 39)
The main basis of his teachings was to seek knowledge, study, and become a better person.
Although Confucius claimed that he never invented anything but was only transmitting ancient knowledge (see
Analects VII, 1), he did produce a number of new ideas. Many European and American admirers such as Voltaire
and H. G. Creel point to the revolutionary idea of replacing nobility of blood with nobility of virtue. Jnz ( ,
lit. "lord's child"), which originally signified the younger, non-inheriting, offspring of a noble, became, in Confucius'
work, an epithet having much the same meaning and evolution as the English "gentleman". A virtuous plebeian who
cultivates his qualities can be a "gentleman", while a shameless son of the king is only a "small man". That he
admitted students of different classes as disciples is a clear demonstration that he fought against the feudal structures
that defined pre-imperial Chinese society.
Another new idea, that of meritocracy, led to the introduction of the Imperial examination system in China. This
system allowed anyone who passed an examination to become a government officer, a position which would bring
wealth and honour to the whole family. The Chinese Imperial examination system seems to have been started in 165
BC, when certain candidates for public office were called to the Chinese capital for examination of their moral
excellence by the emperor. Over the following centuries the system grew until finally almost anyone who wished to
become an official had to prove his worth by passing written government examinations.
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His achievement was the setting up of a school that produced statesmen with a strong sense of patriotism and duty,
known as Rujia (Chinese: ; pinyin: Rji). During the Warring States Period and the early Han Dynasty, China
grew greatly and the need arose for a solid and centralized cadre of government officers able to read and write
administrative papers. As a result, Confucianism was promoted by the emperor and the men its doctrines produced
became an effective counter to the remaining feudal aristocrats who threatened the unity of the imperial state.
During the Han Dynasty, Confucianism developed from an ethical system into a political ideology used to legitimize
the rule of the political elites.
[21]
Most Chinese emperors used a mix of Legalism and Confucianism as their ruling
doctrine, often with the latter embellishing the former. The practice of using the Confucian meritocracy to justify
political actions continues in countries in the Sinosphere, including post-economic liberalization People's Republic
of China, Chiang Kai-Shek's Republic of China, and modern Singapore.
[21]
Influence in 17th-century Europe
"Life and works of Confucius, by Prospero
Intorcetta, 1687
The works of Confucius were translated into European languages
through the agency of Jesuit scholars stationed in China.
[22]
Matteo
Ricci was among the very earliest to report on the thoughts of
Confucius, and father Prospero Intorcetta wrote about the life and
works of Confucius in Latin in 1687.
[23]
Translations of Confucian
texts influenced European thinkers of the period,
[24]
particularly among
the Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who
were interested by the integration of the system of morality of
Confucius into Western civilization.
[23][25]
Confucianism influenced
Gottfried Leibniz, who was attracted to the philosophy because of its
perceived similarity to his own. It is postulated that certain elements of
Leibniz's philosophy, such as "simple substance" and "preestablished
harmony", were borrowed from his interactions with Confucianism.
[24]
The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as
an alternative to Christian dogma.
[26]
He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying the sociopolitical
hierarchy of China as a model for Europe.
[26]
Confucius has no interest in falsehood; he did not pretend to be prophet; he claimed no inspiration; he taught
no new religion; he used no delusions; flattered not the emperor under whom he lived...
Voltaire
[26]
Influence on Islamic thought
From the late 17th century onwards a whole body of literature known as the Han Kitab developed amongst the Hui
Muslims of China who infused Islamic thought with Confucianism. Especially the works of Liu Zhi such as
Tinfng Dinl sought to harmonize Islam with not only Confucianism but Daoism and is
considered to be one of the crowning achievements of the Chinese Muslim culture.
[27]
Influence in modern times
Important military and political figures in modern Chinese history continued to be influenced by Confucianism, like
the Muslim warlord Ma Fuxiang.
[28]
The New Life Movement relied heavily on Confucianism.
Referred to variously as the Confucian hypothesis and as a debated component of the more all-encompassing Asian
Development Model, there exists among political scientists and economists a theory that Confucianism plays a large
latent role in the ostensibly non-Confucian cultures of modern-day East Asia, in the form of the rigorous work ethic
Confucianism
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it endowed those cultures with. These scholars have held that, if not for Confucianism's influence on these cultures,
many of the people of the East Asia region would not have been able to modernize and industrialize as quickly as
Singapore, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan, South Korea, and even China have done. Most scholars attribute
the origins of this idea to futurologist Herman Kahn's World Economic Development: 1979 and Beyond.
[29][30]
In
years since, this hypothesis has been thoroughly discredited. See Hicks' account of it referenced above for details, or
for an alternate and more current explanation, Cristobal Kay's "Why East Asia Overtook Latin America: Agrarian
Reform, Industrialization, and Development."
[31]
Criticism
For many years since the era of Confucius, various critiques of Confucianism have arisen, including Laozi's
philosophy and Mozi's critique. Lu Xun also criticised Confucianism heavily for shaping Chinese people into the
condition they had reached by the late Qing Dynasty: his criticisms are well portrayed in two of his works, A
Madman's Diary and The True Story of Ah Q.
In modern times, waves of critique along with vilification against Confucianism arose. The Taiping Rebellion, May
Fourth Movement and Cultural Revolution are some upsurges of those waves in China. Taiping rebels described
many sages in Confucianism as well as gods in Taoism and Buddhism as mere legends. Marxists during the Cultural
Revolution described Confucius as the general representative of the class of slave owners. Numerous opinions and
interpretations of Confucianism (of which many are actually opposed by Confucianism) were invented.
In South Korea, there has been long criticism to Confucianism. Many Koreans believe Confucianism has not
contributed to the modernization of Korea. For example, South Korean writer Kim-kyong-li wrote a criticism named
"Must Kill Confucius, This Nation will be Solved" ( , gongjaga jug-eoya nalaga sanda).
The writer said that filial relationships are one-side and blind. He writes that if these circumstance continue, social
problems will continue to be caused by society and the government forcing Confucian filial obligations onto
families.
[32][33]
Women in Confucian thought
Confucianism "largely defined the mainstream discourse on gender in China from the Han dynasty onward,"
[34]
and
its strict, obligatory gender roles as a cornerstone of family, and thus, societal stability, continue to shape social life
throughout East Asia. Confucians taught that a virtuous woman was supposed to uphold 'three subordinations': be
subordinate to her father before marriage, to her husband after marriage, and to her son after her husband died. Men
could remarry and have concubines, whereas women were supposed to uphold the virtue of chastity when they lost
their husbands.
[35]
Chaste widows were revered as heroes during the Ming and Qing periods,
[34]
and were deemed so
central to Chinas culture and the fate of all peoples, the Yongle Emperor distributed 10,000 copies of the
Biographies of Exemplary Women (Lien Zhuan) to various non-Chinese countries for their moral instruction. The
book served as Confucianism's seminal textbook for Chinese women for two millennia, but cementing the "cult of
chastity" as an exemplar of Chinese superiority also condemned many widows to lives of "poverty and
loneliness."
[34]
However, recent reexaminations of Chinese gender roles suggest that many women flourished within
Confucianism.
[34]
During the Han dynasty period, the important Confucian text Lessons for Women (Njie), was
written by Ban Zhao (45-114 CE): by a woman, for women.
She wrote the Njie ostensibly for her daughters, instructing them on how to live proper Confucian lives
as wives and mothers. Although this is a relatively rare instance of a female Confucian voice, Ban Zhao
almost entirely accepts the prevailing views concerning women's proper roles; they should be silent,
hard-working, and compliant. She stresses the complementarity and equal importance of the male and
female roles according to yin-yang theory, but she clearly accepts the dominance of the yang-male. Her
only departure from the standard male versions of this orthodoxy is that she insists on the necessity of
Confucianism
9
educating girls and women. We should not underestimate the significance of this point, as education was
the bottom line qualification for being a junzi or "noble person,"...her example suggests that the
Confucian prescription for a meaningful life as a woman was apparently not stifling for all women. Even
some women of the literate elite, for whom Confucianism was quite explicitly the norm, were able to
flourish by living their lives according to that model.
[34]
In 2009, for the first time women (and ethnic minorities and people living overseas) were officially recognized as
being descendants of Confucius.
[36]
These additions more than tripled the number of officially recognized
descendants of Confucius.
[36]
Debate over classification
Ever since Europeans first encountered Confucianism, the issue of how Confucianism should be classified has been
subject to debate. In the 16th and the 17th centuries, the earliest European arrivals in China, the Christian Jesuits,
considered Confucianism to be an ethical system, not a religion, and one that was compatible with Christianity.
[37]
The Jesuits, including Matteo Ricci, saw Chinese rituals as "civil rituals" that could co-exist alongside the spiritual
rituals of Catholicism.
[37]
By the early 18th century, this initial portrayal was rejected by the Dominicans and
Franciscans, creating a dispute among Catholics in East Asia that was known as the "Rites Controversy".
[38]
The
Dominicans and Franciscans argued that ancestral worship was a form of pagan idolatry that was contradictory to the
tenets of Christianity. This view was reinforced by Pope Benedict XIV, who ordered a ban on Chinese rituals.
[38]
This debate continues into the modern era. There is consensus among scholars that, whether or not it is religious,
Confucianism is definitively non-theistic. Confucianism is humanistic, and does not involve a belief in the
supernatural or in a personal god.
[5]
On spirituality, Confucius said to Chi Lu, one of his students, that "You are not
yet able to serve men, how can you serve spirits?"
[39]
Attributes that are seen as religioussuch as ancestor worship,
ritual, and sacrificewere advocated by Confucius as necessary for social harmony; however, these attributes can be
traced to the traditional non-Confucian Chinese beliefs of Chinese folk religion, and are also practiced by Daoists
and Chinese Buddhists. Scholars recognize that classification ultimately depends on how one defines religion. Using
stricter definitions of religion, Confucianism has been described as a moral science or philosophy.
[40]
But using a
broader definition, such as Frederick Streng's characterization of religion as "a means of ultimate transformation",
[41]
Confucianism could be described as a "sociopolitical doctrine having religious qualities."
[5]
With the latter
definition, Confucianism is religious, even if non-theistic, in the sense that it "performs some of the basic
psycho-social functions of full-fledged religions", in the same way that non-theistic ideologies like Communism
do.
[5]
Notes
[1] [1] Craig 1998, p.550.
[2] Juergensmeyer, Mark (2005). Religion in global civil society. Oxford University Press. p.70. ISBN978-0-19-518835-6. "...humanist
philosophies such as Confucianism, which do not share a belief in divine law and do not exalt faithfulness to a higher law as a manifestation of
divine will"
[3] [3] Craig 1998, p.536.
[4] Lo, Ping-cheung (1999), Confucian Ethic of Death with Dignity and Its Contemporary Relevance (http:/ / arts. hkbu. edu. hk/ ~pclo/ e5.pdf),
Society of Christian Ethics,
[5] [5] Yang 1961, p.26.
[6] Juergensmeyer, Mark (2006). The Oxford handbook of global religions. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford University Press. p.116.
ISBN978-0-19-513798-9. "Few people self-identify as Confucian, yet fewer still will deny the vital importance of promoting filiality and
family cohesion"
[7] Education About Asia. 6-7. Association for Asian Studies. 2001. p.75.
[8] Jenco, Leigh (2007). "A Political Theory for Them: But Not for Us? Western Theorists Interpret the Chinese Tradition". The Review of
Politics (Cambridge University Press) 69 (2): 274.
[9] Yao, Xinzhong (2000). An introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge University Press. p.276. ISBN978-0-521-64430-3.
Confucianism
10
[10] Yi, Sng-hwan (2006). A topography of Confucian discourse. Homa & Sekey Books. p.58. ISBN978-1-931907-27-9. "Capitalizing on this
trend, Confucian capitalism proposed by Chinese-American scholars... gained academic attention in the Mainland"
[11] Kim, Young-Gwan (2002). "The Confucian-Christian Context in Korean Christianity". B.C. Asian Review (University of British Columbia
Press) 13: 7091.
[12] Frankel, James (2011). Rectifying God's Name: Liu Zhi's Confucian Translation of Monotheism and Islamic Law (http:/ / www. uhpress.
hawaii. edu/ p-7442-9780824834746. aspx). University of Hawaii. ISBN978-0-8248-3474-6. .
[13] Raju, P. T. (1992). Introduction to comparative philosophy. Northwestern University Press. p.149. ISBN978-81-208-0985-7.
[14] This phrase of a certain negative context became popular after its usage in many Anti-Confucianism movements in China, most notably the
May Fourth Movement and the Cultural Revolution. See (http:/ / guoxue. zynews. com/ News/ 2009/ 11104. html) and (http:/ / bbs1. people.
com.cn/ postDetail. do?boardId=14& treeView=1& view=2& id=91865332) for more details.
[15] [15] Bevir 2010, p.272
[16] Runes, Dagobert D. (1983). Dictionary of Philosophy. Philosophical Library. p.338. ISBN978-0-8022-2388-3.
[17] [17] Homer H. Dubs: 'Nature in the Teaching of Confucius', p. 233
[18] "Lun Yu (Yang Huo) 13 May 2009" (http:/ / www.confucius. org/ lunyu/ cd1702. htm). Confucius.org. . Retrieved 2012-06-10.
[19] Chinese Legal Theories (http:/ / ias.berkeley.edu/ orias/ summer2004/ summer2004Chinalegal. htm)
[20] -
[21] [21] Haynes 2008, p.67.
[22] The first was Michele Ruggieri who had returned from China to Italy in 1588, and carried on translating in Latin Chinese classics, while
residing in Salerno
[23] [23] "Windows into China", John Parker, p.25, ISBN 0-89073-050-4
[24] Mungello, David E. (1971). "Leibniz's Interpretation of Neo-Confucianism". Philosophy East and West 21 (1): 322. doi:10.2307/1397760.
[25] The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation, John Hobson, pp 194195, ISBN 0-521-54724-5
[26] Lan, Feng (2005). Ezra Pound and Confucianism: remaking humanism in the face of modernity. University of Toronto Press. p.190.
ISBN978-0-8020-8941-0.
[27] Frankel, James (2009). "Uncontrived Concord: The Eclectic Sources and Syncretic Theories of Liu Zhi, a Chinese Muslim Scholar" (http:/ /
jis. oxfordjournals. org/ content/ 20/ 1/ 46. abstract). Journal of Islamic Studies 20: 4654. . Retrieved 12 September 2011.
[28] Stphane A. Dudoignon, Hisao Komatsu, Yasushi Kosugi, ed. (2006). Intellectuals in the modern Islamic world: transmission,
transformation, communication (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=MJzB6wrz6Q4C& pg=PA251& dq=ma+ fuxiang+ military+
academy& hl=en& ei=_AadTPPfNIP78AaV-OVR& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CDgQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
q=ma fuxiang confucianism northern& f=false). London: Routledge. p.375. ISBN0-415-36835-9. . Retrieved 28 June 2010.
[29] Hicks, George. 1990. "Explaining the Success of the Four Little Dragons: A Survey." In Seiji Naya and Akira Takayama, eds. Economic
Development in East and Southeast Asia: Essays in Honor of Professor Shinichi Ichimura. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies: Singapore,
and the East-West Center: Honolulu, p. 25. ISBN-11 9813035633, ISBN-13 9789813035638, URL http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=IvHOhVjJNcoC& pg=PA25& dq=world+ economic+ development:+ 1979+ and+ beyond& hl=en& sa=X&
ei=TT_OT5WNFsGP6gH897H5Cw& ved=0CEsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q& f=false
[30] Hofstede, Geert and Michael Harris Bond. 1988. "The Confucius Connection: From Cultural Roots to Economic Growth." Organizational
Dynamics 16 (4): p. 6. ISSN 00902616, DOI 10.1016/0090-2616(88)90009-5, PubMed 4640478, URL http:/ / www2. seminolestate. edu/
falbritton/ Summer%202009/ FHI/ Articles/ Hofstede. confucious%20connection%20120505%20science%20direct. pdf
[31] 2002. Third World Quarterly 23 (6): pp. 1073-1102. DOI 10.1080/0143659022000036649, URL http:/ / homes. ieu. edu. tr/ ~ibagdadi/
INT230/ Christobal%20Kay%20-%20Why%20East%20Asia%20Overtook%20Latin%20America. pdf
[32] " ? - " (http:/ / www. sisapress. com/ news/ articleView. html?idxno=39088). Sisapress.com. .
Retrieved 2012-06-10.
[33] Posted by (2011-04-18). " :: " (http:/ / zerocdh. tistory. com/ 97).
Zerocdh.tistory.com. . Retrieved 2012-06-10.
[34] Adler, Joseph A. (Winter 2006). "Daughter/Wife/Mother or Sage/Immortal/Bodhisattva? Women in the Teaching of Chinese Religions"
(http:/ / www2. kenyon. edu/ Depts/ Religion/ Fac/ Adler/ Writings/ Women. htm). ASIANetwork Exchange, vol. XIV, no. 2. . Retrieved 18
May 2011.
[35] Vohra, Ranbir (1999). China's Path to Modernization: A Historical Review from 1800 to the Present 3rd edition. Prentice Hall.
ISBN0-13-080747-8.
[36] "Asia-Pacific | Confucian family tree 'triples'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ asia-pacific/ 8275269. stm). BBC News. 2009-09-25. .
Retrieved 2012-11-08.
[37] [37] Elman 2005, p.112.
[38] [38] Gunn 2003, p.108.
[39] [39] Sinaiko 1998, p.176.
[40] Centre for Confucian Science (Korea) (http:/ / terpconnect. umd. edu/ ~tkang/ welcome_files/ religion. htm); Introduction to Confucianism
(http:/ / urantiabook. org/ archive/ readers/ 601_confucianism. htm)
[41] [41] Streng, Frederick, "Understanding Religious Life," 3rd ed. (1985), p. 2
Confucianism
11
References
Craig, Edward (1998), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Volume 7, Taylor & Francis,
ISBN978-0-415-07310-3
Elman, Benjamin A. (2005), On their own terms: science in China, 1550-1900, Harvard University Press,
ISBN978-0-674-01685-9
Haynes, Jeffrey (2008), Routledge handbook of religion and politics, Taylor & Francis, ISBN978-0-415-41455-5
Creel, Herrlee G. Confucius and the Chinese Way. Reprint. New York: Harper Torchbooks. (Originally published
under the title Confuciusthe Man and the Myth.)
Fingarette, Herbert. Confucius: The Secular as Sacred ISBN 1-57766-010-2.
Gunn, Geoffrey C. (2003), First globalization: the Eurasian exchange, 1500 to 1800, Rowman & Littlefield,
ISBN978-0-7425-2662-4
Ivanhoe, Philip J. Confucian Moral Self Cultivation. 2nd rev. ed., Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing.
Nivison, David S. The Ways of Confucianism. Chicago: Open Court Press..
Sinaiko, Herman L. (1998), Reclaiming the canon: essays on philosophy, poetry, and history, Yale University
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Xinzhong Yao (2000) An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Yang, C. K. (1961; rpr. 1971), Religion in Chinese society: a study of contemporary social functions of religion
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Translations of texts attributed to Confucius
The Analects (Lun Yu)
Confucian Analects (http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ cfu/ conf1. htm) (1893) Translated by James Legge.
The Analects of Confucius (1915; rpr. NY: Paragon, 1968). Translated by William Edward Soothill.
The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation (New York: Ballantine, 1998). Translated by Roger T.
Ames, Henry Rosemont.
The Original Analects: Sayings of Confucius and His Successors (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998).
Translated by E. Bruce Brooks, A. Taeko Brooks.
The Analects of Confucius (New York: W.W. Norton, 1997). Translated by Simon Leys
Analects: With Selections from Traditional Commentaries (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2003). Translated by
Edward Slingerland.
External links
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Entry: Confucius (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ confucius/ #ConPol/ )
Interfaith Online: Confucianism (http:/ / www. interfaith. org/ confucianism/ )
Confucian Documents (http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ cfu/ index. htm) at the Internet Sacred Texts Archive.
Oriental Philosophy, "Topic:Confucianism" (http:/ / philosophy. lander. edu/ oriental/ confucism. html)
Article Sources and Contributors
12
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