Safe Bldgs

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PFC - CenIre for ConsuIIancy in Fngineering
Punjab Fngineering CoIIege
Chandigarh
PubIished by:
1he ih!ormaIioh provided ih Ihis mahual is !or geheral guidahce ohly ahd ih ho way replaces
Ihe services o! pro!essiohal cohsulIahIs. No legal liabiliIy oh Ihis accouhI cah be accepIed by
CehIre !or CompuIaIiohal Ehgiheerihg, Puhjab Ehgiheerihg College, Chahdigarh or Ihe
auIhors.
All righIs reserved.
1his release is Ihe properIy o! CehIre !or CompuIaIiohal Ehgiheerihg, Puhjab Ehgiheerihg
College, Chahdigarh. lI may be reproduced wiIhouI chahgihg iIs cohIehIs ahd wiIh due
ackhowledgmehI. SuggesIiohs / commehIs may be sehI Iosa!ebldgs@gmail.com
lLLUS1RA1lON 8Y:
MP MANMADHAN & AJU SAM
5AFF UILDING5
ConsIrucIion PracIices For 5afe uiIdings
CON1EN1S
Pre!ace
1ypical Page LayouI
How Ihis mahual will be use!ul Io you?
1. CONCRE1E AND l1S CONS1l1UEN1S
2. PROPER1lES OF CONCRE1E
3. PRODUC1lON OF CONCRE1E
4. 1RANSPOR1A1lON AND PLAClNC OF CONCRE1E
5. COMPAC1lON AND CURlNC OF CONCRE1E
6. 1ES1lNC AND COMMON DEFEC1S lN CONCRE1E
7. EX1REME WEA1HER CONCRE1lNC
8. RElNFORCEMEN1 AND COVER
9. RElNFORCED CEMEN1 CONCRE1E
10. EAR1HQUAKE RESlS1AN1 S1RUC1URES
11. S1RUC1URAL SYS1EMS
12. MASONRY UNl1S
13. CEMEN1 MOR1AR
14. S1RUC1URAL PROVlSlONS FOR MASONRY WALLS
15. S1RUC1URAL PROVlSlONS FOR 8EAMS
16. S1RUC1URAL PROVlSlONS FOR COLUMNS
17. S1RUC1URAL PROVlSlONS FOR SLA8S
18. S1RUC1URAL PROVlSlONS FOR FOUNDA1lON
APPENDlX
8ibliography
001
014
019
025
030
035
041
044
049
057
064
067
076
081
094
103
109
116
PREFACE
lI is a well ackhowledged !acI IhaI sIrohg ahd sa!e buildihgs cohsIrucIed as per codal provisiohs will prevehI
damage o! properIy ahd loss o! li!e durihg exIreme sIress siIuaIiohs, mosIly as a resulI o! haIure's !ury.
EarIhquakes ih Ihe pasI have exposed Ihe weakhesses ih Ihe ehgiheered ahd hoh-ehgiheered sIrucIures.
1he !ailure o! so mahy buildihgs ahd cohsequehI loss o! li!e ahd properIy warrahIs IhaI cliehI ahd ehd-user
(who are mosI imporIahI sIake holders ih ahy projecI) should have !ull ihvolvemehI ih Ihe projecI ahd
cohIribuIe proacIively ih Ihe execuIioh o! Ihe projecI Io ehsure Ihe required levels o! qualiIy ahd sa!eIy
sIahdards. 1he heed is Io empower IhemwiIh Ihe correcI Iechhical ih!ormaIioh as experI Iechhical advice
may hoI always be available Iocommohmahdurihg Ihe cohsIrucIioh.
A humber o! Iechhical bodies like NDMA (NaIiohal DisasIer MahagemehI AuIhoriIy), NlCEE (NaIiohal
lh!ormaIioh CehIre o! EarIhquake Ehgiheerihg) ahd 8M1PC (8uildihg MaIerials ahd 1echhology PromoIioh
Couhcil) have published !ew excellehI mahuals wiIh ah aim Io ihcrease Ihe awarehess o! various aspecIs
relaIed Io cohsIrucIioh. However, Ihere are hoI mahy publicaIiohs which are speci!ically ihIehded !or a hoh-
civil ehgiheers ahd hoh-pro!essiohals wiIh ah emphasis oh cohsIrucIioh o! sa!e, sIrohg ahd durable
sIrucIures. 1his publicaIioh is ah e!!orI ih Ihis direcIioh Io !ill Ihe gap. Ohe o! Ihe basic aims o! Ihe mahual is
Io hold Ihe aIIehIioh o! Ihe reader Io Ihe Iechhical aspecIs o! civil cohsIrucIioh by givihg Ihe ih!ormaIioh ih
Ihe !orm o! Key poihIs, 8ohus poihIs, Jargoh busIihg, CauIioh poihIs, HighlighIed IexI blocks ahd simple
illusIraIiohs.
1his mahual gives workihg khowledge o! Ihe imporIahI deIails o! civil cohsIrucIioh ih a sysIemaIic way. 1he
mahual sIarIs wiIh Ihe presehIaIioh o! clear ahd cohcise explahaIioh o! all aspecIs o! makihg qualiIy
cohcreIe ahd goes oh Io cover highly Iechhical aspecIs o! codal provisiohs relaIed Io buildihg compohehIs
ih masohry ahd reih!orced cohcreIe sIrucIures ih user-!riehdly !ormaI ahd easy-Io-uhdersIahd lahguage
IhaI cah be easily grasped by a begihher as well. AlIhough codal provisiohs relaIed Io ahalysis ahd desigh o!
sIrucIures have sIill Io dealI by a sIrucIural ehgiheer, Ihe codal provisiohs relaIed Io Ihe deIailihg parI o!
commoh sIrucIural elemehIs masohry walls, beams, columhs, slabs ahd !ouhdaIiohs have beeh covered ih
Ihe mahual. Ah e!!orI has beeh made Io cover Ihe basics o! Ihis vasI subjecI !or ahyohe ihIeresIed ih
uhdersIahdihg Ihe cohsIrucIioh pracIices ihvolved ih qualiIy cohsIrucIioh. DespiIe complexiIy o! Ihe
cohcepIs, care has beeh Iakeh Io ehsure Ihe simpliciIy ahd correcIhess o! Ihe maIIer. FurIher, Io ehsure Ihe
highesI qualiIy o! Iechhical cohIehI, Ihe mahual has beeh reviewed by experIs ih Ihe !ield o! educaIioh ahd
cohsIrucIiohahd Iheir !eedback is used be!ore !ihalizihg Ihe mahual.
lI is believed IhaI a geheral uhdersIahdihg o! Iechhical Ierms used ih civil cohsIrucIioh will help Io !aciliIaIe
commuhicaIioh wiIhih Ihe buildihg ihdusIry ahd will ehable everyohe Io cohIribuIe Iheir biI ih Ihe
success!ul cohsIrucIioh o! sa!e buildihgs. We expecI Ihis mahual Io come hahdy as sel!-help guide ih
supervisioh o! cohsIrucIioh by ahyohe direcIly or ihdirecIly ihvolved ih Ihe cohsIrucIioh wiIhouI ahy !ormal
educaIioh ih Ihe !ield o! Civil Ehgiheerihg. 1he mahual will be equally use!ul !or a sehior execuIive,
respohsible !or admihisIraIioh o! a cohsIrucIioh projecI or a commoh mah buildihg his owh house. lI cah
alsobe re!erred by !reshpass ouIs !romPolyIechhics be!ore Iheir !ormal ehIry ihcohsIrucIiohihdusIry.
5AFF UILDING5
PREFACE (cohId . . . )
Dr S C Dhawah
Advisor cum Chie! CohsulIahI
PEC - CehIre !or CohsulIahcy ih ehgiheerihg
Puhjab Ehgiheerihg College, Chahdigarh
AbouI Ihe auIhors
1he auIhors are Ihe Iwo ex-sIudehIs o! PEC. 1hey have almosI 25 yrs o! experiehce ih Ihe !ield o!
cohsIrucIioh.
Sh Parmod Relhah, did his 8achelor ih Civil Ehgiheerihg ih 1984. He was a gold medalisI o! Pahjab UhiversiIy.
He did his ME ih SIrucIures !rom PEC ahd is presehIly workihg ih MiliIary Ehgiheer Services as a Sehior
ExecuIive Ehgiheer. He has parIicipaIed ih a humber o! Iechhical semihars ahd presehIed papers. His !ield o!
ihIeresI is Ihe desigho! RCCahd sIeel sIrucIures.
Sh Samuhdra Sihgh also did his bachelors ih Civil Ehgg ahd MasIers ih sIrucIures !romPEC. He is also servihg
ih MiliIary Ehgiheer Service. PresehIly, he is oh depuIaIioh Io NaIiohal Highway auIhoriIy o! lhdia as Ceheral
Mahager (1echhical). His area o! ihIeresI is desigh ahd cohsIrucIioh o! RCC sIrucIures ahd cohsIrucIioh o!
pavemehIs.
LlS1 OF REVlEWERS
We are graIe!ul Io Ihe !ollowihg experIs who reviewed Ihe cohIehIs o! Ihe mahual ahd made valuable
!eedback.
1. 8rig M Srihivasah , CE, CE A&N Zohe, MES, PorI 8lair
2. Sh AK MaIhur, CCM, NHAl, 8ahgalore
3. Dr Sahjay Sharma, Head o! DeparImehI (Civil), 111l, Chahdigarh
4. Col (ReId) Dr S S Khera, CEO, Zahders Ehgiheers LimiIed, Mohali, Puhjab
5. Col (ReId) Harry Sidhu, WaIer Proo!ihg ahd SIrucIural RehabiliIaIioh CohsulIahI
6. Sh Surihder 8agha, ArchiIecI, Saakaar FouhdaIioh, Chahdigarh
As a resulI o! spread o! ihIerheI !urIher ih Ihe socieIy, Ihe level o! awarehess o! commoh mah ahd his
proximiIy Io ih!ormaIioh has ihcreased Iremehdously. 1he mahual will be available oh Ihe heI as a !ree
dowhloadable !ile.
1his mahual should be Iakeh as a re!erehce Iool ahd Ihe experI advice o! a pro!essiohal be soughI, wheh
required. Feedback !rom Ihe readers will be highly appreciaIed ahd will be use!ul !or makihg Ihe !uIure
ediIiohs o! Ihe mahual evehbeIIer. Please email your commehIs ahd suggesIiohs Iosa!ebldgs@gmail.com.
5AFF UILDING5
1YPlCAL PACE LAYOU1
CauIiohs Io be
exercised durihg
cohsIrucIioh
Key NoIes
Io explaih
Iechhical poihIs
Ceheral hoIes
HighlighIed IexI
blocks Io aIIracI
reader's aIIehIioh
ExplahaIioh o!
Iechhical Ierms
AddiIiohal hoIes
!or curious readers
For a common man
CohcreIe is Ihe basic maIerial IhaI goes ihIo ahy cohsIrucIioh. 1his is also Ihe sIarIihg poihI o! mosI Ihe
weakhesses ih ahy sIrucIure IhaI come Io Ihe hoIice durihg Ihe li!e-Iime usage o! Ihe buildihgs ahd exIreme sIress
siIuaIiohs like earIhquakes eIc. 1his mahual will Ieach a hoh-civil ehgiheer Ihe Iechhical Ierms required Io
commuhicaIe wiIh Ihe skilled labour ahd siIe supervisor. He will also uhdersIahd Ihe Iechhical deIails required ih
makihg a qualiIy cohcreIe.
1he user will be able Io learh Ihe basics o! reih!orced cemehI cohcreIe. 1his is imporIahI Io uhdersIahd Ihe
imporIahce o! locaIioh o! reih!orcemehI ih cohcreIe sIrucIures. Also, Ihe user will be able Io uhdersIahd ahd
appreciaIe Ihe behaviour o! Ihe buildihgs durihg earIhquakes.
1he mahual also simpli!ies Ihe Iechhical provisiohs o! lhdiah SIahdard Codes !or various sIrucIural elemehIs.
AlIhough Ihe quahIiIy o! reih!orcemehI heeds Io be le!I Io Ihe experIise o! sIrucIural ehgiheer, Ihe mahual deals
wiIh various deIailihg requiremehIs. 1he user will geI Io learh Ihe Iechhical lahguage Io commuhicaIe wiIh Ihe
sIrucIural ehgiheer. Overall, iI will equip Ihe user Io play a more proacIive role ih Ihe cohsIrucIioh o! his dream
house.
For a non-civiI engineering execuIive Iooking afIer civiI-engineering works
AlIhough a hoh-civil ehgiheer execuIive may hoI be lookihg a!Ier Ihe day-Io-day requiremehIs o! civil ehgiheerihg
works buI he has Ihe overall respohsibiliIy Io deliver qualiIy cohsIrucIioh ahd Ihe buildihgs IhaI are sa!e ahd
sIrohg. 1his mahual will empower himwiIh adequaIe khowledge Io ehsure IhaI Ihe subordihaIes are doihg Iheir
job ih a correcI mahher. He will be able Io uhdersIahd ahd appreciaIe Ihe imporIahce o! various aspecIs o! civil-
ehgiheerihg cohsIrucIioh beIIer. Khowledge o! imporIahI provisiohs o! lhdiah SIahdard Codes will come hahdy ih
commuhicaIihg wiIhhis subordihaIe sIa!! ihIechhical Ierms.
For a civiI engineering sIudenI
A civil ehgiheerihg sIudehI who ihIehds Io serve ih Ihe core-ehgiheerihg secIor will be able Io uhdersIahd Ihe
basics o! pracIical civil cohsIrucIioh. 1he mahual will provide him wiIh loI o! pracIical Iips IhaI he heeds Io
uhdersIahd Io avoid Ihe commoh piI-!alls IhaI may happeh durihg Ihe workihg aI ahy cohsIrucIioh siIe. 1hus Ihe
book may prove Io be good compahioh ih his ihiIial days o! IrahsiIioh !rom a !resh graduaIe Io a pro!essiohal
ehgiheer.
HOW 1HlS MANUAL 8E USEFUL 1O YOU
5AFF UILDING5
ConsIrucIion PracIices for 5afe uiIdings
001
ConcreIe and iIs ConsIiIuenIs
Chemical reacIiohs IhaI hardehs Ihe cohcreIe.
UhdersIahdihg heaI o! hydraIiohahd iIs imporIahce.
Should yoube boIhered abouI Ihe colour o! Ihe cemehI?
UhdersIahdihg seIIihg Iime o! cemehI.
Various Iypes ahd grades o! cemehI.
WhichcemehI is Ihe besI?
Various miscohcepIiohs wiIhregard IocemehI.
Cuidelihes !or sIorage o! cemehI.
PoihIs Iobe Iakehcare o! while purchasihg cemehI.
Required qualiIies o! !ihe aggregaIes.
Why !ihe sahd should hoI be used !or cohcreIihg?
WhaI is mahu!acIured sahd?
1humb rules Iocheck qualiIy o! sahd.
UhdersIahdihg bulkihg o! sahd. Why ahd how iI should be
checked aI siIe?
QualiIy o! coarse aggregaIes ahd why Ihese should be washed
be!ore use?
ExplahaIioh o! well-graded ahd poorly-graded aggregaIes ahd
howIhese a!!ecI Ihe voids ihcohcreIe?
Required qualiIies o! waIer !or cohcreIe.
ExplahaIioh o! waIer-cemehI raIio. How does higher waIer-
cemehI raIioa!!ecI Ihe properIies o! cohcreIe?
WhaI are admixIures ahd why Ihese are required?
1ype ahd amouhI o! admixIure. Why iI should be le!I IoexperIs?
5AFF UILDING5
CohcreIe ahd iIs CohsIiIuehIs
heh Ihe ihgrediehIs o! cohcreIe are mixed, Ihe pasIe o! cemehI ahd waIer coaIs Ihe sur!ace o! !iller
WmaIerial (Sahd &gravels or crushed sIohes).
Ohce Ihe cohcreIe is Ihoroughly mixed ahd workable, iI is poured ihIo Ihe !ormwork Io geI Ihe desired shape. 1he
cohcreIe should be cohsumed as early as possible a!Ier addiIioho! waIer IoiI.
1hrough a chemical reacIioh called hydraIioh, Ihe
pasIe hardehs ahd gaihs sIrehgIh Io !ormIhe rock-like
mass. Durihg Ihis chemical reacIioh, heaI is liberaIed.
1his heaI is called heaI o! hydraIioh. Curihg wiIh waIer
is essehIial Io cohIrol ihcreased IemperaIure. Ohce
cohcreIe has gaihed su!!iciehI sIrehgIh, Ihe !ormwork
is removed.
Jargon usIing
1echhically, sahd is called !ihe aggregaIes ahd gravels
or crushed sIohes are called coarse aggregaIe.
Formwork is a mould made up o! plywood, Iimber or
sIeel plaIes.
CauIion
1he hydraIioh o! cemehI sIarIs Ihe momehI waIer is added Io iI. As Ihe hydraIioh
progresses Ihe cemehI pasIe sIarIs sIi!!ehihg ahd loses iIs plasIiciIy. 1he cohcreIe
should hoI be disIurbed a!Ier Ihis. Normally, Ihis sIaIe is reached a!Ier abouI 30 Io
45 mihuIes o! addihg waIer.
onus PoinI
FoIIowingaspecIs of concreIe wiII be discussed in Ihe subsequenI secIions:
CohsIiIuehIs o! cohcreIe - cemehI, aggregaIes, waIer ahd admixIures,
ProperIies o! cohcreIe - workabiliIy, sIrehgIhahd durabiliIy,
ProducIioho! cohcreIe - proporIiohihg, baIchihg ahd mixihg
1rahsporIaIiohahd placihg o! cohcreIe, iIs compacIiohahd curihg
1esIihg o! cohcreIe ahd Commohde!ecIs ihcohcreIe
CEMEN
ME/SuRED
/MuN
w/ER
CEMEN
P/SE
|RES CNCREE
E/
1he raIe aI which Ihe heaI is produced is
imporIahI !or pracIical purposes. 1hough
high raIe o! hydraIioh will lead Io quick
gaihihg o! sIrehgIh, iI may also lead Io cracks,
i! hoI properly dissipaIed.
Key PoinI
002
5AFF UILDING5
1he weighI o! ohe cum o! cohcreIe is approximaIely 2400 Kg.
003
5AFF UILDING5
CemehI geIs iIs colour !romIhe haIure ahd colour o! rawmaIerials used, which will be di!!erehI !rom!acIory Io
!acIory, ahd may evehdi!!er ihIhe di!!erehI baIches o! cemehI produced iha !acIory.
QualiIy o! cemehI depehds upoh Ihe raw maIerials used ahd Ihe qualiIy cohIrol measures adopIed durihg iIs
mahu!acIure, ahd hoI ohIhe shade o! Ihe cemehI.
5eIIing 1ime of CemenI
Wheh waIer is mixed wiIh cemehI, a smooIh pasIe is produced IhaI remaihs plasIic !or a shorI Iime. Durihg Ihis
period, Ihe pasIe cah be disIurbed ahd remixed wiIhouI ihjury. As Ihe reacIioh beIweeh waIer ahd cemehI
cohIihues, Ihe plasIiciIy o! Ihe cemehI pasIe is losI. 1his early period ih Ihe hardehihg o! cemehI is khowh as
SeIIihg o! CemehI.
Jargon usIing
1echhically, Ihere are Iwo seIIihg poihIs. 8oIh are arbiIrary poihIs ahd are deIermihed by sIahdard IesIs. lhiIial seI
is wheh Ihe cemehI pasIe loses iIs plasIiciIy ahd aIIaihs a cerIaih degree o! sIi!!hess. Fihal seI is Ihe poihI wheh Ihe
pasIe hardehs ahd cahsusIaihsome mihor load.
As a rough guide, Ihe !ollowihg duraIioh !or ihiIial
seIIihg may be Iakehuhder hormal circumsIahces:
uick 5eIIingCemenIs . . 15minuIes
5Iow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2hours
Very 5Iow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5hours
Don'I
DiscriminaIe
ON 1HF A5I5 OF COLOU
5eIIing 1imes
OF CONCF1F DFPFND5 ON FAC1O5
O1HF 1HAN CFMFN1 A5 WFLL
Key PoinI
Pre!erehce !or ahy cemehI oh Ihe basis o! colour alohe
is Iechhically misplaced.
Slowor !asI seIIihg o! cohcreIe hoI ohly depehds oh
Ihe haIure o! cemehI, buI also may be due Io
exIraheous !acIors hoI relaIed Io Ihe cemehI. For
example, Ihe ambiehI cohdiIiohs play ah imporIahI
role. lh hoI weaIher, Ihe seIIihg is !asIer whereas ih
cold weaIher, seIIihg is delayed.
Key PoinI
CoIour of 1he CemenI
004
5AFF UILDING5
Iending CemenI WiIh Fco-friendIy MaIeriaIs
MosI o! Ihe cemehIs are PorIlahd cemehIs. 1he basic cemehI wiIhouI ahy addiIives is called ordihary PorIlahd
cemehI.
8lehded cemehI is obIaihed by addihg eco-!riehdly maIerials like !ly ash eIc. durihg Ihe mahu!acIurihg process o!
cemehI. 8lehded cemehIs are alsoIermed as composiIe cemehIs.
Modi!icaIioh o! cemehI by addiIives ouIside Ihe
pro!essiohal cemehI plahIs may lead Io serious
cohsequehces.
CauIion
1ypes of CemenIs
Ordinary PorIIand CemenI (OPC) : Re!erred Io as grey cemehI. 1his is available ih Ihree grades - 33, 43, ahd 53.
2
1he grade humber ihdicaIes Ihe mihimum compressive sIrehgIh o! cemehI sahd morIar cubes ih N/mm (MPa),

whehIesIed as per Ihe speci!ied procedure oh28Ihday a!Ier iIs casIihg.
Jargon usIing
MPa is abbreviaIed !orm o! mega Pascal, which is a uhiI o! pressure. 1 MPa is equivalehI Io a pressure o! 10
2
Kg/cm ,i.e., a load o! 10 kg applied over ah area o! 1 cm 1cm. 1he sIrehgIh o! cohcreIe & cemehI is expressed ih
Ierms o! pressure IhaI a sIahdard cube cahwiIhsIahd.
1he degree o! !ihehess Io which di!!erehI grades o! cemehI are grouhded ihcreases !romCrade 33 Io Crade 53.
More !ihehess meahs more parIicles ih uhiI weighI. 1his ehhahces Ihe reacIioh raIe which ih Iurh resulIs ih !asIer
gaiho! sIrehgIhaI earlier sIages.
Key PoinI
1he grade o! cemehI ohly ihdicaIes iIs compressive
sIrehgIh aI 28 days. 8uI cemehI cohIihues Io ihcrease
ih sIrehgIh beyohd IhaI period o! Iime wiIh hoI much
o! di!!erehce ihIhe lohg-IermsIrehgIh!or all grades.
PorIIand PozzoIona CemenI (PPC) : Fly ash, coal wasIe or burhI clay (called pozzolahic maIerials) is added
durihg Ihe mahu!acIurihg process. Cood qualiIy !ly ashis available !rom1hermal Power PlahIs.
WhehcohcreIe made !romPPCcemehI seIs ih, raIe o! hydraIiohheaI is lower as compared IoOPC.
Major ParI
OF 51FNG1H OF CFMFN1 (AND CONCF1F)
I5 ACHIFVFD IN INI1IAL ONF MON1H
e PaIienI
WI1H CFMFN1
Use Ihe CemenI
1HA1 5UI1 YOU
FUIFMFN15
5ay Yes 1o
FCO-FIFNDLY
CFMFN15
005
5AFF UILDING5
PPC cohIaihihg pozzolahic addiIives will ihvariably
be o! slighIly di!!erehI colour Ihah OPC.
PorIIand 5Iag CemenI (P5C): Slag is used ih Ihe producIioh o! Ihis caIegory o! cemehI.1he raIe o! hydraIioh heaI
is !ouhd lower ihcomparisohIoPPC. lI is mosI use!ul ihmassive cohsIrucIiohprojecIs, !or example - dams.
apid Hardening PorIIand CemenI: 1exIure o! Ihis cemehI Iype is quiIe similar Io IhaI o! OPC. 8uI, iI is a biI
!iher Ihah OPC. Used !or special purposes wheh a !asIer raIe o! early high sIrehgIh is required.
Jargon usIing
Slag is a hoh-meIallic producI obIaihed as a by-producI ih Ihe mahu!acIure o! pig iroh ih a blasI !urhace or elecIric
!urhace.
onus PoinI
CohcreIe made !rom blehded cemehIs geheraIes less heaI while iI seIs ih. 1his
prevehIs crack !ormaIioh due Io shrihkage. lI also per!orms well ih resisIihg
chemical aIIacks !romaggressive elemehIs ihgrouhd, waIer ahd air.
Which CemenI is 1he esI?
For ordihary sIrucIures, OPC Crade 43 cemehI or PPC meeIs Ihe
requiremehIs. However, wiIh improved availabiliIy ahd cohsisIehI qualiIy o!
PPC, iI is replacihg Ihe use o! OPCCrade 43 !or all purposes.
Crade 53 cemehI may be used !or heavy ih!rasIrucIure such as bridges, !ly
overs, large spah sIrucIures ahd high rise sIrucIures, where very high
sIrehgIhcohcreIes are required.
PorIlahd Slag CemehI has more sulphaIe ahd chloride resisIahce properIies
IhahOPCahd PPCahd is suiIable !or coasIal cohsIrucIioh.
Key PoinI
More Ihah Ihe choice o! Ihe cemehI, Ihe cohIrol exercised ih producIioh o! cohcreIe
wiIh regard Io Ihe selecIioh ahd proporIiohihg o! maIerials, use o! Ihe mihimum
required quahIiIy o! waIer, care!ul hahdlihg o! Ihe mix durihg IrahsporIaIioh ahd
placihg, compacIihg well Io geI a dehse cohcreIe, havihg ah ehgiheered !ormwork,
cohIihuous curihg cohIribuIe greaIly IoIhe qualiIy ahd durabiliIy o! cohcreIe.
PopuIar MisconcepIions
WE SHOULD USE CEMEN1 1HA1 SE1S QUlCKLY SeIIihg is ah essehIial properIy o!
cemehI. SlowseIIihg o! cemehI is healIhy ahd does hoI hecessarily meah IhaI Ihe
cemehI cahhoI provide lohg-IermsIrehgIh.
Key PoinI
006
5AFF UILDING5
HlCH CRADE OF CEMEN1 ENSURES 8E11ER RESUL1S 1he grade o! cemehI ohly ihdicaIes iIs compressive sIrehgIh
aI 28 days. Lohg IermsIrehgIh!or all grades o! cemehI is almosI same.
Why grade 53 should hoI be used !or ordihary sIrucIures?
1he higher Ihe grade o! cemehI used, Ihe greaIer would be Ihe heaI o! hydraIioh ahd hehce more sIrihgehI will be
Ihe curihg requiremehIs.
Crade 53 cemehI allows lesser placemehI Iime.
Crade 53 cemehI aIIaihs sIrehgIh earlier buI !or Ihe giveh waIer cohIehI, Ihe workabiliIy o! Ihe cohcreIe is less
wiIhouI Ihe use o! addiIiohal chemicals (called admixIures).
Jargon usIing
1he waIer-cemehI raIio is Ihe weighI o! Ihe mixihg waIer divided by Ihe weighI o! Ihe cemehI. Keepihg oIher
cohdiIiohs same, higher waIer-cemehI raIioresulIs ihpoor qualiIy o! Ihe cohcreIe.
8LENDEDCEMEN1S ARE lNFERlOR CEMEN1S AlIhough Ihe
raIe o! gaihihg sIrehgIh is slow ih Ihe case o! blehded
cemehI. 8uI ih Ihe lohg ruh iI gaihs as much sIrehgIh as
ahy OPCcemehI.
5Iorage of CemenI
8ihdihg properIy ahd sIrehgIh o! cemehI depehds oh iIs
capaciIy !or chemical reacIioh, which cah Iake place ih Ihe
presehce o! waIer. CemehI Iehds Io absorb moisIure, ahd
reacI wiIh iI chemically. ReacIioh wiIh moisIure resulIs ih
!ormaIioh o! lumps. 1heh iI loses iIs reacIiviIy ahd Ihis ih
Iurhwill resulI ihless sIrehgIh.
CemehI loses iIs sIrehgIh oh lohg sIorage. l! cemehI is more Ihah Ihree mohIhs old
IhehiI should be IesIed !or iIs sIrehgIhbe!ore beihg IakehihIouse.
onus PoinI
WorkabiliIy is Ihe ease wiIh which Ihe cemehI cah be mixed ahd placed.
1HERE WlLL 8E ASAVlNC lNQUAN1l1YOF CEMEN1 8YUSlNC HlCH-CRADE CEMEN1
ReducIioh ih cemehI wiIh same waIer cohIehI meahs Higher waIer-cemehI raIio ahd Ihus
reduced sIrehgIhahd durabiliIy.
ReducIiohihwaIer meahs reducIiohihworkabiliIy (because higher grade cemehIs are !iher)
AddiIioh o! admixIures Io improve workabiliIy meahs cosI saved due Io reducIioh ih
cemehI is o!!seI.
Jargon usIing
CauIion
Don'I
GF1 CAUGH1
IN A CICLF
Use Iended CemenIs
FO F11F WOKAILI1Y IN FF5H CONCF1F
AND F11F DUAILI1Y IN
HADFNFD CONCF1F
eware of MoisIure
PF5FN1 IN 1HF A1MO5PHFF
A5 WFLL
Don'I AIIow
DAMPNF55 1O
FACH CFMFN1
007
5AFF UILDING5
GuideIines For 5Iorage of CemenI
CemenI Guide
Check aI rahdomIhaI Ihe packihg bags are !reshahd IhaI Ihe bags are machihe sIiIched.
Check IhaI Ihe bag displays lSl markihg.
Check Ihe mahu!acIurihg week, mohIhahd Ihe year ohIhe bag.
Check aI rahdomIhe weighI o! Ihe cemehI bag.
Ehsure IhaI cemehI bags are hoI Iorh
Opeh Ihe bag ahd Iake a good look aI cemehI, Ihere should be ho lumps. lI shall give silky !eelihg wheh a
pihcho! cemehI is rubbed ih!ihgers.
lI shall be cool whehhahd is immersed ihcemehI bag.
Check IhaI Ihe colour o! cemehI is uhi!orm.
8uy ohly Ihe quahIiIy required !or Ihe week or !or Ihe !orIhighI
lhcase youhave ahy serious doubIs abouI Ihe qualiIy o! cemehI or i! you!eel Ihe cemehI is hoI !iI !or use, you
musI cohsulI Ihe mahu!acIurer. 8uI here is a quick simple IesI youcahdoyoursel! jusI Ioreassure yoursel!.
Make a pasIe o! a liIIle cemehI wiIh ohe-!ourIh Ihe quahIiIy o! waIer ahd make liIIle cubes o! blocks o! 50
50 20 mmsize. Leave aside !or a day.
1esI Ihe blocks Io see howeasily Ihey break. l! Ihe cemehI is o! a good qualiIy, Ihe blocks will be !irmahd will
hoI crumble or break i! youIry IocrushiI wiIhIhe pressure o! your !ihgers.
CemehI shall hoI be sIored !or more Ihah !our weeks aI siIe,
prior Io cohsumpIioh. Hehce cemehI boughI !irsI should be
used !irsI, i.e., FlRS1 lNFlRS1 OU1.
DohoI allowworkers Iouse hooks or sharp Iools Ioli!I Ihe bags.
Do hoI disIurb Ihe sIored cemehI uhIil iI is Io be Iakeh ouI !or
use. SomeIimes, wheh Ihe cemehI bag is Iakeh ouI, iI may
appear hard because o! Ihe load o! Ihe bags above iI. Roll Ihe
bag IwoIoIhree Iimes be!ore opehihg iI.
DohoI sIack bags agaihsI Ihe wall.
DohoI pile more Ihah15 bags high.
onus PoinI
1he laboraIory IesIs as mehIiohed ihIhe SIahdard Codes are mahdaIory !or large projecIs. For ordihary sIrucIures,
iI is advised Io purchase cemehI o! a repuIed brahd !rom ah auIhorized dealer, ask !or Ihe IesI cerIi!icaIe ahd
check Ihe !ollowihg poihIs:
Don'I Use
FINF 5AND FO CONCF1F
5ave FnvironmenI
5AY NO 1O IVF 5AND 1O
008
5AFF UILDING5
AggregaIes
AggregaIes (boIh !ihe ahd coarse aggregaIes) comprise 60 Io 75
percehI o! Ihe IoIal volume o! cohcreIe. 1he size, shape, gradaIioh ahd
qualiIy o! aggregaIes a!!ecI Ihe durabiliIy ahd sIrehgIho! cohcreIe.
Jargon usIing
1echhically, sahd is called !ihe aggregaIes ahd gravels or crushed sIohes
are called coarse aggregaIe.
Fine AggregaIes
River sahd is besI Iype o! haIural !ihe aggregaIes. lI should be !ree !rom silI, clay ahd orgahic impuriIies. Clay
lumps, vegeIaIiohahd pebbles, i! ahy, should be removed mahually or screehed be!ore usihg !or cohcreIe.
Crushed sIohe sahd obIaihed !romIhe screehihgs le!I !romIhe mahu!acIurihg o! coarse aggregaIes is ohe o! Ihe
alIerhaIives o! river sahd. However, Ihis cah be used !or cohcreIe work ohly i! iI does hoI cohIaih high percehIage
o! sIohe dusI. OIherwise, iI cahbe blehded wiIhoIher sahds IogeI appropriaIe gradihg.
Now-a-days, special crushers make !ihe aggregaIes !romrocks. 1his is called mahu!acIured sahd. Mahu!acIured
sahd is produced by crushihg selecIed rocks. 1he crushed rock is Iheh sieved Io geI parIicles o! various sizes ahd
washed. Di!!erehI parIicle sizes are Iheh blehded IogeIher Io obIaih Ihe exacI gradihg required. 1o Ihe haked eye,
Ihere is howay Iodi!!erehIiaIe mahu!acIured sahd !romriver sahd.
WiIh Ihe bah oh sahd-mihihg !rom rivers ahd ihcreasihg
demahd !or river sahd, Ihe cohsIrucIioh ihdusIry is !acihg
acuIe shorIage o! river sahd. lI is Iime Io promoIe
alIerhaIives Ioriver sahd !or various cohsIrucIiohacIiviIies.
Fihe sahd should hoI be used !or cohcreIihg.
SilI cohIehI ihsahd should hoI be more Ihah8%.
Sea Sahd should hoI be used because iI cohIaihs salIs which aIIracI moisIure !rom
aImosphere. Such absorpIioh causes damphess ahd disihIegraIioh o! cohcreIe. Sea
sahd alsoreIards seIIihg acIioho! cemehI.
Fihe sahd requires more waIer Ihah coarser sahd Io obIaih
Ihe same degree o! workabiliIy. Ahd Ihe sIrehgIh o! Ihe
cohcreIe depehds primarily oh Ihe relaIive proporIiohs o!
waIer ahd cemehI. Higher Ihe proporIioh o! waIer, weaker
Ihe cohcreIe produced.
ACCRECA1ES
CEMEN1
&
WA1ER
Key PoinI
Key PoinI
CauIion
uIking Occurs More
WI1H FINF 5AND5
009
5AFF UILDING5
lmprovemehI o! Ihe haIural sahd by washihg, gradihg ahd blehdihg may have Io be dohe aI siIe be!ore iIs use ih
cohsIrucIioh works. Whereas, !or mahu!acIured sahd, all Ihese process are dohe ih Ihe plahI iIsel! ahd Ihe qualiIy
sahd cahbe made available.
NaIural sahd may cohIaih uhdesirable miherals ahd clays, ahd Ihe e!!ecI o! Ihese maIerials oh boIh Ihe !resh ahd
Ihe hardehed sIaIes o! cohcreIe cah be exIremely harm!ul. Mahu!acIured sahd presehIs ah opporIuhiIy Io cohIrol
Ihe miheral cohIehI ihIhe parIicles.
lI is imporIahI Io remember IhaI jusI because sahd is mahu!acIured, does hoI meah
Ihe assurahce o! iIs qualiIy. Due diligehce ohIhe buyer's parI is heeded.
1humb uIes for Checking uaIiIy of 5and
AdvanIages of ManufacIured 5and
Hold some o! Ihe sahd ih hahd, rub iI ahd jusI Ihrow iI.
Check your palm. Cood sahd will hoI sIick IoIhe palm.
1ake some sahd ih a graduaIed, IrahsparehI measurihg
cylihder ahd pour double Ihe quahIiIy o! waIer Io iI. Shake
iI vigorously !or Iwo mihuIes by keepihg Ihe palm oh Ihe
Iop o! Ihe cylihder. Keep Ihe cylihder !or Ihree hours ih
uhdisIurbed cohdiIioh. 1here will be a disIihcI lihe dividihg
sahd suiIable !or cohcreIe ahd IhaI which is Ioo !ihe. Fiher
sahd musI be silI ahd clay washed ouI o! Ihe sample.
Measure Ihe heighI o! Ihe !iher sahd layer sIahdihg oh Iop
o! Ihe layer o! coarser sahd. 1he amouhI o! !iher sahd may
be cohsidered accepIable i! iI does hoI exceed 8%.
PercehIage o! !iher sahd = x 100
HI o! !iher sahd
1oIal heighI o! sahd
uIking of 5and
1he volume o! a giveh weighI o! sahd varies accordihg
Io iIs moisIure cohIehI. 1he same weighI o! sahd ih a
damp cohdiIioh cah occupy as much as 40% greaIer
volume Ihah ih dry cohdiIioh. 1his phehomehoh is
khowhas bulkihg.
MeasuremehI o! sahd by weighI raIher Ihah
volume (!or producIioh o! cohcreIe) is pre!erred
because o! iIs properIy o! bulkihg whehdamp.
Jargon usIing
1he presehce o! small quahIiIy o! waIer alohg wiIh Ihe
small size o! sahd parIicles brihgs Ihe physical
phehomehoh o! 'sur!ace Iehsioh' ihIo play. 1he !orce
due Io sur!ace Iehsioh keeps Ihe parIicles aparI
resulIihg ihmore volume.
COARSER SAND
FlNER SAND
CauIion
COOD SAND WlLL NO1
S1lCK 1O PALMS
Key PoinI
AIways Wash
COA5F AGGFGA1F5 FFOF U5F
010
5AFF UILDING5
Checking for uIking aI 5iIe
Fill a gauge box wiIh sahd. 1he drop ih Ihe level o! sahd oh saIuraIihg
(!loodihg) iI wiIh waIer ihdicaIes Ihe exIehI o! bulkihg. More Ihe drop, more
is Ihe bulkihg
Equal weighIs o! dry ahd
saIuraIed sahd have
pracIically Ihe same
volume.
Coarse AggregaIes
Crushed hard sIohe ahd gravel are commoh maIerials used as coarse
aggregaIes !or cohcreIe work. Coarse aggregaIe cohsisIs o! cleah, hard,
sIrohg, dehse, hoh-porous ahd durable pieces o! sIohes or gravels.
AggregaIes are, geherally, available ih sizes o! 40 mm, 20 mmahd 10/12
mm. Maximum size o! coarse aggregaIe should be such IhaI Ihe
cohcreIe cah be placed wiIhouI di!!iculIy arouhd all reih!orcemehI.
Ceherally 20 mmahd 10/12 mmsize aggregaIes are used ih mosI o! Ihe
hormal RCC cohsIrucIioh. 1he coarse aggregaIe musI be well graded (or
eveh graded) Io mihimize voids. RelaIively Ihih buildihg secIiohs require
smaller size o! coarse aggregaIe.
DirI or clay sIickihg Io Ihe aggregaIes weakehs Ihe bohd
beIweehpasIe ahd aggregaIes.
AggregaIes should hoI have pieces o! so!I, !laky ahd elohgaIed parIicles. Ceherally, !laI
ahd elohgaIed parIicles are avoided or are limiIed Io abouI 15 percehI by weighI o! Ihe
IoIal aggregaIe
Jargon usIing
1he empIy spaces wiIhih Ihe aggregaIes are called voids. Ah eveh gradaIioh o! Ihe IoIal coarse aggregaIe
!racIiohis desirable soIhaI Ihe smaller parIicles cah!iI beIweehIhe larger parIicles resulIihg ih!ewer voids.
Uhless allowahce is made !or bulkihg (wheh measurihg sahd by volume !or mixihg Ihe
cohsIiIuehIs o! cohcreIe), Ihe cohcreIe may cohIaihIooliIIle sahd.
DAMP SAND
Ll11LE
MOlS1URE
SA1URA1ED
SAND
EXCESS
MOlS1URE
DRY SAND
Key PoinI
CauIion
CauIion
HeaIIh of ConcreIe
IMPUF WA1F I5 DANGFOU5 FO 1HF
011
5AFF UILDING5
AggregaIes composed o! ahgular !ragmehIs raIher Ihah Ihose cohsisIihg o!
rouhded pieces are pre!erred. 1his meahs IhaI brokeh sIohe is pre!erred raIher
Ihah shihgle. 1he ahgular aggregaIes are beIIer because more sur!ace !ricIioh
leads Io sIrohger bohd wiIh Ihe cemehI pasIe. 1hese also o!!er beIIer
ihIerlockihg beIweehIhe aggregaIes.
WaIer
WaIer used !or mixihg ahd curihg shall be cleah ahd !ree !romimpuriIies. lmpuriIies ih mixihg waIer hoI ohly may
a!!ecI seIIihg Iime ahd cohcreIe sIrehgIh, buI also may cause e!!lorescehce, corrosioh o! reih!orcemehI ahd
reduced durabiliIy.
Muhicipal waIer supplied !or drihkihg purpose is geherally cohsidered !iI !or
cohsIrucIiohpurpose.
Jargon usIing
1he !ormaIioho! solid whiIe deposiIs ohIhe sur!ace o! cohcreIe is re!erred Io
as e!!lorescehce. E!!lorescehce is harm!ul !or cohcreIe. AparI !rom sur!ace
blemish ahd ugly appearahce, iI may acceleraIe Ihe process o! corrosioh o!
sIeel ihreih!orced cohcreIe.
8rackish waIer, sea waIer, muddy ahd sIaghaIed
waIer wiIh algae should hoI be used ih
cohsIrucIioh.
Crouhd waIer should hoI be used !or cohsIrucIioh
purposes uhless Ihe IesIs coh!irmIheir suiIabiliIy.
Key PoinI
Wheh sIohe aggregaIe or gravel broughI Io siIe is
sihgle sized (or uhgraded), iI should be mixed wiIh
sihgle sized aggregaIe o! di!!erehI sizes ih Ihe
proporIioh so as Io obIaih graded aggregaIe o!
speci!ied homihal size. For example, good gradaIioh
o! 20 mmsihgle-sized aggregaIes is ehsured by mixihg
60% o! 20 mmsize aggregaIes ahd 40% o! 12 mmsize
aggregaIes.
SlNCLE
SlZE
POORLY
CRADED
WELL
CRADED
onus PoinI
CauIion
1AP
WA1ER
SIrehgIh, durabiliIy ahd every oIher desirable physical properIy o! cohcreIe IhaI cah be measured will geI
adversely a!!ecIed by addihg more waIer.
Use o! mihimumquahIiIy o! mixihg waIer, cohsisIehI wiIh Ihe degree o! workabiliIy required Io ehable easy
placihg ahd compacIioho! cohcreIe, is advisable.
Less is eIIer
WA1F CON1FN1 IN CONCF1F
Measured and Added
FN5UF 1HA1 WA1F I5
012
5AFF UILDING5
WaIer - CemenI aIio
1he waIer-cemehI raIiois Ihe weighI o! Ihe mixihg waIer divided by Ihe weighI o! Ihe cemehI.
High-qualiIy cohcreIe is produced by lowerihg Ihe waIer-cemehI raIio as much as possible wiIhouI sacri!icihg Ihe
workabiliIy o! !reshcohcreIe provided Ihe cohcreIe is properly placed, cohsolidaIed, ahd cured.
Higher waIer cohIehIs diluIe Ihe cemehI pasIe (Ihe glue o! cohcreIe) resulIihg ih
!ormaIioh o! voids. 1hus Ihe sIrehgIh ahd oIher properIies o! Ihe cohcreIe will geI
reduced.
WaIer cemehI raIios Iypically vary !rom0.4 Io0.55.
For example, quahIiIy o! waIer !or per bag o! cemehI o! 50 Kg, wheh waIer-cemehI raIio is 0.50 = 50 Kg x 0.50 =
25 Kg o! waIer = 25 LIrs o! waIer
1he e!!ecI o! w/c raIio oh compressive sIrehgIh o! cohcreIe:
Speci!ic dehsiIy o! waIer is 1 Kg per liIre. 1here!ore,
amouhI o! waIer ihKg = amouhI o! waIer ihLIrs
WaIer-cemehI raIio
Probable compressive
sIrehgIh (%)
0.40
100 87 70 55 44
0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80
ProperIies o! cohcreIe
Compressive sIrehgIh
PermeabiliIy
Shrihkage
8leedihg
Low w/c
High
High
High
High
Low
Low
Low
Low
High w/c
l! Ihe sahd is damp, ah allowahce !or Ihe moisIure presehI ih Ihe sahd should always
be Iakeh ihIo accouhI. Reduce Ihe amouhI by waIer slighIly (by Irial ahd error) Io
achieve desired workabiliIy.
Key PoinI
S1RENC1H
WA1ER/CEMEN1
RA1lO
Key PoinI
CauIion
013
5AFF UILDING5
8oIh Ioo much ahd Ioo liIIle waIer cah adversely a!!ecI iIs qualiIy. 1he cohcreIe havihg less waIer will be di!!iculI
Iobe placed ahd compacIed.
Jargon usIing
CompacIioh o! cohcreIe makes iI dehser by elimihaIihg air bubbles ahd brihgs ehough !ihe maIerial boIh Io Ihe
sur!ace ahd agaihsI Ihe !orms Ioproduce Ihe desired !ihish.
AdmixIures
AdmixIures are Ihose ihgrediehIs ih cohcreIe oIher Ihah cemehI, aggregaIes ahd waIer IhaI are added Io Ihe
mixIure immediaIely be!ore or durihg mixihg ih order Io modi!y Ihe properIies o! cohcreIe !or a required
applicaIioh.
Jargon usIing
PermeabiliIy o! cohcreIe is relaIed Io iIs porosiIy. Permeable cohcreIe is prohe Io leakages. 1he Ierm 8leedihg is
used !or Ihe waIer IhaI appears oh Ihe sur!ace o! !resh cohcreIe. Some bleedihg ih cohcreIe is uhavoidable.
Shrihkage happehs ihall cohcreIes. Excess o! iI will lead Iocracks.
1he amouhI o! admixIure recommehded by Ihe mahu!acIurer or Ihe opIimumquahIiIy deIermihed by laboraIory
IesIs should be used.
8e sure o! Ihe compaIibiliIy o! Ihe admixIures, as well as Ihe e!!ecIs o! Ihe
admixIure oh Ihe properIies o! !resh ahd hardehed cohcreIe. However,
cohsiderihg Ihe IechhicaliIies ihvolved, Ihis should be le!I IoIhe experIs.
WaIer reducIioh!or beIIer qualiIy
AcceleraIioho! sIrehgIhdevelopmehI
lmprovihg Ihe workabiliIy
WaIer reIehIioh
onus PoinI
1he besI way Io IesI Ihe admixIure is by makihg Irial
mixes wiIh Ihe cohcreIe maIerials Io be used oh Ihe
job ahd care!ully observihg ahd measurihg Ihe chahge
ihIhe properIies.
Key PoinI
AdmixIures are used !or mahy special purposes. Few o! Ihese are giveh below:
CauIion
014
5AFF UILDING5
ProperIies of ConcreIe
UhdersIahdihg workabiliIy o! cohcreIe ahd ways Io make a mix
more workable.
AccepIed sIahdards !or measurihg ahd represehIihg Ihe
sIrehgIho! cohcreIe.
RelaIiohbeIweehgrade o! cohcreIe ahd iIs sIrehgIh.
ls iI su!!iciehI Iohave a sIrohg cohcreIe?
UhdersIahdihg durabiliIy o! cohcreIe.
Various exposure cohdiIiohs o! cohcreIe.
Mih grade o! cohcreIe ahd max waIer cemehI raIio Io be used
!or various exposure cohdiIiohs.
ProperIies o! CohcreIe
Never Add
JusI WaIer
1O IMPOVF WOKAILI1Y
015
5AFF UILDING5
uaIiIy ConcreIe = WorkabIe, When Fresh + DurabIe And 5Irong, AfIer Hardening
WorkabiIiIy
Fresh cohcreIe musI be workable jusI ehough Io !lowihIo !ormwork, ahd Io
be compacIed. 1he ease o! placihg, compacIihg ahd !ihishihg o! cohcreIe ih
desired mahher is called workabiliIy.
How Io Make a Mix More WorkabIe
Add more cemehI pasIe (cemehI + waIer)
Use well graded aggregaIes. Avoid !laky ahd elohgaIed aggregaIes
Use ahadmixIure
1he required workabiliIy o! cohcreIe depehds
oh Ihe placihg cohdiIiohs, !or example,
cohcreIe !or a highly reih!orced secIioh should
be more workable Ihah Ihe lighIly reih!orced
secIiohs.
Wheh Ihe quahIiIy o! waIer ih Ihe mix is ihcreased Io
overcome Ihe di!!iculIy o! placemehI ahd compacIioh,
Ihe cemehI cohIehI o! Ihe mix should be
proporIiohaIely ihcreased, so IhaI Ihe waIer -cemehI
raIiois hoI exceeded.
A cohcreIe wiIh high cemehI cohIehI is called rich mix ahd Ihe cohcreIe wiIh
less cemehI cohIehI is called leahmix.
5IrengIh
Commoh desigh properIy used !or desigh o! sIrucIural compohehIs is
compressive sIrehgIh. CohcreIe cah be proporIiohed Io meeI a wide varieIy
o! sIrehgIhrequiremehIs.
CohcreIe gaihs sIrehgIh progressively wiIh Iime. 1he accepIed Iime sIahdard !or measurihg cohcreIe
sIrehgIhis 28 days.
Jargon usIing
ProporIiohihg o! cohcreIe re!ers Io Ihe process o! deIermihihg Ihe relaIive amouhIs o! ihgrediehIs o! cohcreIe.
CONCRE1E lS VERY
S1RONC lN COMPRESSlON
1OO
WE1 !
1OO
S1lFF !
Key PoinI
OOPS ! !
onus PoinI
CauIion
5IrucIure is FuIIy Prepared
MAKF 5UF 1HA1
1O COPF UP WI1H I15 FNVIONMFN1
016
5AFF UILDING5
Depehdihg oh Ihe requiremehIs, di!!erehI grades o!
cohcreIe cah be obIaihed by mixihg iIs ihgrediehIs ih
di!!erehI proporIiohs.
onus PoinI
CohcreIe aIIaihs abouI 70% o! iIs characIerisIic sIrehgIhih7 days. 1he raIe o! gaiho! sIrehgIhslows dowhas Iime
goes by. MosI o! Ihe hydraIioh ahd cohsequehI gaih ih sIrehgIh o! cohcreIe Iakes place wiIhih 28 days. However,
measuremehI o! ulIimaIe sIrehgIho! cohcreIe would require a waiI o! several years.
DurabiIiIy
lI is imporIahI IhaI Ihe sIrucIure reIaihs iIs origihal !orm, qualiIy ahd serviceabiliIy IhroughouI iIs li!eIime.
DurabiliIy is Ihe abiliIy o! cohcreIe Io per!ormwell over a lohg period o! Iime wiIhouI much deIerioraIioh. Use!ul
sIrucIural li!e o! a buildihg depehds ohIhe durabiliIy o! Ihe cohcreIe used ihiI.
Precise deIailihg, good maIerials, correcI sIrucIural desigh, proper mix proporIiohs, sIahdard cohsIrucIioh
pracIices wiIh regard Io mixihg, placihg, compacIihg ahd curihg, are equally imporIahI ih makihg good
cohcreIe. lghorahce o! ahy o! Ihese sIeps meahs ahihviIaIiohIodeIerioraIiohprocess.
For a cohsIrucIioh Io per!ormiIs sIrucIural !uhcIioh, iI
is required hoI ohly Io be sIrohg buI also Io be
durable. SIrehgIh ahd durabiliIy go IogeIher. Ohe
cahhoI be ehsured aI Ihe cosI o! Ihe oIher.
CharacIerisIic compressive sIrehgIh o! cohcreIe = SIrehgIh achieved aI Ihe ehd o! 28 days Crade o! cohcreIe =
M + CharacIerisIic compressive sIrehgIhihMPa
For example, grade M25 represehIs cohcreIe, whichhas a CharacIerisIic Compressive SIrehgIho! 25 Mpa.
Key PoinI
ENVlRONMEN1 lS CONS1AN1LY
A11ACKlNC YOUR 8UlLDlNC
Key PoinI
Life 1ime CosI
DUAILI1Y ING5 DOWN 1HF
OF A UILDING
017
5AFF UILDING5
Fxposure CondiIions
Exposure cohdiIiohs as relaIed Io Ihe geographical locaIiohs o! Ihe buildihg ahd locaIioh o! sIrucIural elemehIs o!
Ihe buildihg are givehihIhe !ollowihg Iable.
1. CoasIal areas are Ihe areas covered wiIhiha rahge o! 10 km!romsea shore.
2. SulphaIes presehI ihIhe soil ahd marshy waIers provide Ihe aggressive ehvirohmehI IocohcreIe.
LocaIion of sIrucIuraI
eIemenIs
SIrucIural elemehIs
locaIed ihside Ihe
buildihg
Exposed sIrucIural
elemehIs
FouhdaIiohs ih cohIacI
wiIh or buried ih hoh-
aggressive soils /
grouhd waIer
FouhdaIiohs ih cohIacI
wiIh or buried ih
aggressive soils /
grouhd waIer
Geographic IocaIion
OIher areas
Fxposure condiIion
CoasIal areas ModeraIe
ModeraIe
Very severe
Show clad regiohs ih
NorIh ahd heavy raih!all
areas o! NorIh EasI
Severe
CoasIal areas Severe
OIher areas
All areas
All areas
ModeraIe
Mild
Grade of ConcreIe vis-a-vis Fxposure CondiIions
Ohe o! Ihe maih characIerisIics ih!luehcihg Ihe durabiliIy o! cohcreIe is iIs abiliIy Io permiI or resisI Ihe
ihgress o! waIer, oxygeh, carbohdioxide ahd oIher deleIerious subsIahces.
onus PoinI
1he major !acIor ih!luehcihg lohg-Iermservice li!e o! cohcreIe sIrucIures is Ihe ehvirohmehI Io which cohcreIe is
exposed. While !ouhdaIiohs have Io wiIhsIahd Ihe acIioh o! waIer ahd chemicals ih Ihe soil, supersIrucIures are
subjecIed Io weaIherihg acIioh due Io Ihe variaIiohs ih aImospheric IemperaIure, alIerhaIe dryihg ahd weIIihg,
exIreme aImospheric IemperaIures ahd aIIack by harm!ul chemicals presehI ihIhe aImosphere.
equired uanIiIies
OF VAIOU5 CON51I1UFN15
NFFD 1O F CALCULA1FD
018
5AFF UILDING5
A high permeabiliIy exposes Ihe cohcreIe Io aIIack
!rom Ihe harm!ul elemehIs. A suiIably low
permeabiliIy is achieved by havihg ah adequaIe
cemehI cohIehI, su!!iciehIly low !ree waIer cemehI
raIio, by ehsurihg compleIe compacIioh o! Ihe
cohcreIe, ahd by adequaIe curihg.
FoIIowing IabIe gives Ihe deIaiIs of grade of concreIe, minimum cemenI conIenI and maximum waIer-
cemenI raIio for various exposure condiIions.
Exposure
cohdiIioh
Crade o!
cohcreIe
Mih cemehI cohIehI
(Kg/cum o! cohcreIe)
!or 20 mm aggregaIes
Mih cemehI cohIehI
(Kg/cum o! cohcreIe)
!or 10 mm aggregaIes
Max waIer-cemehI raIio
Mild
ModeraIe
Severe
M 20
M 25
M 30
300
300
320
340
340
360
0.55
0.50
0.45
1. 1wo exposure zohes - very severe ahd exIreme, have hoI
beehgivehhere, beihg applicable Iospecial siIuaIiohs.
2. Maximum cemehI cohIehI should hoI exceed 450
Kg/cumIoavoid ihcrease risk o! shrihkage cracks.
CohcreIe is more vulherable Io deIerioraIioh due Io chemical or climaIic aIIack wheh iI is ih Ihih secIiohs.
Key PoinI
onus PoinI
019
5AFF UILDING5
ProducIion of ConcreIe
Meahihg o! proporIiohihg o! cohcreIe ahd Ihe parameIers cohsidered Io
decide Ihe correcI proporIiohs o! cohcreIe.
UhdersIahdihg homihal mix cohcreIe ahd desighmix cohcreIe meahs.
Desighmix cohcreIe will make ahecohomic sehse.
8esI way Io measure Ihe cohsIiIuehIs o! cohcreIe - volume or weigh
baIchihg.
Serious errors IhaI may occur ihvolume baIchihg.
Achievihg weighbaIchihg !or smaller works.
Checkihg workabiliIy o! cohcreIe mix aI siIe.
lmporIahI poihIs Io be cohsidered ih geIIihg ready mix cohcreIe !or your
siIe.
ProducIioh o! CohcreIe
e Aware of
GADF AND POPO1ION5
OF CONCF1F
020
5AFF UILDING5
ProporIioning of ConcreIe
A!Ier selecIihg suiIable maIerials !or cohcreIe work, Ihe hexI sIep is Io correcIly proporIioh Ihem. ProporIiohihg
o! cohcreIe re!ers IoIhe process o! deIermihihg Ihe relaIive amouhIs o! ihgrediehIs o! cohcreIe.
1o decide Ihe correcI proporIiohs o! cohcreIe, ohe should khowIhe grade o! cohcreIe. lI is decided by sIrucIural
desigher based oh Ihe cohsideraIiohs o! sIrehgIh requiremehIs ahd durabiliIy / exposure cohdiIiohs. 1he required
grade o! cohcreIe is mehIiohed ohIhe sIrucIural drawihgs.
1he deIermihaIioh o! Ihe proporIioh o! cemehI, aggregaIe, waIer (ahd admixIure, i! ahy) is dohe by laboraIory
IesIs Io achieve Ihe speci!ied workabiliIy ahd characIerisIic sIrehgIh. Such cohcreIe is called Desigh mix cohcreIe.
1he waIer-cemehI raIio o! Ihe cohcreIe mix shall hoI exceed Ihah Ihe waIer-cemehI raIio based oh Ihe exposure
cohdiIiohs.
1he commoh meIhod o! expressihg Ihe proporIiohs o! cohcreIe mix is ih Ihe Ierms o! parIs or raIios o!
cemehI, !ihe ahd coarse aggregaIes. For example, a cohcreIe mix o! proporIiohs 1 : 2 : 4 meahs IhaI Ihe mix
cohIaihs ohe parI o! cemehI, IwoparIs o! !ihe aggregaIe ahd !our parIs o! coarse aggregaIe.
FxcepIion:
Provisiohs o! lS code sIipulaIes IhaI i! desigh mix cohcreIe cahhoI be used !or ahy reasoh oh Ihe work !or cohcreIe
grade o! M20, !ollowihg mix may be used which, however, is likely Ioihvolve higher cemehI cohIehI.
A properly proporIiohed cohcreIe mix
should possess Ihe !ollowihg qualiIies:
AccepIable workabiliIy o! Ihe !reshly
mixed cohcreIe
DurabiliIy, sIrehgIh, ahd uhi!orm
appearahce o! Ihe hardehed cohcreIe
Ecohomy
Crade o!
cohcreIe
CemehI
(Kg)
Fihe
aggregaIes
(Kg)
Coarse
aggregaIes
(Kg)
Size o! coarse aggregaIes =
10 / 12 mm (graded)
Fihe
aggregaIes
(Kg)
Coarse
aggregaIes
(Kg)
Size o! coarse aggregaIes =
10 / 12 mm (graded)
M 20 50 100 150 83 167
Key PoinI
1he ecipe
A5K 51UC1UAL CON5UL1AN1
1O PFPAF UALI1Y CONCF1F
021
5AFF UILDING5
heh Ihe proporIiohs o! cohcreIe are pre-
de!ihed Io ehsure ah adequaIe sIrehgIh, Ihe
mix is called Nomihal mix cohcreIe. 1hese o!!er W
simpliciIy ahd uhder hormal circumsIahces, have a margih
o! sIrehgIh more Ihah Ihe speci!ied. However, due Io Ihe
variabiliIy o! mix ihgrediehIs, Ihe homihal mixes o! !ixed
proporIiohs vary widely ih sIrehgIh ahd may resulI ih
uhder- or over-rich mixes. 1he desigh mix cohcreIe is
pre!erred IoIhe homihal mix.
Design Mix ConcreIe Makes an Fconomic 5ense
MihimumcemehI cohIehI !or M25 cohcreIe = 300 Kg/cum(!or 20 mmaggregaIe)
= 340 Kg/cum(!or 10 / 12 mmaggregaIe)
MaximumquahIiIy o! cemehI ihcohcreIe should hoI exceed 450 Kg/cum.
Wheh homihal mix o! cohcreIe o! proporIiohs 1 : 1 : 2 is used aI siIe, Ihe calculaIed quahIiIy o! cemehI per cumis
hearly 550 Kg/cumwhichis more IhahIhe maximumpermissible quahIiIy
Jargon usIing
Hoheycombihg re!ers Io voids ih cohcreIe caused by Ihe morIar hoI !illihg Ihe spaces beIweeh Ihe coarse
aggregaIes. Hoheycombihg is hoI ohly ah aesIheIic problem buI depehdihg upoh iIs depIh ahd exIehI, iI may
reduce boIhIhe durabiliIy per!ormahce ahd Ihe sIrucIural sIrehgIho! Ihe member.
aIching of ConcreIe
8aIchihg is Ihe process o! measurihg Ihe ihgrediehIs !or a baIch o! cohcreIe. Volume baIchihg or weigh baIchihg
de!ihes Ihe meIhod o! measuremehI o! Ihe ihgrediehIs o! cohcreIe (cemehI, !ihe ahd coarse aggregaIes) !or
mixihg.
AcohcreIe mixIure IhaI does hoI have ehough pasIe Io !ill all Ihe voids beIweeh Ihe aggregaIes will be di!!iculI Io
place ahd will produce rough, hoheycombed sur!aces, ahd a weak ahd porous cohcreIe.
A mixIure wiIh ah excess o! cemehI pasIe will be easy Io place ahd will produce a smooIh sur!ace, however, Ihe
resulIihg cohcreIe is likely Ioshrihk more causihg cracks ohsur!ace ahd will be uhecohomical.
onus PoinI
Speci!ic dehsiIy o! waIer is 1 Kg per liIre.
1here!ore, amouhI o! waIer ihKg = amouhI o! waIer ihLIrs
onus PoinI
WiIh LiIIIe FfforI
MAKF WFIGH A1CHING
FA5IF, 5IMPLF AND FA51F
022
5AFF UILDING5
VoIume aIchingMay Lead Io 5erious Frrors
Depehdihg oh Ihe loosehess o! cemehI, Ihe volume o! cemehI ih a
measurihg box varies. 1he volume o! cemehI cohIaihed ih a measurihg
box will reduce ohshakihg Ihe measurihg box a liIIle.
1he volume o! sahd depehds oh iIs moisIure cohIehI. Volume o! same
weighI o! sahd will be as much as 40 % greaIer ih damp cohdiIiohs
due Iobulkihg o! sahd.
Required weighI o! !ihe aggregaIes = x hos. o! boxes
Required weighI o! coarse aggregaIes = y hos. o! boxes
1he values o! x ahd y may be ih!racIiohs.
While doihg cohversioh, esIablish Ihe sIahdard pracIice o! addihg !ihe ahd
coarse aggregaIes Io measurihg boxes. For example, Ihe measurihg boxes
are Io be !illed wiIhouI shakihg ahd Iop o! Ihe !illed box Io be levelled usihg a
levellihg rod.
l! Ihe sahd is damp, ah allowahce !or Ihe moisIure
presehI ih Ihe sahd should be Iakeh ihIo accouhI.
Reduce Ihe amouhI o! waIer slighIly (by Irial ahd
error) Ioachieve desired workabiliIy.
Measure Ihe cemehI by bags.
Usihg a sprihg balahce or plaI!ormscale, cohverI Ihe required mass o!
!ihe ahd coarse aggregaIes IoequivalehI hos. o! measurihg boxes.
VOLUME OF CEMEN1
REDUCES ON SHAKlNC
CauIion
MEASURlNC 8OX
LEVELLlNC ROD
Weigh aIching
1he reasoh!or workers Iopre!er volume baIchihg ihgeheral cohsIrucIiohis IhaI volume baIchihg is easier, simpler
ahd !asIer. lh large ahd imporIahI works, mechahical weigh baIcher is used Io weigh Ihe quahIiIies o! !ihe ahd
coarse aggregaIes. lh small works, weigh baIchihg cah be cohverIed Io volume baIchihg wiIh liIIle e!!orI by usihg
Ihe !ollowihg procedure. 1his will resulI hoI ohly ih ecohomy ih producIioh o! cohcreIe buI will also help ih
producihg a qualiIy cohcreIe mix.
Fnsure
UNIFOM COLOU AND
CON5I51FNCY OF 1HF MIX
1o Fnsure uaIiIy
MIX GADIFN15 POPFLY
uaIiIy ConcreIe
U5F WFIGH A1CHING FO
I1 I5 O1H ACCUA1F AND LOGICAL
023
5AFF UILDING5
lh weigh baIchihg Ihe mix proporIiohs are usually based
oh 50 kg bag o! cemehI. For example, 50 kg cemehI: 128
kg sahd: 189 kg coarse aggregaIe: 22.5 liIers o! waIer.
l! Ihe quahIiIy o! waIer ih Ihe mix has Io be ihcreased
Io overcome Ihe di!!iculIy o! placemehI ahd
compacIioh, Ihe cemehI cohIehI o! Ihe mix shall be
proporIiohaIely ihcreased, so IhaI Ihe waIer-cemehI
raIioas speci!ied is hoI exceeded.
Mixing of ConcreIe
1he mixihg o! cohcreIe may be compared wiIh Dosa
mix. l! Ihe ihgrediehIs o! Dosa are measured,
grouhded ahd mixed properly, Ihe Dosa will be so!I,
Ihih, o! good IasIe ahd hoh-sIicky. lh Ihe same way,
Ihe ihgrediehIs o! cohcreIe are properly proporIiohed
ahd mixed Io obIaih uhi!orm, cohesive ahd cohsisIehI
cohcreIe.
Hahd mixihg o! cohcreIe is a very hard Iask. Wheh
hahd mixihg is Io be dohe ih excepIiohal
circumsIahces !or very small quahIiIies, 10% exIra
cemehI should be added Io compehsaIe !or Ihe lower
sIrehgIhwhichusually is obIaihed wiIhhahd mixihg.
Machine MixingaI 5iIe
CohcreIe shall be mixed ih mechahical baIch Iype cohcreIe mixers havihg Iwo blades ahd !iIIed wiIh power
loader (li!Iihg hopper Iype).
Use measured cohIaiher !or addihg waIer IoIhe mix. Use Ihe speci!ied amouhI o! waIer.
Check Ihe cohsisIehcy or workabiliIy o! Ihe mix by makihg a ball o! Ihe mixed cohcreIe ahd examihihg iI.
RepeaI Ihe above process, whehever Ihere are sighi!icahI chahges ihIhe ihgrediehIs.
1he dry maIerial shall be mixed !or aI leasI !our Iurhs o! Ihe drum. While Ihe drumis roIaIihg, waIer is added
gradually Io Ihe exIehI speci!ied by waIer-cemehI raIio. 1he mixihg shall be cohIihued uhIil cohcreIe o!
uhi!ormcolour, uhi!ormly disIribuIed maIerial ahd cohsisIehcy is obIaihed. Mixihg shall be dohe !or aI leasI
IwomihuIes a!Ier addihg waIer.
CauIion
Hand Mixing aI 5iIe
1each DiscipIine
1O MIXF OPFA1O
024
5AFF UILDING5
1he !irsI baIch o! cohcreIe will probably be harsh ahd sIi!! because some o! Ihe
cemehI ahd sahd would have sIuck Io Ihe sides ahd blades o! Ihe mixer. 1his cah be
prevehIed by puIIihg a liIIle more cemehI ahd waIer (Io keep up Ihe waIer cemehI
raIio) Iomake up !or Ihe amouhI IhaI will sIick IoIhe mixer blades.
eady Mixed ConcreIe
Ready mixed cohcreIe (RMC) is !resh cohcreIe mahu!acIured ih a plahI away !rom Ihe cohsIrucIioh siIe ahd
IrahsporIed ih Iruck mouhIed IrahsiI mixers wiIhih Ihe sIipulaIed Iime Io Ihe siIe. Ready Mixed CohcreIe is
mahu!acIured uhder compuIer-cohIrolled operaIiohs ahd IrahsporIed ahd placed aI siIe usihg sophisIicaIed
equipmehI ahd meIhods.
Use o! Ready Mixed CohcreIe ehsures IhaI sIrucIures are builI !asIer usihg cohcreIe IhaI comes wiIh higher
levels o! qualiIy assurahce. lI cahprove Iobe cosI e!!ecIive ihIhe lohger Ierm.
enefiIs of MC
Uhi!orm, cohsisIehI ahd assured qualiIy o! cohcreIe
FasIer ahd speedier cohsIrucIioh
Ehsures a cleaher work place ahd causes mihimal
disIurbahce IoiIs surrouhdihgs
Savihgs ih labour requiremehIs, labour cosIs ahd
supervisioho! labour
Reduced wasIage o! maIerials
1he mosI imporIahI parameIer is Ihe Iime IhaI geIs elapsed !romIhe ihsIahce o!
addihg waIer Io Ihe placemehI o! cohcreIe. Normally, Ihe cohcreIe has Io be
placed ih abouI 90-120 mihuIes. OIher parameIers are cosI ahd delivery o! small
quahIiIies o! cohcreIe. lh Ihe presehI scehario, Ihere are a humber o! cohsIraihIs
ih geIIihg smaller quahIiIies o! ready mixed cohcreIe aI cosI-e!!ecIive raIes !or
small ahd medium-sized projecIs.
1he cohsisIehcy or workabiliIy o! Ihe mix cah be !elI by makihg a ball o! Ihe
mixed cohcreIe ahd examihihg iI. Fresh cohcreIe should heiIher be Ioo sIi!!
hor Iooloose.
Key PoinI
CauIion
025
5AFF UILDING5
1ransporIaIion and PIacing of ConcreIe
lmporIahI precauIiohs Io be Iakeh durihg IrahsporIaIioh ahd
placihg o! cohcreIe.
Placihg o! cohcreIe ihcerIaihIypical siIuaIiohs.
lmporIahce o! leak-proo! shuIIerihg ahd how Io achieve Ihe
same.
WhaI are cohsIrucIiohjoihIs?
Process o! IreaImehI Io ehsure proper bohdihg beIweeh !resh
cohcreIe ahd old cohcreIe?
1rahsporIaIioh ahd Placihg o! CohcreIe
CarefuIIy PIan
1AN5PO1A1ION AND
PLACING OF CONCF1F
026
5AFF UILDING5
1ransporIaIion and PIacing
1he cohcreIe should be IrahsporIed, placed ahd compacIed be!ore ihiIial seIIihg o! cohcreIe commehces ahd
should hoI be subsequehIly disIurbed. lI is hecessary IhaI Ihe Iime beIweeh mixihg (machihe or hahd mixihg aI
siIe) ahd placihg o! cohcreIe does hoI exceed 30 - 45 mihuIes. Delay is more o! a problemoh a hoI, ahd/or wihdy,
day whehIhe cohcreIe will dry-ouI !asIer ahd sIi!!ehmore quickly.
Mixihg, IrahsporIihg, ahd hahdlihg o!
cohcreIe should be care!ully coordihaIed
wiIh placihg ahd !ihishihg operaIiohs.
CohcreIe should hoI be deposiIed more
rapidly Ihah iI cah be spread,cohsolidaIed,
ahd !ihished.
1ransporIaIion Of ConcreIe
A!Ier mixihg, cohcreIe should be IrahsporIed Io Ihe placihg poihI ih
Ihe shorIesI possible Iime soIhaI iI does hoI lose iIs workabiliIy.
Ehsure IhaI cohcreIe mix shall hoI segregaIe or bleed durihg
IrahsporIaIioh. SegregaIioh ahd bleedihg durihg IrahsporIaIioh
maihly happeh due Io excess waIer ih cohcreIe ahd will resulI ih loss
o! sIrehgIhahd durabiliIy.
CohIaihers used !or IrahsporIaIioh o! cohcreIe should be leak-proo! Io prevehI Ihe loss o! cemehI pasIe.
lhcase o! cohcreIihg o! slabs, proper walkways o! woodehplahks or
ahy oIher suiIable maIerial supporIed direcIly oh Ihe shuIIerihg
should be provided Io cohvey Ihe cohcreIe Io Ihe place o!
deposiIioh wiIhouI disIurbihg Ihe reih!orcemehI ih ahy way.
Labour should hoI be allowed Iowalk over Ihe reih!orcemehI.
Jargon usIing
SegregaIioh is Ihe separaIioh o! coarse aggregaIe
!rom cemehI pasIe. 8leedihg is appearahce o! waIer
ohIhe sur!ace o! !reshcohcreIe.
Key PoinI
HEY !
DON'1 DELAY ! !
HurIs ConcreIe
FALL GFA1F 1HAN 1.5 M
WI1H O51UC1ION5
027
5AFF UILDING5
PIacing of ConcreIe
1he cohcreIe should be deposiIed as hearly as pracIicable ih iIs !ihal posiIioh Io avoid re-hahdlihg. CohcreIe
should hoI be dumped ihlarge heaps ahd moved horizohIally ihIoIhe !ihal posiIioh.
lh case o! columhs ahd cohcreIe walls, Ihe shuIIerihg should be
so adjusIed IhaI Ihe verIical drop o! cohcreIe is hoI more Ihah
1.5 m aI a Iime. lh case o! Ihe possibiliIy o! cohcreIe hiIIihg
obsIrucIiohs/reih!orcemehI durihg !all, iI should be placed
Ihrough a !uhhel ahd Iremie (pipe) Io avoid segregaIioh ahd
hoheycombihg.
lh deep Irehches ahd !ooIihgs cohcreIe should be placed
Ihrough chuIes. ChuIes should be o! rouhded cross secIioh Io
avoid accumulaIioho! cohcreIe ihsharp corhers.
Care should be Iakeh Io avoid displacemehI o!
reih!orcemehI or movemehI o! !ormwork durihg placihg
o! cohcreIe.
As Ihe cohcreIe hiIs ahy obsIrucIioh,
Ihe cemehI pasIe !rom Ihe mix sIicks
Io Ihe obsIrucIioh ahd coarse
aggregaIe rol l dowh causi hg
segregaIiohahd hoheycombihg.
onus PoinI
While placihg Ihe cohcreIe Ihrough dehse reih!orcemehI, iI is pre!erable Io sIarI Ihe cohcreIe wiIh a richer mix
(more cemehI pasIe) ahd IhehreverI back Iohormal mix !or subsequehI layers.
Wherever chuIes are used, Ihe
workabiliIy o! cohcreIe ahd slope o!
Ihe chuIe should be such IhaI
cohcreIe !lows easily wiIhouI addiIioh
o! ahy waIer IoIhe mix.
Forms, bracihgs ahd oIher supporIs should be cohIihuously checked durihg
cohcreIihg ahd ahy adjusImehI or addiIiohal supporI required musI be immediaIely
provided IoprevehI ahy accidehI.
FUNNEL
1REMlE
Key PoinI
CHU1E
CauIion
CauIion
AdequaIeIy onded
OLD AND FF5H CONCF1F 5HOULD F
Leak-proof ConcreIe
LFAK-POOF 1HF 5HU11FING
1O GF1
028
5AFF UILDING5
Each layer o! !resh cohcreIe should be placed a!Ier Ihe lower layer is properly compacIed ahd be!ore lower layer
loses Ihe plasIic sIaIe. Delay will resulI ihplahe o! weakhess aI Ihe joihI.
SIarI placihg !rom Ihe corhers o! Ihe !ormwork or, ih Ihe case o! a slopihg siIe, !rom Ihe lowesI level.
ConsIrucIion JoinIs
As a rule, cohcreIihg should be carried ouI as cohIihuously as possible buI ihIerrupIiohs are iheviIable.
CohsIrucIioh joihIs are Ihe joihIs where placihg o! cohcreIe has Io be sIopped !or some reasohs durihg
cohsIrucIioh. While layihg Ihe !resh cohcreIe ih cohIihuaIioh wiIh Ihe cohcreIe which has already hardehed,
some !ormo! IreaImehI is hecessary.
1he maih poihI Io be ehsured is Ihe proper bohdihg o!
!resh cohcreIe Io old cohcreIe. l! bohdihg is hoI
saIis!acIory, cohsIrucIioh joihIs will become Ihe
weakesI parI o! Ihe cohcreIe. FaulIy joihIs resulI ih
weakehihg o! Ihe whole sIrucIure ahd makihg iI
possible !or waIer IopercolaIe IhroughIhese joihIs.
Make use o! 50 microh black polyIhehe sheeI sIrips / biIumihous paper / ihdusIrial adhesive Iapes !or
sealihg Ihe joihIs beIweehshuIIerihg plahks.
lI is beIIer Io use plywood shuIIerihg or sIeel plaIes shuIIerihg. Do hoI use badly damaged or warped
shuIIerihg plaIes.
Always place Ihe props oha !irmgrouhd. Make use o! wedges aI Ihe base !or mihor adjusImehI o! levels.
lhIercohhecI all Ihe props (verIical supporIihg members) ihboIhdirecIiohs
onus PoinI
Key PoinI
1ips For Leak-proof 5huIIering
1he shuIIerihg should be leak-proo! so IhaI cemehI pasIe should hoI ooze ouI o! iIs joihIs Io avoid hoheycombihg.
029
5AFF UILDING5
For verIical joihIs, apply heaI cemehI slurry o! workable cohsisIehcy prepared by usihg 2.75 Kgs o! cemehI
per sqmohIhe sur!ace.
For horizohIal joihIs, cover Ihe sur!ace wiIh a layer o! !reshly-mixed morIar abouI 10-15 mm Ihick
composed o! cemehI ahd sahd ihIhe same raIioas Ihe cemehI ahd sahd ihcohcreIe mix.
1he old sur!ace should be su!!iciehIly roughehed by removihg all laiIahce by scrubbihg wiIh wire brush
(wheh Ihe old cohcreIe has hoI !ully hardehed) or by chiselihg care!ully (wheh Ihe old cohcreIe has
hardehed).
1he sur!ace is IhehswepI cleahahd Ihoroughly weIIed.
Apply Ihe !ollowihg immediaIely be!ore placihg o! Ihe cohcreIe:
1herea!Ier Ihe work proceeds ihIhe hormal way.
Jargon usIing
LaiIahce is a layer o! weak maIerial oh Ihe sur!ace o! cohcreIe.
Process of 1reaImenI
030
5AFF UILDING5
CompacIion and Curing of ConcreIe
PercehIage decrease ih sIrehgIh o! cohcreIe due Io
ihcompleIe compacIioh.
Proper procedures Io be adopIed Io achieve compleIe
compacIioh o! cohcreIe.
PrecauIiohs Io be Iakeh durihg vibraIioh.
lmporIahce o! curihg o! cohcreIe.
Various meIhods o! curihg.
Curihg periods !or di!!erehI cemehIs ahd di!!erehI weaIher
cohdiIiohs.
CompacIioh ahd Curihg o! CohcreIe
VibraIion shouId noI
DI51U FOMWOK AND FINFOCFMFN1
Desired esuIIs
WFLL-POPO1IONFD AND WFLL-MIXFD CONCF1F
NFFD 1O F COMPAC1FD WFLL 1O ACHIFVF
031
5AFF UILDING5
CompacIion and Curing
CompacIion of ConcreIe
CompacIioh elimihaIes ehIrapped air ih cohcreIe ahd brihgs ehough !ihe maIerial boIh Io Ihe sur!ace ahd agaihsI
Ihe !orms Io produce Ihe desired !ihish. Removihg ehIrapped air !rom !resh cohcreIe makes iI impervious ahd
sIrohg.
lhIerhal or heedle vibraIors are popular mode o! compacIihg cohcreIe ahd are suiIable !or mosI o! Ihe placihg
cohdiIiohs. 1he diameIer o! Ihe heedle should be deIermihed based oh Ihe spacihg o! reih!orcemehI bars ahd
Ihickhess o! secIiohs. For compacIioho! Ihe cohcreIe ihslabs, sur!ace vibraIor cahalsobe used.
Hahd compacIioh should hoI be dohe. l! compacIioh by hahd Iool such as sIeel rods is uhavoidable, use 15 %
more cemehI ahd waIer Ioihcrease workabiliIy.
VibraIor should be immersed Ihrough Ihe ehIire depIh
o! Ihe !reshly deposiIed cohcreIe ahd slighIly ihIo Ihe
layer below. lh Ihis mahher a plahe o! weakhess aI Ihe
juhcIioh o! Ihe Iwo layers cah be avoided ahd
moholiIhic cohcreIe is obIaihed.
1he cohcreIe should be placed ih layers o! Ihickhess 150
mm Io 300 mm wiIh Ihe vibraIor ihserIed verIically.
VibraIor should be placed ih cohcreIe rapidly ahd
wiIhdrawh gradually so IhaI Ihe hole le!I by Ihe vibraIor
closes !ully wiIhouI ahy air beihg Irapped.
1he cohcreIe loses sIrehgIh cohsiderably, i! ehIrapped
air is hoI removed compleIely. lI has beeh observed
IhaI 5% voids reduce Ihe sIrehgIh by abouI 30% ahd
10% voids reduce Ihe sIrehgIhby over 50%.
1he sIrehgIh o! Ihe cohcreIe member depehds oh
proper locaIioh o! reih!orcemehI. 8e care!ul hoI Io
displace Ihe reih!orcihg sIeel durihg compacIioh.
Jargon usIing
MoholiIhic cohcreIe meahs Ihe compleIe cohcreIe acI as ohe sihgle mass.
CauIion
CauIion
lN
QUlCKLY
OU1
SLOWLY
reakdown
OF VIA1O5 I5 UI1F COMMON.
KFFP 5PAF VIA1O AND NFFDLF A1 5I1F
032
5AFF UILDING5
1he layer o! !resh cohcreIe should be placed ohly a!Ier Ihe lower layer is properly
compacIed ahd be!ore Ihe lower layer loses Ihe plasIic sIaIe.
Su!!iciehI humber o! vibraIor should be used Io ehsure
IhaI Ihe cohcreIe placed should be compacIed wiIhih
10 mihuIes o! iIs placemehI. CompacIioh should be
sIopped immediaIely as sooh as excess waIer appears
ohIhe !ace o! cohcreIe.
1he size o! Ihe vibraIor deIermihes howmuch cohcreIe is vibraIed aI ohe Iime. 1he area vibraIed aI ohe Iime cah
be seeh by air bubbles risihg Io Ihe sur!ace. Always compacI ih a de!ihiIe paIIerh so Ihe areas overlap ahd cover
Ihe whole o! cohcreIe sur!ace.
Ehsure Ihorough compacIioh arouhd Ihe reih!orcemehI, embedded !ixIures, ahd
ihIocorhers o! Ihe !orm.
Overworkihg Ihe sur!ace ahd Ihe addiIioh o! waIer/ cemehI Io aid ih !ihishihg
should be avoided as iI will resulI ihweak ahd dusIy sur!ace.
onus PoinI
For slabs, cohcreIe is le!I Io sIahd uhIil Ihe sur!ace
moisIure !ilm disappears. A!Ier Ihe !ilm disappears
!romIhe sur!ace, a wood or meIal hahd !loaI is used Io
smooIheh Ihe cohcreIe. FloaIihg produces a relaIively
eveh, buI slighIly rough, IexIure IhaI has good slip
resisIahce ahd is !requehIly used as a !ihal !ihish !or
slabs. l! a smooIh, hard, dehse sur!ace is required,
!loaIihg is !ollowed by sIeel Irowelihg.
DohoI sIop vibraIor whehheedle is ihcohcreIe.
DohoI leave vibraIor ruhhihg idle ihair, Ihis may damage iIs bearihgs.
1he vibraIor should be applied aI ohe place !or 20 Io 30 secohds depehdihg upoh Ihe cohsisIehcy o! Ihe
mix. 1his may goup Io2 mihuIes !or very harshmixes.
CompacIioh should be judged by Ihe appearahce o! cohcreIe sur!ace. lI should heiIher be hohey
combed hor cohIaihahexcess o! morIar. VibraIioho! very weI mixes should be avoided.
Avoid cohIacI o! vibraIor heedle wiIhsIeel bars durihg vaibraIioh.
Over-vibraIiohahd uhder-vibraIioho! cohcreIe are harm!ul ahd should be avoided.
Key PoinI
CauIion
CauIion
PrecauIions During VibraIion
ImporIanI
NegIecIed
CUING I5 1HF MO51
AND MO51
AC1IVI1Y
033
5AFF UILDING5
Never spread cohcreIe sideways
wiIh a vibraIor as Ihis may cause
segregaIioho! Ihe mix.
Curing of ConcreIe
1he Ierm curihg is used Io ihclude maihIehahce o! a !avorable
ehvirohmehI !or Ihe cohIihuaIioh o! chemical reacIiohs ih
cohcreIe. Cood curihg meahs prevehIihg or reducihg waIer
loss !romIhe cohcreIe, or applyihg exIra waIer Io Ihe sur!ace o!
Ihe cohcreIe.
MoisIure eIenIion
Use polyeIhylehe sheeIs o! 0.1 mm mihimum Ihickhess, sheeI
may be plaih !ilm or bohded Io hessiah or oIher absorbehI
IexIiles. Place sheeI oh Ihe cohcreIe sur!ace wiIhouI marrihg
Ihe sur!ace. Ehsure IhaI sheeI covers all exposed sur!aces ahd
IhaI cohcreIe belowsheeI is weI.
CohcreIe hardehs as a resulI o! hydraIioh - Ihe chemical reacIioh
beIweeh cemehI ahd waIer. However, hydraIioh occurs ohly i!
waIer is available ahd Ihe IemperaIure o! cohcreIe sIays wiIhih a
O O
suiIable rahge (beIweeh 10 Cahd 25 C). Curihg is ohe o! Ihe mosI
imporIahI sIeps ih cohcreIe cohsIrucIioh, because curihg has a
sIrohg ih!luehce oh Ihe properIies o! hardehed cohcreIe such as
durabiliIy, sIrehgIh, waIer-IighIhess, abrasiohresisIahce eIc.
onus PoinI
Exposed slab sur!aces are especially sehsiIive Iocurihg. l! Iimely curihg is hoI dohe, Ihe Iop sur!ace dries Iosuchah
exIehI IhaI hydraIioh process almosI sIops aI Ihe Iop sur!ace makihg iI weak ahd porous. Quick dryihg o! sur!ace
will lead Io plasIic shrihkage cracks. Properly cured cohcreIe has a sur!ace IhaI wears beIIer, lasIs lohger ahd
beIIer proIecIs Ihe sIeel reih!orcemehI.
O
Use whiIe or re!lecIive sheeIihg wheh IemperaIure exceeds 30 C. Use black or
O O
dark coloured sheeIs wheh maximumIemperaIure is below 15 C. 8eIweeh 15 C
O
ahd 30 CIemperaIure ahy colour or IrahsparehI sheeI may be used.
NEVER SPREAD CONCRE1E
Wl1H Vl8RA1OR
EVAPORA1lON OF WA1ER
MeIhods of Curing
CauIion
Key PoinI
Key PoinI
Don'I AIIow
CONCF1F 5UFACF5 1O DY O
AL1FNA1F WI1H DYING AND WF11ING CYCLF5
034
5AFF UILDING5
8uild a ridge wiIh earIh, sahd or leah morIar Io !ormshallowpohds
ahd !lood wiIh waIer, wiIhouI spoilihg Ihe sur!ace. 1he Iop sur!aces
o! slabs ahd oIher horizohIal members should be cured by pohdihg
waIer. Replace waIer losI due Io evaporaIioh ahd keep cohcreIe
sur!aces cohIihuously weI.
Usihg equipmehI like hoses eIc., waIer should be direcIed oh verIical cohcreIe sur!aces !or keepihg cohcreIe
cohIihuously weI. OIherwise, sIeeply slopihg ahd verIical sur!aces are kepI compleIely ahd cohIihuously moisI be
applyihg waIer IoIhe Iop sur!ace ahd allowihg iI Ioroll dowh!reely.
Hessiah, sahd, hay or sIraw may be spread oh cohcreIe sur!aces ahd kepI cohIihuously weI.
Curihg should be sIarIed jusI a!Ier Ihe sur!aces begih Io dry. A!Ier cohcreIe is placed, saIis!acIory moisIure

cohIehI ahd IemperaIure (beIweeh10Cahd 25C) musI be maihIaihed.
Curihg should cohIihue as lohg as possible as all Ihe
desired properIies o! cohcreIe are improved by curihg.
CohcreIe should aIIaih aI leasI 70% sIrehgIh aI Ihe
ehd o! curihg.
1lME
DAY 1 DAY 2 DAY 3
S
1
R
E
N
C
1
H
NO1-CURED
CONCRE1E
CURED CONCRE1E
Period of Curing
Ponding
5prinkIing
WaIer AbsorbenI MaIeriaIs
How Much Curing?
NormaI
WeaIher
Dry and HoI
WeaIher
1ype of cemenI
Ordihary PorIlahd
CemehI
8lehded CemehI or
where admixIures
are used
7 days 10 days
10 days 14 days
Key PoinI
035
5AFF UILDING5
1esIing and Common DefecIs in ConcreIe
lmporIahI day-Io-day IesIs !or cohcreIe?
WhaI is segregaIioh? HowIoavoid iI?
Hoheycombihg ahd Ihe pracIices Io mihimise Ihe occurrehce o!
hoheycombihg.
8leedihg o! cohcreIe, iIs e!!ecIs ahd howIoavoid iI.
WhaI are plasIic shrihkage cracks? HowIoavoid Ihese cracks?
CommohmisIakes IhaI spoil Ihe cohcreIe.
1esIihg ahd Commoh De!ecIs ih CohcreIe
036
5AFF UILDING5
1esIing and Common DefecIs
MaIerial IesIihg plays a viIal parI Io ehsure Ihe qualiIy ahd ihIegriIy o! Ihe maIerial ahd ih Ihe producIioh o! a
qualiIy cohcreIe. AlIhough Ihere are mahy IesIs !or Ihe !resh ahd hardehed cohcreIe, ohly Iwo imporIahI IesIs
IhaI !all ihIoIhe hormal requiremehIs o! everyday producIiohare mehIiohed here.
1he compressioh IesI gives Ihe compressive sIrehgIh o! hardehed cohcreIe usihg a compressioh IesIihg machihe.
Sequehce o! evehIs !or casIihg o! cube iha sIahdard mould, curihg ahd IesIihg are showhbelow!or re!erehce.
1he slump IesI is a pracIical meahs o! measurihg Ihe workabiliIy or cohsisIehcy o! mix. 1he chahges ih Ihe values
o! slump ihdicaIe Ihe maIerial chahges ih Ihe waIer cohIehI or proporIiohs o! Ihe mix. Ahd so iI is quiIe use!ul ih
cohIrollihg Ihe qualiIy o! Ihe cohcreIe produced. Sequehce o! evehIs durihg slump IesI aI siIe are showh below
!or re!erehce.
DeIailed hoIes wiIh regard Io samplihg o! cohcreIe !or IesIs, preparaIioh o! specimehs ahd cohducIihg Ihe
IesIs are beyohd Ihe scope ahd hehce hoI covered ihIhe mahual.
Where higher slump is hecessary because o! di!!iculIy ih placemehI o! cohcreIe or
oIher speci!ic requiremehIs, iI cah be aIIaihed by usihg special admixIures
(chemical addiIives) raIher Ihahby addihg more waIer.
Jargon usIing
1he Iermslump simply re!ers Io Ihe cohsisIehcy o! Ihe cohcreIe ih a plasIic sIaIe (prior Io hardehihg). Slump is a
measure o! howweI or sIi!! Ihe cohcreIe is.
Compression 1esI
5Iump 1esI
Key PoinI
SLUMP
NoIe
037
5AFF UILDING5
5egregaIion
SegregaIioh is Ihe separaIioh o! coarse aggregaIe !rom cemehI pasIe. SegregaIioh makes Ihe cohcreIe weaker,
less durable ahd will leave a poor sur!ace !ihish.
SegregaIiohmay happehdurihg mixihg, IrahsporIaIioh, placihg or compacIioh.
Honeycombing
Hoheycombihg re!ers Io rough ahd sIohy cohcreIe sur!ace wiIh air voids
beIweeh Ihe coarse aggregaIe. lI usually becomes apparehI ohly wheh
Ihe !ormwork is sIripped.
Hoheycombihg is always ah aesIheIic problem, ahd depehdihg oh Ihe
depIh ahd exIehI may reduce boIh Ihe durabiliIy per!ormahce ahd Ihe
sIrucIural sIrehgIho! Ihe member.
l! Ihe hoheycombed area is small ih exIehI ahd depIh does hoI sighi!icahIly jeopardise Ihe qualiIy o! Ihe
cover cohcreIe proIecIihg Ihe reih!orcemehI, Iheh iI cah be repaired by paIchihg wiIh morIar o! a similar
colour IoIhe base cohcreIe.
A sur!ace skih o! morIar someIimes masks
Ihe exIehI o! Ihe hoheycombihg.
Over-mixihg o! Ihe rawmaIerials
1oo weI or Ioo dry mix is likely Io segregaIe durihg
IrahsporIaIioh
VerIical !all o! cohcreIe more Ihah1.5 m
Fresh cohcreIe hiIIihg obsIrucIiohs/reih!orcemehI
durihg !all
Over-compacIioho! cohcreIe
Spreadihg Ihe cohcreIe sideways usihg vibraIor
Ehsure Ihe mix has adequaIe !ihe aggregaIes.
Use a mix wiIhappropriaIe workabiliIy !or Ihe siIuaIiohihwhichiI is Iobe placed.
Ehsure Ihe cohcreIe is !ully compacIed ahd Ihe placihg meIhods mihimise Ihe risk o! segregaIioh.
Ehsure IhaI Ihe cohcreIe !lows arouhd Ihe reih!orcemehI durihg compacIioh.
Check IhaI Ihe !ormwork is rigid, well braced ahd Ihe joihIs are waIerIighI.
PracIices Io Minimise Ihe Occurrence of Honeycombing
Avoid 5egregaIion by NoI Doing Ihe FoIIowing
CauIion
5houId Never e
LFFDING WA1F
F-MIXFD DUING FINI5HING
Avoid Honeycombing
A1HF 1HAN 1O FPAI I1
038
5AFF UILDING5
! Ihe hoheycombihg is exIehsive ahd peheIraIes dowh Io
Ihe reih!orcemehI or eveh deeper Iheh iI is essehIial Io
surrouhd Ihe reih!orcemehI wiIh souhd cohcreIe. 1he l
advice o! Ihe sIrucIural ehgiheer should be obIaihed Io check
IhaI Ihe load carryihg capaciIy o! Ihe member, as repaired, will
be saIis!acIory.
Ieeding of ConcreIe
8leedihg re!ers Io Ihe appearahce o! waIer oh Ihe sur!ace o! !resh cohcreIe.
Some bleedihg ih cohcreIe is uhavoidable.
However, bleedihg waIer should hoI be
remixed ahd !ihishihg operaIioh should be
dohe ohly a!Ier evaporaIioh o! waIer.
OIherwise, iI will resulI ih weak ahd dusIy Iop
sur!ace.
lI is o! uImosI imporIahce IhaI Ihe ihiIial operaIiohs o! spreadihg ahd !ihishihg be compleIed prompIly be!ore
bleedihg begihs. 1his also meahs IhaI cohcreIe should hoI be spread over a large area ahd allowed Io remaih as
such, sihce bleedihg could occur quiIe rapidly a!Ier spreadihg.
All Ihe dry maIerials used ih makihg hormal weighI cohcreIe are heavier Ihah waIer.
1hese maIerials have Iehdehcy Io seIIle Io Ihe boIIom ahd !orce excess waIer
upward. 1his phehomehoh is commohly called bleedihg because iI does hoI appear
Io Ihe casual observer IhaI solids have seIIled, iI looks as Ihough 'bleed waIer' has
risehIoIhe sur!ace.
8leedihg heed hoI be hecessarily harm!ul i! proper precauIiohs are Iakeh. l! bleedihg
is uhdisIurbed ahd Ihe waIer evaporaIes or draihed ouI, Ihe e!!ecIive waIer/cemehI
raIiomay be lowered.
Key PoinI
Key PoinI
039
5AFF UILDING5
Jargon usIing
Permeable cohcreIe meahs IhaI iI is porous ahd is prohe Io leakages.
Pozzoloha cemehIs are !iher ahd Ihere!ore are less prohe Iobleedihg.
lI is desirable Iohave abouI 10 % o! sahd parIicles passihg Ihrough150 microhsieve.
1o make up Ihe de!iciehcy o! very !ihe maIerial, sIohe
crusher dusI may be mixed wiIh sahd buI iI should be
!ree !romclay.
CauIion
Higher waIer-cemehI raIio (more Ihah 0.5) ihcreases chahces o! bleedihg because
excess waIer does hoI Iake parI ihIhe chemical reacIioh.
PIasIic 5hrinkage Cracks or Crazing
Wheh moisIure evaporaIes !romIhe sur!ace o! !reshly
placed cohcreIe aI a !asI raIe, Ihe sur!ace cohcreIe
shrihks (especially ih slabs) resulIihg ih shallowcracks.
A heIwork o! cracks across Ihe sur!ace o! cohcreIe is
called crazihg.
PlasIic shrihkage cracks are caused by a
combihaIioh o! !acIors such as air, IemperaIure,
relaIive humidiIy ahd wihd velociIy aI Ihe sur!ace o!
cohcreIe.
8leedihg waIer may carry wiIh iI a cohsiderable
amouhI o! Ihe !ihe cemehI parIicles ahd !orma layer
o! laiIahce. l! Ihis happehs aI Ihe Iop o! a roo! or
!loor slab, a porous ahd weak sur!ace layer will be
!ormed wiIha permahehIly dusIy sur!ace.
8leedihg creaIes zohes o! poor bohd because some
o! Ihe risihg waIer geIs Irapped oh Ihe uhderside o!
coarse aggregaIe or o! reih!orcemehI.
PermeabiliIy o! cohcreIe may be ihcreased due Io
Ihe air pockeIs le!I behihd by Ihe risihg waIer.
FffecIs of Ieeding
emediaI Measures
Key PoinI
Key PoinI
040
5AFF UILDING5
Common MisIakes IhaI 5poiI Ihe ConcreIe
Use o! dirIy aggregaIe or waIer cohIaihihg impuriIies
lhgrediehIs o! cohcreIe baIched by volume
lhcompleIe mixihg o! aggregaIe wiIhcemehI
Use o! Ioomuchor IooliIIle waIer !or mixihg, or waIer carelessly added durihg mixihg
lmproper gradihg o! aggregaIes resulIihg ihsegregaIiohor bleedihg o! cohcreIe
lhadequaIe compacIioho! cohcreIe
Usihg !ormwork IhaI cahhoI prevehI leakage o! cemehI pasIe
Usihg cohcreIe whichhas already beguhIoseI
SIarIihg Ihe !ihishihg operaIiohs uhIil excess bleed waIer ohIhe sur!ace evaporaIes
1oomuchIrowelihg o! Ihe cohcreIe sur!ace
lhadequaIe curihg
Normal cohcreIe cohsIrucIioh should hoI require waIer proo!ihg maIerials, i! iI is desighed ahd cohsIrucIed
properly wiIhgood qualiIy ahd workmahship.
PlasIic shrihkage cracks are geherally very shallow. Crazihg does hoI weakeh cohcreIe. 1hese cracks cah be
e!!ecIively sealed by cemehI slurry/cemehI morIar while cohcreIe is greeh(5 Io6 hours !romIhe Iime o! mixihg).
Proper curihg procedure - Coverihg !ihished sur!aces wiIh polyIhehe sheeI or weI guhhy bags wiIhih 10 Io
20 mihuIes or lighI sprihklihg o! waIer a!Ier 30 mihuIes o! !ihishihg Ihe cohcreIe sur!ace
Provisioho! wihd breaks Ioreduce wihd velociIy
Suhshades Ioreduce sur!ace IemperaIure
Avoidihg over sahded mix
emediaI Measures
onus PoinI
041
5AFF UILDING5
FxIreme WeaIher ConcreIing
ldeal IemperaIure !or placihg !reshcohcreIe.
WhaI doyoumeahby cold joihI?
PrecauIiohs Io be Iakeh durihg cohcreIihg ih exIreme hoI
weaIher ahd cold weaIher.
PracIices Io be !ollowed durihg curihg ih exIreme hoI weaIher
ahd cold weaIher.
ExIreme WeaIher CohcreIihg
PIan ConcreIing
IN FVFNING O A1 NIGH1
IN HO1 AND WINDY WFA1HF
042
5AFF UILDING5
o o
ldeal IemperaIure !or placihg !resh cohcreIe = 15 C Io 25 C
ProbIem ProbIem AccepIabIe AccepIabIe IdeaI
o
5 C
o
10 C
o
30 C
o o
15 C Io 25 C
o
40 C
HoI weaIher is a combihaIioh o! high IemperaIure, lowrelaIive
humidiIy ahd wihd. lh very hoI weaIher, Ihe cohcreIe may
sIi!!eh premaIurely, prevehIihg iI !rom beihg compacIed ahd
!ihished properly, or Ihe IemperaIure o! Ihe cohcreIe may rise
IoIhe poihI where Ihere is ihcreased Iehdehcy Iocrackihg.
lh hoI ahd/or wihdy weaIher, i!
Ihe cohcreIe sIi!!ehs quickly, a
cold joihI may !orm beIweeh
cohcreIe already ih place ahd Ihe
!reshcohcreIe.
Use shades Io keep all maIerials ouI o! direcI suh ahd
keep coarse aggregaIes moisI
Dampeh !ormwork buI doh'I leave excess waIer lyihg
arouhd
PuI up shades ahd wihd-breaks
Use reIardihg admixIures
Keep maIerials warm
Use warmwaIer ihIhe mix
Cover Ihe !ormwork Iokeep iI !ree !rom!ree o! !rosI
Use acceleraIihg mixIure
SIrehgIh developmehI ih cemehI cohcreIe is delayed durihg cold weaIher. Proper precauIiohs heed Io be Iakeh
!or lohg-IermdurabiliIy ahd superior per!ormahce o! cohcreIe. However, aI IemperaIures below!reezihg, !reshly
placed cohcreIe may be damaged by Ihe !ormaIioho! ice wiIhihiIs pore sIrucIure.
GeneraI PrecauIions for HoI WeaIher ConcreIing
GeneraI PrecauIions for CoId WeaIher ConcreIing
CauIion
COLD
JOlN1
WARM
WA1ER
043
5AFF UILDING5
Oh hoI days, Ioo much waIer is losI by evaporaIioh !rom hewly placed cohcreIe. Curihg should be dohe ih Iwo
sIages:
l! Ihe IemperaIure drops Ioo close Io !reezihg, hydraIioh slows Io hearly a sIahdsIill. Uhder Ihese cohdiIiohs,
cohcreIe ceases Io gaih sIrehgIh ahd oIher desirable properIies. Special Iechhiques are used !or curihg cohcreIe
durihg exIremely cold cohdiIiohs IoproIecI Ihe cohcreIe.
1he IemperaIure o! !resh cohcreIe should hoI be
O
allowed Io!all below10 Cdurihg Ihe curihg period.
lhiIial Curihg is dohe immediaIely a!Ier !ihishihg by eiIher coverihg Ihe cohcreIe sur!ace wiIh polyeIhylehe
sheeI or weI guhhy bags
NexI day ohwards, use a suiIable meIhod, such as pohdihg, sprihklihg waIer, or coverihg wiIh waIer
absorbehI maIerial.
Durihg exIreme weaIher cohdiIiohs, precauIiohs IhaI
should be Iakeh Io assure a qualiIy cohcreIe vary
depehdihg oh Ihe acIual cohdiIiohs ahd Ihe speci!ic
applicaIioh !or which Ihe cohcreIe is Io be used. You
should cohsulI your sIrucIural cohsulIahI !or Ihe
deIailed precauIiohs IhaI heed Io be Iakeh durihg
cohcreIihg ahd curihg period.
Curing in HoI WeaIher
Curing in CoId WeaIher
Key PoinI
Key PoinI
044
5AFF UILDING5
einforcemenI
lmporIahI parameIers IhaI goverh Ihe qualiIy o! sIeel
reih!orcemehI.
Reasohs !or ducIiliIy beihg a very imporIahI cohsideraIioh !or
sa!eIy o! buildihgs.
Di!!erehI grades o! sIeel reih!orcemehI.
PrecauIiohs Iobe Iakehihhahdlihg Ihe reih!orcemehI.
lmporIahce o! adequaIe cover Io reih!orcemehI ahd how Io
provide Ihe same aI siIe.
Recommehded Ihickhess o! cover !or di!!erehI sIrucIural
elemehIs ihvarious exposure cohdiIiohs.
Reih!orcemehI
045
5AFF UILDING5
lh lhdia Ihe commohly used diameIers o! reih!orcemehI are 6,
10, 12, 16, 20, 25 ahd 32 mm.
1he primary meIhod o! classi!yihg sIeel is by iIs yield sIrehgIh
ahd ducIiliIy.
DucIiIiIy: 1he oIher imporIahI properIy !or sIrucIural desigh is
ducIiliIy. 1he properIy o! ducIiliIy ehables sIeel bars Io uhdergo
large elohgaIioh be!ore breakihg a!Ier Ihe yield poihI has beeh
reached. 1his characIerisIic is very imporIahI !or earIhquake
desigh.
1he maIerial IhaI does hoI uhdergo large elohgaIioh be!ore
breakihg a!Ier yield poihI has beeh reached is called briIIle
maIerial.
YieId 5IrengIh: Wheh sIeel is sIreIched ahd Iheh released, iI
reIurhs Io iIs origihal lehgIh, i.e. iI behaves elasIically. However,
as Ihe load ihcreases, Ihere comes a poihI where iI doesh'I
recover ahd we say IhaI Ihe sIeel has yielded. Yield sIrehgIh is
Ihe sIress aI which iI !irsI begihs Io yield. 1he sIeel is Iheh
classi!ied as havihg yield sIrehgIho! somahy Mpa.
lha sIaIe close IoIhe damage:
A ducIile cohsIrucIioh gives su!!iciehI warhihg (by way o! cracks) due Io iIs abiliIy Io uhdergo sighi!icahI
de!ormaIiohs be!ore breakihg poihI
AbriIIle cohsIrucIiohgeIs damaged suddehly wiIhouI warhihgs ahd hehce is more risky !or li!e ahd properIy.
Rebar is a IermIhaI is commohly used !or reih!orcihg sIeel bar. 1he sIeel reih!orcemehI mahu!acIurers cohIrol Ihe
!acIors o! sIrehgIh ahd ducIiliIy ih Ihe acIual mahu!acIurihg process o! Ihe sIeel. 1he chemical composiIioh o!
sIeel deIermihes iIs !ihal properIies o! sIrehgIh, ducIiliIy / behdabiliIy ahd weldabiliIy.
Grades of 5IeeI
1he sIeel bars are available as plaih rouhd sIeel or wiIh de!ormaIiohs oh Ihe sur!ace. De!ormed bars are Ihe
pre!erred choice !or mosI sIrucIural applicaIiohs because de!ormaIiohs improve Ihe bohd beIweeh Ihe sIeel ahd
cohcreIe resulIihg ihbeIIer Irahs!er o! !orces beIweehrebar ahd cohcreIe.
ELONCA1lON
YlELD POlN1
FORCE
ELONCA1lON
FORCE
8Rl11LE MA1ERlAL
NOMlNAL
DlAME1ER
Why DucIiIiIy = 5afeIy
onus PoinI
einforcemenI
ViIaI oIe in Fnsuring
FINFOCFMFN1 PLAY5 A
5AFF1Y, IN1FGI1Y AND DUAILI1Y
OF ALL CONCF1F 51UC1UF5
046
5AFF UILDING5
1he de!ormed bars used as cohcreIe reih!orcemehIs are made ih grades o! Fe 415, Fe 500 ahd Fe 550. Crade Fe
415 is mosI commohly used. 1he grade o! sIeel Io be used is mehIiohed by sIrucIural desigher oh Ihe sIrucIural
drawihgs.
Depehdihg ohIhe process o! mahu!acIure, !ollowihg Iype o! bars are used as cohcreIe reih!orcemehI:
Cold 1wisIed De!ormed 8ars (C1D8ars)
1hermoMechahically 1reaIed 8ars (1M1 8ars)
CorrosiohResisIahI SIeel 8ars (CRS sIeel)
CRS bars o!!er beIIer corrosioh resisIahce. However, Ihese are hoI corrosioh proo!. Plaih Mild sIeel bars had beeh
progressively replaced by C1Dbars ahd subsequehIly 1M1 bars.
Usihg poor qualiIy sIeel ih cohsIrucIioh will resulI ih
decrease ih sIrehgIh o! sIeel a!Ier repeaIed sIress cycles
ahd may lead Io collapse o! sIrucIure. 1here!ore, iI is
imperaIive Io choose sIeel coh!ormihg Io lS sIahdards. 1he
presehce o! lSl mark oh sIeel assures qualiIy. 1he IesI
cerIi!icaIe o! Ihe baIch should also be veri!ied. For large
works sIeel should be checked !or sIrehgIhahd percehIage
o! elohgaIiohby IesIihg a sample iha laboraIory.
1ips on HandIing einforcemenI
Care should be Iakeh Io proIecI Ihe reih!orcemehI !rom exposure Io salihe aImosphere durihg sIorage,
!abricaIiohahd use. lI may be achieved by IreaIihg Ihe sur!ace o! reih!orcemehI wiIhcemehI wash.
Mud ahd dirI should be washed o!! be!ore Ihe bars are placed ih Ihe !orms as Ihey could be deIrimehIal Io
bohd beIweehsIeel ahd cohcreIe. Oil ahd grease heed Iobe wiped o!! wiIha solvehI.
lI is usually hoI hecessary Io carry ouI ahy special cleahihg procedure Io remove loose scales, as iI geIs
removed whehIhe bars are hahdled durihg loadihg, uhloadihg ahd !abricaIioh.
LighI IomoderaIe rusIihg has hoe!!ecI ohbohd.
1he Re-behdihg O! SIeel Reih!orcihg 8ars ls Ohe O! 1he MosI Commoh Ahd Ohe O! 1he MosI CohIroversial
Procedures. 1hese SiIuaIiohs May Arise As 1he ResulI O! Uhplahhed Occurrehces (!or Example, WhehRebar ls
AccidehIally Ruh Over 8y A Vehicle) Or 8ecause O! Oh-siIe CorrecIiohs Ahd AdjusImehIs. 1ake AppropriaIe
Advice FormYour SIrucIural Desigher CohsisIehI WiIh1he ProperIies O! 1he SIeel 8eihg Used AI SiIe.
onus PoinI
einforcemenI
equired Cover
I5 INDICA1FD IN 51UC1UAL DAWING5.
IF NO1, A5K 51UC1UAL DF5IGNF
047
5AFF UILDING5
einforcemenI
Cover 1o einforcemenI
Cover re!ers Io Ihe mihimum clear disIahce !rom Ihe ouIermosI
reih!orcemehI Io Ihe !ace o! cohcreIe. 1he proIecIioh o! Ihe sIeel ih
cohcreIe agaihsI corrosioh depehds upoh ah adequaIe Ihickhess o!
good qualiIy cohcreIe IhaI covers Ihe reih!orcemehI.
CohcreIe cover also proIecIs Ihe reih!orcemehI !rom !ire.
However, exIra cover over ahd above prescribed by codes is
hoI desirable because cohcreIe ouIside Ihis limiI lacks Ihe
resIraihI o! sIeel ahd is liable Iohave cracks.
ecommended 1hickness Of Cover
Mihimum values !or Ihe cover depehds oh Ihe cohdiIioh o! exposure cohdiIiohs ahd Ihe Iype o!
sIrucIural elemehI.
Providing Cover AI 5iIe
Cover block should be sIrohg ahd impermeable ahd Iied Io Ihe maih
reih!orcemehI properly usihg Ihih sIeel wires called bihdihg wires
(projecIed !rom sur!ace ahd placed durihg makihg or casIihg o!
cover blocks) Ioavoid Iheir displacemehI durihg cohcreIihg.
V
E
R
C
O
COLUMN
C
O
V
E
R
FAM
COVER
C
O
V
E
R
5LA
C
O
V
E
R
C
O
V
E
R
5IrucIuraI
FIemenI
Fxposure CondiIion
Cover in mm
MiId ModeraIe 5evere
Slab
8eam
Columh
FouhdaIioh
20 20 30
25 30 45
40 40 45
50 50 50
Key PoinI
Don'I Provide
MOF O LF55 COVF 1HAN 5PFCIFIFD
eIIer 1reaImenI
COVF DF5FVF5 A
A1 5I1F
048
5AFF UILDING5
einforcemenI
Cover blocks should have sIrehgIh similar Io Ihe surrouhdihg cohcreIe.
SIohe pieces dohoI meeI Ihe requiremehIs o! a good qualiIy cohsIrucIioh.
SloIIed cover blocks may be provided !or beam ahd columh bars.
PlasIic spacers provide very good alIerhaIive ahd Ihese
days are used ohmahy cohsIrucIiohsiIes.
Su!!iciehI humber o! cover blocks should be provided Io
avoid Ihe sag ihIhe reih!orcemehI.
049
5AFF UILDING5
einforced CemenI ConcreIe
Di!!erehI Iypes o! sIresses IhaI develop ih sIrucIural elemehIs.
8asic cohcepIs o! reih!orced cohcreIe ahd iIs workihg.
Providihg ducIiliIy ih reih!orced cohcreIe cohsIrucIioh.
PrecauIiohs Io be Iakeh while placihg Ihe reih!orcemehI.
Meahihg o! lohgiIudihal ahd Irahsverse reih!orcemehI.
Meahihg o! bohd ahd ahchorage wiIh re!erehce Io reih!orced
cohcreIe.
UhdersIahdihg developmehI lehgIh ahd iIs value !or various grades
o! cohcreIe.
Speci!icaIiohs Io be !ollowed while providihg Ihe overlappihg o! Ihe
reih!orcemehI.
Reih!orced CemehI CohcreIe
esI Use of
51UC1UAL DF5IGNF MAKF5
51FNG1H5 OF 51FFL AND CONCF1F
eaI Life 5iIuaIions
COMINA1ION OF 51F55F5
AF FNCOUN1FFD IN
050
5AFF UILDING5
1ype of 5Iresses
1he prihcipal Iypes o! sIresses whichdevelop ihsIrucIural elemehIs:
Compressive sIresses are Ihose which Iehd Io cause cohcreIe Io
compress ahd crush.
1ehsile sIresses are Ihose which Iehd Io cause cohcreIe Io sIreIch
ahd crack.
Shear sIresses are Ihose which Iehd Io cause adjacehI porIiohs o! cohcreIe Io slide across each oIher. 1wo Iypes o!
shear sIresses are - verIical ahd horizohIal based ohIhe direcIiohiI acIs.
VerIical ahd horizohIal shear sIresses acIihg IogeIher produce whaI
is khowh as diagohal Iehsioh which, ih Iurh, Iehds Io produce
diagohal crackihg hear Ihe ehds o! beams.
Jargon usIing
SIress = maghiIude o! !orce divided by Ihe area oh which iI acIs.
Ohly ohe o! Ihese Iypes o! sIress is rarely !ouhd ih a
sIrucIural member. MosI o!Ieh, some combihaIioh o!
compressive, Iehsile ahd shear sIresses are
ehcouhIered ahd iI is Ihe job o! Ihe desigher Io
deIermihe Ihese ahd locaIe Ihe required amouhI o!
reih!orcemehI hecessary IoresisI Ihem.
einforced ConcreIe
CohcreIe has highcompressive sIrehgIhbuI a lowIehsile sIrehgIh.
SIeel has a very high Iehsile sIrehgIh as well as a high compressive
sIrehgIh.
SIeel is muchmore expehsive IhahcohcreIe.
8y combihihg sIeel ahd cohcreIe ihIo a composiIe maIerial (called reih!orced cemehI cohcreIe, RCCor simply
reih!orced cohcreIe, RC), we are able Io make use o! boIh Ihe high Iehsile sIrehgIh o! sIeel ahd Ihe relaIively
low-cosI compressive sIrehgIho! cohcreIe.
COMPRESSlON
1ENSlON
VER1lCAL SHEAR
HORlZON1AL SHEAR
Key PoinI
VER1lCAL SHEAR + HORlZON1AL SHEAR
= DlACONAL 1ENSlON CRACKS
uiIe CompIex
FHAVIOU OF FINFOCFD CONCF1F I5 AC1UALLY
asic AppreciaIion
YOU MU51 HAVF A
OF 1HF PINCIPLF5 OF CONCF1F
Are CriIicaI
O1H AMOUN1 AND PO5I1ION
OF FINFOCFMFN1
051
5AFF UILDING5
onus PoinI
Reih!orcemehI is provided Io resisI Iehsioh ih Ihe sIrucIural members. lI is also someIimes provided ih
compressioh zohes as well Io ihcrease Ihe compressioh capaciIy, ehhahce ducIiliIy, reduce lohg Iermde!lecIiohs
or ihcrease Ihe capaciIy o! sIrucIural members. lh addiIioh, reih!orcemehI is required Io prevehI excessive
crackihg resulIihg !romshrihkage or IemperaIure chahges ihsIrucIural elemehIs.
1he sIrucIural desigher deIermihes Ihe amouhI o!
reih!orcemehI ahd iIs posiIioh wiIhih Ihe sIrucIural member.
1he exacI posiIioh o! reih!orcemehI is equally criIical Io Ihe
success!ul per!ormahce o! reih!orced cohcreIe.
Followihg secIiohs cover Ihe elemehIary prihciples o!
reih!orced cohcreIe desigh Io emphasise Ihe hecessiIy o! !ixihg
reih!orcihg bars sIricIly ih posiIioh as deIermihed by sIrucIural
desigher,ahd Io ehable a laymah Io make a rough assessmehI
o! Ihe serioushess o! ahy errors.
How Does einforced ConcreIe Works?
SIeel ahd cohcreIe combihe IogeIher IoacI composiIely:
Upoh hardehihg, cohcreIe bohds !irmly Io sIeel bars so IhaI, wheh loads are applied, Ihe Iwo acI as
Ihough Ihey are ohe. Ahy Iehdehcy !or Ihe cohcreIe Io sIreIch or crack ih ah area o! Iehsioh is
couhIeracIed by Ihe sIeel embedded ihIhaI area.
Wheh subjecIed Io chahges ih IemperaIure, cohcreIe ahd sIeel expahd or cohIracI by similar amouhIs.
1hey Ihere!ore remaih!irmly bohded ahd cohIihue IoacI composiIely.
CohcreIe proIecIs embedded sIeel !romlosihg iIs sIrehgIh aI high IemperaIures because iI has relaIively
highresisIahce Io!ire ahd a relaIively lowIhermal cohducIiviIy.
CohcreIe proIecIs Ihe sIeel !romrusIihg ihall buI very hosIile ehvirohmehIs.
lI is imporIahI IhaI Ihe reih!orcemehI be placed as speci!ied by Ihe desigher durihg
cohsIrucIioh. For example, reih!orcemehI speci!ied Io be placed ih Ihe Iop o! a
mulIi-spah beam or slab, Io resisI Ihe Iehsioh over ihIermediaIe supporIs, will be
IoIally ihe!!ecIive i! placed ihIhe boIIomo! Ihe beamor slab.
Key PoinI
Provide AdequaIe Number
OF CHAI5 1O KFFP 1HF FINFOCFMFN1
A1 I15 IN1FNDFD LOCA1ION
NoI a Good PracIice
U5F OF HIGHF GADF
AND DIA OF 51FFL 1HAN 5PFCIFIFD
052
5AFF UILDING5
DucIiIiIy in einforced ConcreIe
CohcreIe is a briIIle maIerial. SIeel is a ducIile maIerial.
SIeel used ihcohcreIe as reih!orcemehI bars imparIs ducIiliIy IocohcreIe.
DucIiliIy is ohe o! Ihe mosI imporIahI !acIors a!!ecIihg Ihe sIrucIural per!ormahce o! a buildihg especially durihg
earIhquakes. SIrucIural desigher predeIermihes Ihe locaIiohs where damage may Iakes place ahd Iheh provide
adequaIe amouhI ahd deIailihg o! reih!orcemehI aI Ihese locaIiohs Ioehsure ducIile behaviour.
1he !ailure o! sIeel is gradual due Io iIs ducIiliIy whereas !ailure o! cohcreIe is
suddeh beihg a briIIle maIerial. 1here!ore, Ihe amouhI ahd locaIioh o! sIeel ih a
member should be such IhaI Ihe !ailure o! Ihe member is by sIeel reachihg iIs
sIrehgIh ih Iehsioh be!ore cohcreIe reaches iIs sIrehgIh ih compressioh. 1his Iype o!
!ailure is ducIile !ailure, ahd hehce is pre!erred over a !ailure where cohcreIe !ails
!irsI ih compressioh (called briIIle !ailure). 1here!ore, cohIrary Io commoh Ihihkihg,
providihg IoomuchsIeel ihreih!orced cohcreIe buildihgs is harm!ul!
CauIion
8oIh amouhI ahd locaIioh o! reih!orcemehI is imporIahI Io provide su!!iciehI
ducIiliIy IosIrucIural elemehIs.
Use o! higher grade (or dia) ih place o! speci!ied grade (or speci!ied
dia) o! reih!orcemehI will make Ihe sIrucIure over-reih!orced,
ihviIihg Ihe risk o! a briIIle collapse (i.e., cohcreIe !ailihg !irsI ih
compressioh).
DeIailed provisiohs !or ducIile deIailihg ih various sIrucIural elemehIs have beeh discussed ih subsequehI
secIiohs.
1ips for PIacing of einforcemenI
Cover blocks are provided !or Ihe boIIomahd side reih!orcemehI.
Chairs are provided Io supporI Iop reih!orcemehI. 1he spacihg o! chairs musI ehsure IhaI Ihe reih!orcemehI
remaihs ih Ihe required posiIioh durihg cohcreIihg. Chairs should be sIrohg ehough so IhaI Ihe Iop reih!orcemehI
should hoI sag durihg cohcreIihg. Spacihg o! chairs may rahge !rom0.5 Io1 m.
1YPF OF CHAI5
Key PoinI
NoIe
053
5AFF UILDING5
1rahsverse reih!orcemehI plays a very sighi!icahI role durihg abrupI chahges or
reversal o! sIresses due Io earIhquake. lI hoI ohly Iakes care o! sIrucIural
requiremehIs buI alsohelps Iokeep lohgiIudihal reih!orcemehI ihdesired posiIioh.
LONCl1UDlNAL
RElNFORCEMEN1
1RANSVERSE
RElNFORCEMEN1
COLUMN
1RANSVERSE
RElNFORCEMEN1
LONCl1UDlNAL
RElNFORCEMEN1
FAM
LohgiIudihal reih!orcemehI is provided maihly Io resisI Iehsioh. lI is also someIimes provided Io resisI
compressioh. 1rahsverse or laIeral reih!orcemehI is provided Io resisI diagohal Iehsioh caused by Ihe combihaIioh
o! verIical ahd horizohIal shear sIresses.
More speci!ic deIails o! Ihe reih!orcemehI ih beams, columhs, slabs ahd !ouhdaIioh have beeh discussed ih
subsequehI secIiohs.
lI is hoI hecessary Io Iie bars aI every ihIersecIioh as Iies add hoIhihg Io Ihe ulIimaIe sIrehgIh o! Ihe sIrucIure.
1hey serve ohly Iokeep Ihe reih!orcemehI ihplace durihg cohcreIihg. NeverIheless, iI is beIIer Ioerr ohIhe side o!
Ioo mahy Ihah Ioo !ew, parIicularly aI Ihe edge o! slabs, arouhd opehihgs, aI corhers, ahd ih similar locaIiohs
where posiIiohihg o! Ihe reih!orcemehI is parIicularly criIical.
While placihg Ihe reih!orcemehI, ehsure IhaI Ihere is space beIweeh Ihe reih!orcemehI !or Ihe vibraIor.
Reih!orcihg bars are Iied IogeIher Io !orma cage which helps maihIaih Ihe bars ih posiIioh durihg Ihe cohcreIihg
operaIiohs.
onus PoinI
FabricaIion And Fixing of einforcemenI
Are 1wo of 1he MosI ImporIanI FaceIs
of ConcreIe ConsIrucIion.
Key PoinI
NoIe
054
5AFF UILDING5
1he value o! developmehI lehgIh is ihdicaIed ih sIrucIural drawihgs. ApproximaIe values o! developmehI lehgIh
!or Fe 415 grade sIeel are givehbelow:
Where is diameIer o! Ihe reih!orcemehI bar
Example, !or M20 cohcreIe ahd 10 mmdia bar, Ld = 47 = 47 10 = 470 mm
1o ehsure IhaI sIresses ih reih!orcemehI geI properly developed aI criIical regioh wiIhouI breakihg o! bohd
beIweeh cohcreIe ahd sIeel, iI is hormally exIehded beyohd Ihe criIical regioh !or a su!!iciehI lehgIh. 1his
addiIiohal lehgIh o! sIeel which is required Io be embedded ih cohcreIe beyohd Ihe criIical secIioh Io develop Ihe
desighsIress is called ahchorage lehgIhor developmehI lehgIh. lI is dehoIed as Ld.
Crade o! cohcreIe
DevelopmehI lehgIh
M 20
47 40 38
M 25 M 30
ond And Anchorage
For sIeel ahd cohcreIe Io acI composiIely, Ihey should be !irmly bohded IogeIher ahd Ihere!ore, Ihe sIrehgIh o!
Ihis bohd is ahimporIahI cohsideraIiohihIhe desigho! reih!orced cohcreIe.
1he bohd is depehdehI oh Ihe cohcreIe beihg Ihoroughly compacIed arouhd Ihe
reih!orcemehI ahd oh Ihe laIIer beihg cleah. 1he bohd may be ihcreased by Ihe use
o! higher sIrehgIh cohcreIe or by Ihe use o! de!ormed reih!orcihg bars. 1he laIIer
have ribs or de!ormaIiohs oh Iheir sur!ace which ihcreases Ihe bohd wiIh cohcreIe.
MosI reih!orcihg bars used Ihese days have suchde!ormaIiohs.
CauIion
Applyihg oil oh Ihe !ormwork a!Ier Ihe reih!orcemehI has beeh placed will desIroy
Ihe bohd beIweeh sIeel ahd cohcreIe, as spillihg o! oil oh Ihe sIeel bars cah hoI be
avoided.
Key PoinI
Ld
SEC1lON OF
MAXlMUM S1RESS
DisasIrous
IGNOING ANCHOAGF LFNG1H I5
5Iaggered
LAP 5PLICF5 5HOULD F
055
5AFF UILDING5
OverIapping Of einforcemenI
Lap lehgIh is Ihe overlap lehgIh o! bars Iied Io exIehd Ihe reih!orcemehI lehgIh. 1he overlappihg porIioh should
be wouhd wiIhbihdihg wire.
Lap lehgIh= DevelopmehI lehgIhor 30 Iimes diameIer o! bar, whichever is greaIer
Laps o! heighborihg bar lehgIhs should be sIaggered ahd should hoI be provided aI ohe level/lihe. AI ohe cross-
secIioh, a maximumo! 50% bars should be lapped.
Lap splices are cohsidered sIaggered i! cehIre IocehIre disIahce beIweehIwolaps = 1.3 Iimes Ihe lap lehgIh
LAP LENC1H
SPAClNC OF S1lRRUPS lN
OVERLAPPlNC REClON = 150 MM
1he spacihg o! Irahsverse reih!orcemehI
ih Ihe overlappihg zohe should hoI be
more Ihah150 mm.
1 2 3
L = Lap
Mihimum 1.3 L
L = Lap
1
2
3
Jargon usIing
A joihI beIweeh Iwo pieces o! sIeel bar so IhaI Ihey !orm ohe lohg piece is called splice.
1hough iI is imporIahI Io provide Ihe adequaIe area o!
reih!orcemehI required Io resisI Ihe desighed !orces, Ihe
provided area o! reih!orcemehI will hoI be !ully e!!ecIive uhless
iI is embedded ih cohcreIe a su!!iciehI disIahce so IhaI Ihe
sIress ihIhe bar geIs !ully developed.
AI joihIs, exIra lehgIh over ahd above Ld is provided !or ducIiliIy cohsideraIiohs.
More speci!ic deIails oh provisioh o! developmehI lehgIh ih various sIrucIural elemehIs will be discussed ih
onus PoinI
NoIe
Key PoinI
056
5AFF UILDING5
More speci!ic deIails wiIh re!erehce Io overlappihg zohes ih various sIrucIural elemehIs will be discussed ih
CauIion
Reih!orcihg bars should hoI be welded excepI wiIh Ihe
approval o! Ihe sIrucIural ehgiheer.
Wheh bars o! Iwo di!!erehI diameIers are Io be spliced, Ihe lap lehgIh shall be calculaIed oh Ihe basis o! diameIer
o! Ihe smaller bar.
onus PoinI
NoIe
057
5AFF UILDING5
FarIhquake esisIanI 5IrucIures
Various Ierms associaIed wiIh Ihe earIhquakes.
Various seismic zohes ih Ihe couhIry.
UhdersIahdihg earIhquake resisIahI sIrucIures.
Avoidihg damage Io a buildihg durihg ah earIhquake.
EarIhquake ResisIahI SIrucIures
1haI KiII peopIe,
I1 I5 NO1 1HF FA1HUAKF
U1 WFAK UILDING5
058
5AFF UILDING5
arIhquake sIrikes suddehly, very !asI ahd violehIly wiIhouI
ahy warhihg. lI may harm badly desighed ahd cohsIrucIed
Ebuildihgs which may ihjure or kill Ihe people. 1he ohly way Io
ehsure survival is by ehsurihg IhaI buildihgs do hoI collapse durihg
earIhquakes, eveh Ihough damage may be uhavoidable. lI should
be ehsured IhaI correcI cohsIrucIioh pracIices are adopIed Io build
sa!e buildihgs IhaI are earIhquake resisIahI.
EarIh's crusI cohsisIs o! several plaIes (disjoihIed pieces) o! solid rock. 1here are 12 major plaIes ih Ihe world.
1hese plaIes slowly buI cohIihuously slide over, uhder or pasI each oIher. Due Io Iheir movemehI ahd Ihe resulIihg
de!ormaIiohs, ehormous amouhI o! sIresses go oh geIIihg accumulaIed wiIhih Ihe rocks. Wheh Ihese sIresses
exceed Ihe capaciIy o! Ihe rocks, Ihey rupIure wiIh a suddeh violehI moIioh o! earIh ahd release Ihe accumulaIed
ehergy. 1his resulIs ihahearIhquake.
1he movemehI wiIhih Ihe earIh's crusI mahi!esIs iIsel! ih Ihe !ormo! waves IhaI reach earIh's sur!ace ahd cause
vibraIiohs ihsIrucIures. 1he sIrucIures !ail ahd collapse uhder Ihe acIioho! Ihese vibraIiohs.
1erms AssociaIed wiIh Ihe FarIhquakes
FaulI: JuhcIiohbeIweehIwoplaIes.
Focus: Place where ahearIhquake origihaIes deep ihside Ihe earIh.
EpicehIre: Place righI above Ihe !ocus, ohIhe sur!ace o! Ihe earIh.
Seismographs: ihsIrumehIs used Iorecord earIhquakes.
Jargon usIing
A depIh o! arouhd 100 km !rom Ihe sur!ace o! earIh is called EarIh's crusI.
EarIhquake loads are very di!!erehI !romgraviIy loads. 1hey are primarily laIeral loads, which shake Ihe buildihg
back ahd !orIh.
SURFACE WAVES
EPlCEN1RE
FOCUS
CROUND SHAKlNC lNCREASES
lN SOF1 SOlLS
CROUND SHAKlNC DECREASES
AS l1 SPREADS
EACH 8UlLDlNC AND Sl1E HAVE
DlFFEREN1 VULNERA8lLl1Y
onus PoinI
NoI FarIhquake Proof
UILDING5 AF DF5IGNFD
1O F FA1HUAKF F5I51AN1 AND
059
5AFF UILDING5
Measuring5everiIy of an FarIhquake
MagniIude : lI is a measure o! Ihe ehergy released durihg Ihe earIhquake ahd is measured oh Ihe RichIer scale". lI
depehds oh Ihe exIehI o! shakihg o! earIh. 1he maghiIude o! Ihe 8huj earIhquake was arouhd 7.7 ahd IhaI o! Ihe
LaIur earIhquake was 6.3.
InIensiIy : 1he desIrucIive poIehIial o! ah earIhquake hoI ohly depehds oh iIs maghiIude, buI also oh Ihe depIh
o! iIs !ocus, Ihe haIure o! earIhquake waves, geological ahd Iopological cohdiIiohs o! Ihe area. lI is usually highesI
close Io Ihe epicehIer ahd dimihishes away !rom iI. lhIehsiIy o! Ihe earIhquake re!ers Io Ihe e!!ecIs o! Ihe
earIhquakes.
Jargon usIing
Ceological ahd Iopological cohdiIiohs o! Ihe area meah Ihe cohdiIiohs o! Ihe area below ahd above Ihe grouhd
respecIively.
Know Your FarIhquake Zone
1he likelihood o! damagihg earIhquakes rockihg various locaIiohs is di!!erehI. 1he couhIry has beeh classi!ied ihIo
di!!erehI zohes ihdicaIihg Ihe likely ihIehsiIy o! damage due IoahearIhquake.
Depehdihg ohIhe perceived risk, lhdia is divided ihIo4 seismic zohes (zohe ll, lll, lV&V).
Nearly 65 % o! lhdia !alls uhder moderaIe (zohe lll) Iosevere (zohe V) risk zohes.
Seismic zohihg map o! lhdia ahd earIhquake zohes o! some imporIahI ciIies have beeh giveh aI Ihe ehd o! Ihis
secIioh.
1he seismic-zohe map is based oh subjecIive esIimaIes o! ihIehsiIy !rom available
ih!ormaIioh oh earIhquake occurrehce, geology ahd oIher relaIed !acIors. 1he
zohihg o! Ihe couhIry is a cohIihuous process which keeps uhdergoihg chahges as
more ahd more daIa oh occurrehce o! earIhquakes becomes available. 1he seismic-
zohe map o! Ihe couhIry was revised ih2002.
onus PoinI
1he map presehIs a large-scale viewo! Ihe seismic zohes ih Ihe couhIry. Local variaIiohs ih soil Iype ahd geology
cahhoI be represehIed aI IhaI scale. SIrucIural ehgiheer is Ihe besI persoh Io desigh ah earIhquake resisIahI
sIrucIure.
1o a large exIehI, Ihe earIhquake resisIahce o! a buildihg is Ihe resulI o! iIs sIrucIural sysIemahd sIrucIural desigh.
However, iIs basic coh!iguraIioh, archiIecIural plahhihg ahd qualiIy cohIrol durihg cohsIrucIioh are also
imporIahI.
Key PoinI
Minimize Ihe Damage
DUING FA1HUAKF
GOOD UALI1Y CON51UC1ION MA1FIAL
AND COFC1 CON51UC1ION PAC1ICF5
Long 1erm Peace of Mind
CON51UC1ING AN FA1HUAKF F5I51AN1 UILDING
A1 A LI11LF MOF CO51 I5 A VFY 5MALL PICF FO
060
5AFF UILDING5
onus PoinI
1he vibraIiohs o! a buildihg durihg ah earIhquake cah be compared Io experiehce o! a persoh sIahdihg ih a bus,
wheh Ihe driver is drivihg rash wiIh suddeh applicaIioh o! brakes !ollowed by quick pick ups. However, durihg ah
earIhquake a buildihg experiehces similar !orces ahd swihgs buI iha more complex mahher.
Our body does hoI crack or break durihg Ihe bus jourhey because iI has !lexibiliIy ahd also Ihe muscles which Iake
Ihe sIresses. A buildihg also heeds Io be slighIly !lexible ahd also have compohehIs which cah wiIhsIahd or
couhIer Ihe sIresses caused ihvarious parIs o! Ihe buildihg due IoIhese horizohIal movemehIs.
PhiIosophy of earIhquake design for sIrucIures (oIher Ihan essenIiaI faciIiIies)
1oprevehI hoh-sIrucIural damage ih!requehI mihor grouhd shakihg
1oprevehI sIrucIural damage ahd mihimize hoh-sIrucIural damage ihoccasiohal moderaIe grouhd shakihg
1oavoid collapse or serious damage ihrare major grouhd shakihg
1he immediaIe e!!ecI o! earIhquake-resisIahI desigh is Ihe ihcrease ih Ihe quahIiIy o! sIeel reih!orcemehI ih
buildihgs. AbouI 25 Io 30 percehI more sIeel is required Io be cohsumed wheh a buildihg is desighed !or
earIhquake !orces. 1his meahs IhaI Ihe IoIal cosI o! buildihg may be ihcreased by 4 Io 5 percehI oh Ihis accouhI.
1he owhers o! buildihgs should bear Ihis ihmihd ahd be mehIally prepared !or Ihis exIra cosI.
Properly desighed reih!orced cohcreIe sIrucIures have su!!iciehI sIrehgIh ahd ducIiliIy Io survive ah earIhquake.
However, Ihe sIrehgIh o! briIIle cohsIrucIioh maIerials, like masohry ahd cohcreIe, is highly sehsiIive Io Ihe
qualiIy o! cohsIrucIiohmaIerials, workmahship, supervisioh, ahd cohsIrucIiohmeIhods. 1hus, sIricI adherehce Io
prescribed sIahdards o! cohsIrucIioh maIerials ahd cohsIrucIioh processes is essehIial ih assurihg ah earIhquake-
resisIahI buildihg.
onus PoinI
lI is possible Io make exisIihg buildihgs sa!e !or Ihe earIhquakes o! Ihe expecIed severiIy, eveh i! Ihey were
origihally hoI desighed !or IhaI. 1his is called seismic reIro!iIIihg ahd iI is a highly specialized Iask. 1he cosI o!
seismic reIro!iIIihg cah be very high. NeverIheless, seismic reIro!iIIihg should be Iakeh up oh prioriIy !or assembly
buildihgs such as schools, hospiIals, IheaIres, markeIs, malls, goverhmehI buildihgs ahd prayer halls ahd also !or
buildihgs !romwhere imporIahI ahd emergehcy services such as elecIriciIy, Ielephohe ahd basic !ood supplies are
provided. Seismic reIro!iIIihg is hoI ihIhe scope o! Ihis mahual.
lh civil ehgiheerihg each sIrucIure is Io be desighed
uhlike Ihe oIher ihdusIrial producIs where ohe
desigh is used Io mahu!acIure large humber o!
similar producIs.
Key PoinI
5houId be Avoided
ACHI1FC1UAL FFA1UF5 DF1IMFN1AL
1O FA1HUAKF F5PON5F OF UILDING5
061
5AFF UILDING5
Avoiding Damage During FarIhquake
AlIhough sIrucIural desigher is Ihe besI persoh Io give you Ihe correcI advice wiIh respecI Io Ihe correcI
cohsIrucIioh pracIices vis-a-vis Ihe earIhquake zohe, a brie! discussioh oh Ihe imporIahce o! archiIecIural
!eaIures ahd provisiohs ihIhe sIahdard codes is givehbelow:
1he buildihg should be symmeIrical wiIhouI large cahIilevers as
Ihese are suscepIible Io damage durihg earIhquakes. Large
cahIilevers (projecIiohs supporIed ohly oh ohe side) especially
aI upper !loors are uhdesirable.
Columhs IhaI do hoI have Iheir owh !ouhdaIiohs, buI are
supporIed oh some ihIermediaIe beams ih ah ihdirecI mahher
are called !loaIihg columhs because Ihese !loaI oh beams aI ah
ihIermediaIe sIorey ahd do hoI go all Ihe way Io Ihe
!ouhdaIioh. FloaIihg Columhs cah prove Io be very risky durihg
earIhquakes.
AlIhough ohe should cohIihue Io make buildihgs ihIeresIihg raIher Ihah mohoIohous, yeI Ihis heed hoI be dohe
aI Ihe cosI o! poor behaviour ahd earIhquake sa!eIy o! buildihgs.
1he deIailed suiIabiliIy o! Ihe archiIecIural !eaIures as per Ihe guidelihes giveh ih Ihe code is checked by a
sIrucIural desigher. Fewsimple guidelihes Iobe !ollowed wiIhregard IoarchiIecIural !eaIures are givehbelow:
1he Iehdehcy Io provide 230 mm widIh columhs cohcealihg Ihem wiIhih 230 mm Ihick brick walls should be
avoided. 1he columh sizes may work ouI Io be liIIle more ih earIhquake resisIahI desigh ahd Ihese will proIrude
ouI o! Ihe adjoihihg brick walls.
8eams o! very less depIh (cohcealed wiIh ih Ihe !loor slab) should hoI be provided.
ArchiIecIuraI feaIures
lh geheral, opehihgs ih walls o! a buildihg Iehd Io weakeh Ihe walls, ahd !ewer Ihe opehihgs less Ihe damage iI
will su!!er durihg ah earIhquake. l! iI is hecessary Io have large opehihgs Ihrough a buildihg, or i! ah opeh !loor is
desired, Ihehspecial provisiohs have Iobe made Ioehsure sIrucIural ihIegriIy.
FLOA1lNC
COLUMNS
CAN1lLEVER
1he archiIecIural !eaIures play ah imporIahI role ih Ihe
sIrucIural behaviour o! Ihe sIrucIure durihg earIhquake.
Wheh irregular !eaIures are ihcluded ih buildihgs, a
cohsiderably higher level o! ehgiheerihg e!!orI is required
ih Ihe sIrucIural desigh ahd yeI Ihe buildihg may hoI be as
good as ohe wiIhsimple archiIecIural !eaIures.
Key PoinI
062
5AFF UILDING5
Codal provisiohs help ehgiheers plah, desigh ahd cohsIrucI sa!e sIrucIures so as Ihese cah wiIhsIahd various
!orces ehcouhIered by iI durihg iIs desighed li!e wiIhouI loss o! li!e ahd properIy.
DeIailed sIrucIural aspecIs ahd various sIrucIural requiremehIs !or walls, beams, columhs, slabs ahd
!ouhdaIiohs as broughI ouI ihIhe sIahdard codes have beehdiscussed ihIhe subsequehI secIiohs,
CodaI provisions
NoIe
Agra
Ahmedabad
Ajmer
Allahabad
Almora
Ambala
AmrisIar
Asahosal
Aurahgabad
8ahraich
8ahgalore
8arauhi
8areily
8elgaum
8haIihda
8hilai
8hopal
8hubaheswar
8huj
8ijapur
8ikaher
8okaro
8ulahdshahr
8urdwah
CalicuI
Chahdigarh
Chehhai
ChiIradurga
CoimbaIore
Cuddalore
CuIIack
Darbhahga
Dargeelihg
Dharward
Dehra Duh
Dharampuri
lll
lll
ll
ll
lV
lV
lV
lll
ll
lV
ll
lV
lll
lll
lll
ll
ll
lll
V
lll
lll
lll
lV
lll
lll
lV
lll
ll
lll
lll
lll
V
lV
lll
lV
lll
lV
lll
lV
V
lll
ll
lll
lV
ll
V
lll
ll
ll
ll
ll
V
lll
lll
lll
lll
lll
lll
V
lll
ll
ll
lll
lV
ll
V
lll
lV
lV
lll
ll
ll
ll
lV
lll
lll
lll
lll
lll
lV
lV
ll
lll
ll
lll
ll
lV
ll
V
lll
V
lV
ll
lll
V
lll
lll
V
ll
lll
ll
lll
ll
lll
lll
lll
lll
ll
Delhi
Durgapur
CahgIok
CuwahaIi
Coa
Culbarga
Caya
Corakhpur
Hyderbad
lmphal
Jabalpur
Jaipur
Jamshedpur
Jhahsi
Jodhpur
JorhaI
Kakrapara
Kalapakkam
Kahchipuram
Kahpur
Karwar
Kochi
Kohima
KolkaIa
KoIa
Kurhool
Luckhow
Ludhiaha
Madurai
Mahdi
Mahgalore
Mohghyr
Moradabad
Mumbai
Mysore
Nagpur
Nagarjuhasagar
NaihiIal
Nasik
Nellore
Osmahabad
Pahjim
PaIiala
PaIha
PilibhiI
Pohdicheri
Puhe
Raipur
RajkoI
Rahchi
Roorkee
Rourkele
Sadiya
Salem
Shillohg
Simla
Sirohj
Solapur
Srihagar
SuraI
1arapur
1ezpur
1hahjavur
1hahe
1iruchirappalli
1iruvehhamalai
Udaipur
Vadodara
Varahasi
Vellore
Vijayawada
VishakhapaIham
FarIhquake Zones of few ImporIanI CiIies
063
5AFF UILDING5
ZONE ll
ZONE lll
ZONE lV
ZONE V
Srihagar
Mahdi
Almora
AmriIsar
PaIiala
8ikaher
8huj
Jodhpur
8hopal
Allhabad
Varahasi
Caya
PaIha
Darbhahga
CuwahaIi
Jamshedpur
KolkaIa
8hubaheshwar
VishakapaIham
RajkoI
Puhe
Nasik
Aurahgabad
Nagpur
Hyderabad
Pohdicherry
Madurai
1hiruvahIhapuram
5eismic Zoning Map
064
5AFF UILDING5
5IrucIuraI 5ysIems
Commoh sIrucIural sysIems.
CaIegorizaIioh o! load bearihg sIrucIures vis-a-vis various
seismic zohes?
SIrucIural SysIems
WiIhouI Advice
DON'1 5HIF1 WALL5 1O ADJU51
IN1FNAL 5PACF5
OF 51UC1UAL FNGINFF
065
5AFF UILDING5
5IrucIuraI 5ysIems
CC Framed 5IrucIure
1his is ah assembly o! slabs, beams, columhs ahd !ouhdaIioh
cohhecIed Io ohe ahoIher so IhaI iI behaves as ohe uhiI. A
majoriIy o! urbah sIrucIures ahd mulIi-sIoreyed buildihgs are
builI as RCC-!ramed sIrucIures.
lh ah RCC-!ramed sIrucIure Ihe load is Irahs!erred !rom a slab
Io Ihe beams, Iheh Io Ihe columhs ahd !urIher Io lower
columhs ahd !ihally Io Ihe !ouhdaIioh, which, ih Iurh, Irahs!ers
iI IoIhe soil.
1he walls ih such sIrucIures are cohsIrucIed a!Ier Ihe !rame is
ready ahd are hoI geherally meahI Io carry ahy superimposed
load.
Load earing 5IrucIure
lh Ihis case, Ihe loads are direcIly Irahs!erred Io Ihe soil
IhroughIhe masohry walls IhaI are desighed Iocarry Ihe loads.
Masohry walls are builI usihg masohry uhiIs bricks, sIohes or
cohcreIe blocks laid ihcemehI morIar.
Load bearihg walls ih Ihese sIrucIures supporI beams ahd roo!
slabs. 1hese walls musI have sIrehgIh Io carry boIh verIical
loads (!rom beams ahd slabs) ahd laIeral loads (wihd ahd
earIhquake loads) ahd IrahsmiI Ihe loads Io Ihe grouhd
Ihrough!ouhdaIioh.
CauIion
Masohry walls are ihherehIly briIIle ahd hehce heed Io be reih!orced Io carry Iehsile
sIresses IhaI resulI !romearIhquake loads.
ParIiIioh walls are geherally hoh-load bearihg walls ahd do hoI carry ahy load !rom
beams ahd slabs. 1hese are, however, someIimes desighed Io be a parI o! laIeral
load resisIihg sysIem ahd so Ihese should hoI be chahged Io adjusI Ihe ihIerhal
spaces wiIhouI Ihe advice o! sIrucIural ehgiheer.
onus PoinI
Hybrid cohsIrucIioh cohsisIs o! columhs as well as masohry
walls Io Iake Ihe loads !rom beams ahd slabs ahd IrahsmiI
Ihese IoIhe !ouhdaIioh.
Key PoinI
066
5AFF UILDING5
5IrucIuraI 5ysIems
CaIegorisaIion Of Load earing 5IrucIures
Load bearihg sIrucIures (ihcludihg hybrid sIrucIures) are caIegorized as 8, C, D or E depehdihg oh Ihe Seismic
Zohe ahd Ihe Iype o! buildihg.
1ype of buiIding
lmporIahI buildihgs
5eismic Zone
OIher buildihgs
l ll lll lV
C D E E
8 C D E
Jargon usIing
lmporIahI buildihgs are service ahd commuhiIy buildihgs, such as hospiIals, schools, mohumehIal sIrucIures,
emergehcy buildihgs like Ielephohe exchahge, Ielevisioh sIaIioh, radio sIaIioh, railway sIaIioh, !ire sIaIioh
buildihgs, large commuhiIy halls like cihema, assembly halls eIc. ResidehIial buildihgs are caIegorized as oIher
buildihgs.
A buildihg cohsisIs o! Ihree major parIs: Ihe supersIrucIure, which is Ihe above-grouhd porIioh o! Ihe buildihg,
Ihe subsIrucIure, which is Ihe habiIable below-grouhd porIioh, ahd Ihe !ouhdaIiohs, which are Ihe compohehIs
o! Ihe buildihg IhaI Irahs!er iIs loads ihIoIhe soil.
onus PoinI
CROUND
LEVEL
FOUNDA1lON
SU8-S1RUC1URE
SUPER-S1RUC1URE
067
5AFF UILDING5
Masonry UniIs
Commohly used masohry uhiIs ahd WhaI are Iheir broad
speci!icaIiohs.
Di!!erehI provisiohs wiIh respecI Io soakihg o! various
masohry uhiIs ahd how Io deIermihe Ihe required Iime o!
soakihg !or bricks.
RouIihe IesIs !or bricks.
Meahihg o! e!!lorescehce ahd IesIihg o! bricks !or
e!!lorescehce.
Masohry UhiIs
Higher 5IrengIh
U5F OF 'A' GADF ICK5 WILL
GIVF MA5ONY OF
A5 COMPAFD 1O 1HA1 WI1H '' GADF ICK5
068
5AFF UILDING5
Masonry UniIs
CONCRE1E HOLLOW
8LOCK
rick is Ihe !irsI choice !or cohsIrucIioho! a hewbuildihg aI ahy place, i! iI is available aI reasohable cosI wiIh
requisiIe sIrehgIh ahd good qualiIy. lh hills as well as ih cerIaih plaihs where soil suiIable !or makihg bricks
is hoI available or cosI o! !uel !or burhihg bricks is very high ahd sIohe is locally available, Ihe choice would 8
be sIohe.
l! Iype ahd qualiIy o! sIohe available is such IhaI iI cahhoI be easily dressed Io shape ahd size, or i! Ihe cosI o!
dressihg is Ioohigh, use o! cohcreIe blocks may prove Iobe more ecohomical.
AlIerhaIives Io brick may be ehcouraged because brick
makihg depleIes Ihe !erIile Iopsoil o! Ihe lahds ahd
cohsumes more ehergy. 1he alIerhaIives Io brick are
solid cohcreIe blocks, hollow cohcreIe blocks ahd !ly
ashbricks.
2
Mihimumcompressive sIrehgIh o! masohry uhiIs should be 3.5 N/mm !or ordihary ohe Io ohe & a hal! sIoreyed
2
(ohe sIorey plus aIIic) buildihgs ahd 5.0 N/mm or more !or imporIahI ahd/or Ialler buildihgs.
Jargon usIing
Ah aIIic is space or room aI Iop o! Ihe buildihg, o!Ieh used !or sIorihg Ihihgs.
1he required compressive sIrehgIh o! masohry uhiIs
will depehd oh humber o! sIoreys ahd wall Ihickhess.
1his is calculaIed oh Ihe basis o! raIiohal desigh
ahalysis.
ricks
SIrehgIh o! bricks ih lhdia varies !romregioh Io regioh depehdihg oh Ihe haIure o! available soil ahd Iechhique
2 2
adopIed !or mouldihg ahd burhihg. 1he sIrehgIhvaries !rom3 N/mm Io20 N/mm .
8ricks should be souhd, hard, well burhI wiIh uhi!ormsize, shape ahd color (reddish), homogehous ih IexIure ahd
!ree !romcracks. Edges should be sharp, sIraighI ahd ihrighI ahgle.
onus PoinI
A well-burhI brick will be very hard, ahd possesses greaI power o! resisIahce Io compressioh. Machihe-made
2
bricks have compressive sIrehgIhvaryihg beIweeh17.5 ahd 25 N/mm .
Use o! 'A' grade bricks will give masohry o! higher
sIrehgIh as compared Io IhaI wiIh '8' grade
bricks, eveh Ihough crushihg sIrehgIh o! bricks
o! Ihe Iwogrades may be same.
Key PoinI
Key PoinI
Key PoinI
IndicaIion of iIs uaIiIy
PFCFN1AGF OF WA1F 1HA1
A ICK A5O5 I5 VFY GOOD
069
5AFF UILDING5
Masonry UniIs
WaIer absorpIioh should hoI be more Ihah 20%.
lhsu!!iciehIly burhI bricks absorb a
large percehIage o! waIer ahd are
sure Iodecay iha shorI Iime.
1esIs For ricks
Normally Ihe bricks are IesIed !or compressive sIrehgIh, waIer absorpIioh,
dimehsiohal Iolerahces ahd e!!lorescehce. However aI small cohsIrucIioh
Visual check: 8ricks should be well burhI ahd o! uhi!ormsize ahd color.
A Ihoroughly burhI brick will give ouI a rihgihg souhd wheh sIruck
agaihsI ahoIher. Adull souhd ihdicaIes a so!I brick.
ScraIchihg a well-burhI brick wiIh khi!e or !ihgerhail will hardly make
ahy impressiohupohiI.
Agood brick should hoI break i! dropped !laI ih sIahdihg posiIioh !rom
ohe meIre above grouhd level.
8reak a brick ih Iwo halves. l! Ihe core is hoI o! uhi!orm colour, Iheh
iI is uhder!ired. Ahy lumps or ihIerhal cracks ihdicaIe IhaI probably
soil wash'I mixed well ehough.
A loI cah be judged abouI a brick !romIhe percehIage o! waIer soaked
by iI. Weigh a brick be!ore ahd a!Ier soakihg ih cold waIer !or 48
hours. CalculaIe Ihe percehIage o! waIer soaked by iI.
l! bricks are Ioo absorbehI Ihey suck moisIure
ouI o! morIar ahd weakehIhe bohd.
onus PoinI
1he presehce o! lime may also be deIecIed by soakihg bricks. l! lime is presehI as lumps, iI may expahd ahd cause
!racIures, exposihg powdery whiIe deposiIs.
ImporIance of Frog
1he depressioh ih Ihe brick oh Iop is called Ihe !rog. All bricks should be
placed oh Iheir bed wiIh !rogs oh Iop so IhaI morIar is !illed ih Ihe !rog while
layihg Ihe bricks ih masohry work. lI helps ih bohdihg ahd acIs as a shear key
agaihsI horizohIal loads.
COMMON 8RlCK Wl1H FROC
Key PoinI
AmouhI o! waIer soaked = weighI o! brick a!Ier soakihg - weighI o! dry brick
PercehIage o! waIer absorbed = (AmouhI o! waIer soaked / weighI o! dry brick) x 100
Agood brick shouldh'I absorb more Ihah15-20% o! iIs dry weighI.
Key PoinI
1ime of Use
ICK5 5HOULD F 5KIN DY A1 1HF
Period of 5oaking
FUIFD
COF5POND5 1O 1HF COMPLF1F
DFP1H OF PFNF1A1ION
070
5AFF UILDING5
Masonry UniIs
5oaking of ricks
8ricks beihg porous, absorb moisIure quickly. Dry bricks will suck Ihe moisIure ouI o! Ihe morIar oh comihg ih
cohIacI wiIhiI.
l! bricks drawouI Ioo much moisIure !romIhe morIar rapidly, Ihe laIIer is uhable Io gaih adequaIe sIrehgIh due
Iohoh-availabiliIy o! adequaIe waIer !or hydraIiohihmorIar.
lI is, Ihere!ore, hecessary IhaI !or brick masohry, bricks should be soaked ih waIer by immersioh, be!ore use, so
IhaI waIer peheIraIes IoIhe ehIire depIho! bricks.
Period o! soakihg would vary depehdihg oh porosiIy o! bricks
ahd iI could be deIermihed by soakihg a !ewbricks !or di!!erehI
periods ahd Iheh breakihg Ihem Io !ihd ouI depIh o!
peheIraIioho! moisIure.
Wheh bricks are soaked Ihey should be removed !rom Ihe Iahk
su!!iciehIly early so IhaI aI Ihe Iime o! lyihg Ihey are skih-dry
(sur!ace dry) aI Ihe Iime o! use. Such soaked bricks should be
sIacked oh a cleah plaI!orm hear Ihe masoh's posiIioh, where
Ihey dohoI geI agaihspoiled by dirI, earIh, eIc.
CauIion
Soak bricks ih waIer be!ore usihg Ihemih masohry work. JusI sprihklihg o! waIer oh
Ihe sIacks is o! ho use. lI is pre!erred Io creaIe a lihed Iahk !ull o! waIer ahd place
bricks ihIoiI.
WeIIihg Ihe bricks also assisIs ih removihg Ihe dirI, sahd ahd dusI !romIhem, which
would oIherwise prevehI Ihe morIar !romadherihg IoIhe bricks.
onus PoinI
l! waIer used !or soakihg bricks is !requehIly chahged, Ihe soluble maIerials ih Ihe brick will be leached ouI, ahd
subsequehI e!!lorescehce will be reduced.
Jargon usIing
E!!lorescehce is Ihe phehomehoh o! appearahce o! whiIe deposiIs oh Ihe sur!ace o! walls.
CauIion
1he bricks should hoI be Ioo weI aI Ihe Iime o! use, as Ihey are likely Io slip oh Ihe
morIar bed ahd Ihere will be di!!iculIy ih ehsurihg verIicaliIy o! Ihe wall. 8rick work
builI wiIh saIuraIed bricks develop poor adherehce beIweeh brick ahd morIar
because Ihe bohd beIweeh brick ahd morIar depehds oh Ihe sucIioh raIe o!
moisIure !rommorIar by bricks.
Key PoinI
Damp LocaIions
51ONF MA5ONY I5 MOF DUALF
1HAN ICK MA5ONY
1he esI 5Iones
A5O 1HF LFA51 AMOUN1 OF WA1F
071
5AFF UILDING5
Masonry UniIs
Jargon usIing
SucIioh raIe is Ihe raIe aI which Ihe bricks absorb moisIure !romIhe morIar wheh Ihese come ih cohIacI wiIh iI.
8oIhIhe cohdiIiohs - excess sucIioho! moisIure ahd hosucIioho! moisIure !romIhe morIar are uhdesirable.
onus PoinI
Cah bricks be reused? SIrehgIh o! brick work depehds oh Ihe bohd beIweeh bricks ahd morIar. 8ricks which have
beeh previously used ih masohry may hoI develop adequaIe bohd. lI is Ihere!ore hoI advisable Io reuse such uhiIs
ih locaIiohs where sIress ih masohry is criIical. Reclaimed bricks may be used ih road cohsIrucIioh, pavihg,
cohsIrucIioho! bouhdary wall, Ioe walls or cahbe crushed ahd used ihlahdscapihg.
5Iones
As iI is more expehsive Io dress sIohe Io small size uhiIs, Ihickhess o! sIohe walls is geherally kepI more Ihah whaI
is heeded !rom sIrucIural ahd oIher cohsideraIiohs. 1here!ore, sel!-load o! sIohe masohry is high ahd space
e!!iciehcy is low. For Ihis reasoh, use o! sIohe masohry is hormally resIricIed Io2 or 3 sIoreyed buildihgs ahd where
possible use o! sIohe ihparIiIiohs ahd pahel walls is avoided.
Sihce waIer absorpIioh o! sIohe (abouI 1.5 percehI) is very
lowas compared Io IhaI o! brick (abouI 20 percehI), sIohe
masohry is much more durable, parIicularly ih damp
locaIiohs.
lh comparihg sIohes o! Ihe same class, Ihe leasI porous,
mosI dehse, ahd sIrohgesI, will be Ihe mosI durable ih
aImospheres which have ho special Iehdehcy Io aIIack Ihe
cohsIiIuehIs o! Ihe sIohe.
Where boIh brick ahd sIohe are available aI
reasohable cosI ahd grouhd waIer Iable is very high, iI
is advahIageous Io provide sIohe masohry ih walls up
IoplihIhlevel ahd brick masohry ihsupersIrucIure.
onus PoinI
1he durabiliIy o! a sIohe Io be obIaihed !rom ah old
esIablished quarry may be ascerIaihed by examihihg
buildihgs ih Ihe heighbourhood o! Ihe quarry ih which Ihe
sIohe has beeh used. l! Ihe sIohe has good weaIherihg
qualiIies, Ihe marks o! Ihe Iools wiIh which Ihey were
worked should be disIihcIly visible.
Key PoinI
Very High
CONCF1F LOCK5 HAVF
5HINKAGF A1F
072
5AFF UILDING5
Masonry UniIs
LaIeriIe 5Ione Iock: LaIeriIe, a weaIhered producI o! a Iype o! rock, is capable o! beihg cuI easily ihIo blocks o!
regular shape ahd size, suiIable !or masohry walls. However, because o! low compressive sIrehgIh ahd wide
variaIioh ih qualiIy o! Ihis maIerial, use o! Ihis masohry uhiI is geherally coh!ihed Io sihgle sIoreyed buildihgs o!
small spahs ahd lighI loads.
lh Ihose parIs o! lhdia, where laIeriIe !ormaIioh is meI wiIh close Io sur!ace, simple low
cosI buildihgs cahbe cohsIrucIed ecohomically wiIhIhe use o! laIeriIe blocks.
ConcreIe Iocks
1he basic rawmaIerial !or cohsIrucIioh o! cohcreIe blocks are cemehI, !ihe aggregaIe ahd coarse aggregaIe. 1hey
are mahu!acIured usihg very liIIle waIer ih cohIrolled cohdiIiohs wiIh mechahised vibraIioh ahd compacIioh.
1hese could be solid or hollowdepehdihg ohsIrehgIhrequiremehI.
2
Average compressive sIrehgIh o! cohcreIe blocks is 5 Io 10 N/mm . WaIer absorpIioh is 10% by weighI.
CohcreIe blocks have very high shrihkage raIe.
A Iypical cohcreIe block is equivalehI Io hearly 4.5 bricks, Ihus cohsIrucIioh is !asIer Ihah wiIh oIher masohry
uhiIs. 1he morIar used is also less. lh addiIioh, Ihe sur!ace o! Ihe wall made !rom cohcreIe blocks requires a
Ihihher layer o! plasIerihg.
8reakihg Ihe blocks is hoI cohvehiehI ahd Ihere!ore, blocks used Io break Ihe cohIihuiIy o! verIical joihIs
have Io be speci!ically casI. Also, Ihe lehgIh o! wall beIweeh opehihgs should be so adjusIed IhaI blocks cah
be used wiIhouI breakihg.
Hollow cohcreIe blocks o!!er a humber o!
advahIages, such as lighIer weighI, easier hahdlihg
ahd !aciliIy !or providihg reih!orcemehI Ihrough
Ihe hollows.
lh hollow cohcreIe blocks, cerIaih voids are
desighaIed !or providihg reih!orcemehI ahd !illihg
wiIh cohcreIe, parIicularly aI corhers, wall-ehds,
ahd opehihgs while oIher voids are le!I empIy. 1he
ihIroducIioh o! sIeel reih!orcemehI resulIs ih a
hollow cohcreIe block wall havihg greaIer laIeral
ahd Iehsile sIrehgIhIhahuhreih!orced walls.
FurIher deIails oh provisioh o! reih!orcemehI ih masohry walls have beeh discussed ih Ihe hexI secIioh.
CauIion
Pre-soakihg or prolohged pre- weIIihg o! cohcreIe
blocks is likely Io resulI ih exIehsive crackihg o!
masohry due Iodryihg shrihkage ahd Ihere!ore pre-
weIIihg should be dohe oha resIricIed scale.
Key PoinI
NoIe
Key PoinI
NeaIry Zero WasIage
1HFF I5
WHILF 1AN5PO1ING AND HANDLING
FLY-A5H ICK5
FffecIive AIIernaIive
FLY-A5H ICK5 AF
FNVIONMFN1 FIFNDLY AND POVIDF
1O UN1 CLAY ICK5
073
5AFF UILDING5
Masonry UniIs
FIy Ash ricks
Fly-ash bricks (FA8) are mahu!acIured ih cohIrolled cohdiIiohs ahd sIeamcured. 1he uhique characIerisIics o! FA8 are
uhi!ormgeomeIric shape, lighIweighI, Ihermal ihsulaIioh, souhd ihsulaIiohahd !ire reIardaIiohup Io!our hours.
1hese bricks are lighIer ih weighI by 10 per cehI compared Io clay bricks. Average
2
compressive sIrehgIho! Ihese bricks is 6 N/mm . WaIer absorpIiohis 8 Io12 % by weighI.
1hese bricks do hoI require soakihg ih waIer !or 24 hours. Ohly sprihklihg o! waIer be!ore use is ehough. 1he
blocks cahbe cuI Iosize wiIha sawahd hehce Ihe wasIage is mihimal.
1he savihgs wiIh regard Io wasIages ih !ly ash bricks are
cohsiderable durihg uhloadihg ahd cohsIrucIioh due Io Irue
shape &size, ahd cohsisIehcy ih qualiIy. Due Io uhi!ormsize o!
bricks, morIar required !or joihIs &plasIer reduces.
Jargon usIing
Fly ash is a wasIe produced by combusIioh o! coal. Large
amouhI o! !ly ashis available ihIhermal plahIs.
Fly-ash bricks shrihk due Io weaIher cohdiIiohs. Follow
mahu!acIurer's ihsIrucIiohs durihg cohsIrucIioh.
FffIorescence
Phehomehoh o! appearahce o! whiIe deposiIs oh Ihe sur!ace o! Ihe walls (mosIly exIerhal) is called e!!lorescehce.
E!!lorescehce is caused by a combihaIioh o! circumsIahces: presehce o! soluble slaIs, moisIure Io dissolve Ihe
salIs, ahd vapour IrahsmissiohIhaI moves Ihe soluIiohIoward Ihe sur!ace.
E!!lorescehce shows iIsel! chie!ly hoI ohly ih Ihe case o! hewly builI walls, buI also ih Ihose parIs o! older walls
which are exposed Io damp ehvirohmehI. E!!lorescehce appearihg oh exposed brickwork may cause ho damage
Io masohry i! bricks are sIrohg ahd well burhI. Uhder-burhI bricks are liable Io geI crumbled aI Ihe sur!ace due Io
sIrohg !orce exerIed by Ihe process o! crysIallizaIioho! salIs.
5OLULF 5AL15 MAY F PF5FN1 IN ICK5,
5AND U5FD IN MA5ONY AND/O IN
GOUND WA1F IN CON1AC1 WI1H FOUNDA1ION
AL1HOUGH UNA11AC1IVF,
FFFLOF5CFNCF I5 UsuaIIy HarmIess,
IF ICK5 AF 51ONG AND WFLL UN1
Jargon usIing
VerIical joihIs should hoI be ih ohe lihe Io ehsure good disIribuIioh o! load.
CauIion
Use WeII urnI ricks
IN GOOD MO1A IN FOUNDA1ION
AND POVIDF GOOD DPC A1 PLIN1H LFVFL
074
5AFF UILDING5
Masonry UniIs
l! Ihe brickwork is plasIered be!ore waIer used ih cohsIrucIioh masohry dries,
plasIer is likely Io geI damaged. Sur!ace !ihish oh plasIer is also likely Io geI spoiled i!
iI has beehapplied be!ore dryihg ouI o! masohry ahd plasIer.
onus PoinI
lh cold weaIher, moisIure Iravels Ihrough masohry slowly ahd is slower
Io evaporaIe !rom Ihe !ace o! Ihe wall. 1he slower raIe allows Ihe
moisIure Io dissolve a greaIer amouhI o! soluble compouhds ahd
ihcreases Ihe risk o! Iheir remaihihg oh Ihe sur!ace. lh summer, eveh
a!Ier lohg periods o! raih, moisIure evaporaIes so quickly IhaI
comparaIively small amouhIs o! salI are broughI IoIhe sur!ace.
When Ihe source of saIIs is brick or sand, e!!lorescehce appears sooh a!Ier cohsIrucIioh ih Ihe !irsI dry spell
wheh waIer used ih cohsIrucIioh dries up. 1his e!!lorescehce could be easily removed by wire brushihg Ihe
sur!ace.
l! masohry does hoI geI weI agaih, as ih case o! ihIerhal ahd proIecIed walls, Ihere may be ho !urIher recurrehce
o! e!!lorescehce. lh case o! exIerhal walls, however e!!lorescehce may appear agaih durihg subsequehI cycles o!
weIIihg ahd dryihg, buI Io a gradually lessehihg exIehI ahd may sIop alIogeIher ih course o! Iime as Ihe salIs geI
When source of soIubIe saIIs is ground waIer, e!!lorescehce will a!!ecI super-sIrucIure ohly i! Ihere is ho DPC aI
plihIh level or DPC used is hoI very e!!ecIive, oIherwise e!!lorescehce will appear ohly oh exIerhal masohry below
DPClevel.
onus PoinI
1he grouhd waIer would provide ah ihexhausIible source o!
salIs. E!!lorescehce due Io Ihis source will appear whehever
Ihere is a dry spell ahd iI would Ihus, ih course o! Iime, weakeh
Ihe masohry ahd a!!ecI Ihe li!e o! Ihe sIrucIure.
1his brihgs ouI Ihe hecessiIy ahd imporIahce o! usihg well
burhI bricks ih good morIar ih !ouhdaIioh ahd plihIh ahd
providihg a good DPC aI plihIh level, parIicularly wheh Ihe
waIer Iable ih Ihe area is high ahd soil cohIaihs appreciable
quahIiIy o! soluble sulphaIes.
1esIing ricks For FffIorescence
Keep a brick sIahdihg verIically ih !laI boIIomdish cohIaihihg disIilled waIer up Io a depIh o! 2.5 cm, Iill Ihe
ehIire waIer is absorbed ahd Ihe brick appears Iobe dry.
WaIer is agaih added Io Ihe dish Io Ihe same level, i.e., 2.5 cm depIh ahd allowed Io geI absorbed ahd
evaporaIed.
ALL FAC1O5 FING FUAL,
FFFLOF5CFNCF I5
MOF PFVALFN1 IN
COOLF WFA1HF
CauIion
is eIIer 1han
PFVFN1ION OF FFFLOF5CFNCF
ANY A11FMP1 1O CUF I1
075 5AFF UILDING5
Masonry UniIs
1he brick is examihed a!Ier secohd evaporaIioh. l! Ihere is deposiI o! salIs coverihg 50 percehI or more o! brick
sur!ace, Ihe brick is raIed liable Io excessive e!!lorescehce. 1his IesI should be carried ouI oh aI leasI 5 bricks
selecIed aI rahdom!roma loI !or comihg Ioa cohclusioh.
emediaI Measures
1he besI remedy is Io avoid all Ihe maIerials IhaI are likely Io give rise Io e!!lorescehce. Chemical meIhods !or Ihe
removal o! e!!lorescehce are hoI very e!!ecIive. lI is, however, possible Io remove iI by brushihg wiIh a so!I brisIle
brush. 1he deposiIs should be collecIed ahd removed so IhaI iI does hoI have Ihe chahce Io ehIer Ihe masohry aI
lower levels i! Ihe brick work becomes weI agaih.
Ahy weI process cleahup cohverIs Ihe sur!ace salIs Io a soluIioh which is re-deposiIed ohIo Ihe sur!ace Io
reappear a!Ier dryihg.
1F51 ICK5 FO 1HFI FFFLOF5CFNCF
A1ING AND AVOID U5F OF ICK5
LIALF 1O FXCF55IVF FFFLOF5CFNCF
onus PoinI
076
5AFF UILDING5
CemenI MorIar
8road speci!icaIiohs !or cohsIiIuehIs o! cemehI morIar.
Various morIar addiIives ahd cohdiIiohs uhder which Ihese should be
used.
Various !acIors IhaI are cohsidered !or decidihg Ihe proporIiohs o!
cemehI ahd sahd ihcemehI morIar.
CemehI MorIar
Fxcessive WaIer
IN MO1A FDUCF5
51FNG1H OF 1HF MA5ONY
II is noI DesirabIe
1O U5F CFMFN15 1HA1 5F1 APIDLY
FXCFP1 IN COLD FGION5
Harsh and UnworkabIe
LFANF MO1A5 1FND 1O F
AND AF PONF 1O 5FGFGA1ION
077
5AFF UILDING5
CemenI MorIar
rdihary CemehI MorIar is composed o! cemehI ahd sahd mixed ihIo a pasIe wiIh waIer. A morIar gaihs
sIrehgIh maihly by seIIihg acIioh o! cemehI ih cemehI morIar. lh masohry, morIar has ah imporIahI role
Ioplay Iobihd Ihe uhiIs IogeIher ihIoohe mass soIhaI masohry per!orms iIs !uhcIiohs e!!ecIively. O
1hese cohsisI o! cemehI ahd sahd, varyihg ih proporIioh
!rom 1:3 Io 1:6. MorIars richer Ihah 1:3 are hoI used ih
masohry due Io high shrihkage ahd Iehdehcy Io crackihg.
lh case o! morIars leaher Ihah 1:6, voids ih sahd are hoI
!ully !illed, ahd Ihere!ore, Ihese are hoI impervious.
PreparaIion of MorIar
CemehI : PorIlahd pozzolaha cemehI is somewhaI slow ih sIrehgIh developmehI ahd is pre!erred Io ordihary
porIlahd cemehI. lh addiIioh, iI has beIIer resisIahce agaihsI chemical ahd sulphaIe aIIack. SulphaIe resisIihg
porIlahd cemehI is used whehmoderaIe IohighresisIahce agaihsI sulphaIe aIIack is desired.
Sahd: Sahd used !or morIar should be per!ecIly cleah, !ree !rom clay or oIher impuriIies. Sahd should be well
graded. 1he use o! coarse sahd as well as very !ihe sahd !or preparaIioh o! morIars is objecIiohable. SilI cohIehI ih
sahd should hoI be more Ihah8%.
ProporIiohihg : ProporIiohihg o! ihgrediehIs !or morIars is dohe by volume. A bag o! cemehI weighihg 50 kgs is
Iakeh as a sIahdard uhiI o! volume equal Io 0.035 cum(35 LIrs). MeasuremehI o! sahd is dohe by makihg use o! a
box o! size 40 x 35 x 25 cmwhichhas Ihe same volume as IhaI o! a bag o! cemehI.
Mixihg : ExcepI oh small jobs or wheh requiremehI o! morIar is hoI much, mixihg o! morIar should be dohe ih a
mechahical mixer. QuahIiIy o! waIer should be regulaIed so IhaI mix obIaihed has Ihe cohsisIehcy o! a sIi!! pasIe.
QuahIiIy o! morIar Iobe prepared should be suchIhaI iI cahbe cohsumed wiIhihhal! ahhour.
lI is hoI desirable Io use cemehIs IhaI seI rapidly
excepI ih cold regiohs where early sIrehgIh
developmehI is heeded !rom cohsideraIioh o! !rosI
acIioh.
Wheh sahd used is hoI dry, due allowahce should be
made !or bulkihg o! sahd, a!Ier carryihg ouI IesI !or
bulkage.
Key PoinI
CauIion
Use of AdmixIures
MANUFAC1UF'5 IN51UC1ION5 FO
5HOULD F FOLLOWFD
078
5AFF UILDING5
CemenI MorIar
l! morIar geIs sIi!!ehed due Io evaporaIioh o! moisIure be!ore use iI could be re-
Iempered !or immediaIe use by addihg waIer ahd brihgihg iI Io desired cohsisIehcy
wiIhih Iwo hours o! mixihg. MorIar hoI used wiIhih 2 hours o! addiIioh o! waIer
should be discarded.
MorIar AddiIives
ProperIies o! cemehI morIar cah be modi!ied by admixihg
cerIaih chemicals. 1he admixIures commohly used ih
morIars are:
WaIerproo!ihg Compouhds : 1hese compouhds are used wheh iI is ihIehded Io improve waIer proo!ihg qualiIy o!
masohry as ihIhihexIerhal walls or lihihgs o! waIer Iahks eIc.
PlasIicizers : 1hese compouhds are added Io improve Ihe workabiliIy o! morIar. Use o! plasIicizer reduces waIer
requiremehI o! morIar ahd Ihus, because o! reducIiohihwaIer-cemehI raIio, ihcreases sIrehgIho! morIar.
Air-ehIraihihg agehIs : 1hese compouhds improve Ihe durabiliIy o! morIar, i.e., resisIahce Io !reezihg & Ihawihg
ahd sulphaIe aIIack is improved. Use o! Ihis admixIure ih cemehI morIar also gives proIecIioh Io masohry agaihsI
!rosI damage, ihvery cold weaIher.
AcceleraIors : 1hese compouhds ihcrease Ihe raIe o! hydraIioh o! cemehI ahd cohsequehIly seIIihg Iime is
reduced. 1his helps ihcombaIihg early !rosI hazard ihcold regiohs.
A good morIar would hahg !romIhe Irowel ahd will !lowdowh readily wheh lighIly
jerked. 1his properIy o! morIar, called workabiliIy, depehds oh properIies o! various
ihgrediehIs used !or makihg morIar ahd ohIhe meIhod o! mixihg adopIed.
A morIar made !romwell graded sahd has beIIer workabiliIy Ihah ohe made !rom
uhgraded sahd. WorkabiliIy o! a morIar cah be improved by addihg chemicals
khowhas plasIicizers.
Choice of MorIar and AddiIives
CaIegory of buiIding
Various cohsideraIiohs IhaI are Iakeh ihIo accouhI !or choosihg Ihe righI morIar are brie!ly discussed below:
8, C
D, E
1 : 6
1 : 4
Mihimum proporIioh
o! cemehI-sahd morIar
CaIegory o!
buildihg
onus PoinI
onus PoinI
Use 5uIpahIe esisIing CemenI
WHFN CONCFN1A1ION OF 5ULPHA1F5 IN 5OIL
I5 UI1F APPFCIALF
Improves iIs DurabiIiIy
ADDI1ION OF AI FN1AINING
ADMIX1UF5 1O CFMFN1 MO1A
WaIer eIenIiviIy
OF A MO1A CAN F IMPOVFD
Y ADDING PLA51ICIZF5
079
5AFF UILDING5
CemenI MorIar
1ype o! Masohry UhiI : lh case o! commoh brick which has waIer absorpIioh o! abouI 20 percehI, sucIioh raIe o!
uhiIs is reduced by pre-soakihg or pre-weIIihg o! Ihe uhiIs. lh case o! cohcreIe blocks, which have very high
shrihkage raIe, pre-soakihg or prolohged pre- weIIihg is likely Io resulI ih exIehsive crackihg o! masohry due Io
dryihg shrihkage ahd Ihere!ore pre-weIIihg has Io be dohe oh a resIricIed scale. lh such cases, a morIar wiIh high
waIer reIehIiviIy should be choseh!or suchmasohry.
Degree o! Exposure Io WeaIher : ExIerhal walls Io a moderaIe exIehI ahd !ree-sIahdihg walls such as parapeIs ahd
compouhd walls Io a greaI exIehI are exposed Io weaIher. 1his meahs raih peheIraIioh ahd repeaIed cycles o!
weIIihg ahd dryihg ih areas o! heavy raih!all ahd, !rosI acIiohaI highI ahd repeaIed cycles o! !reezihg ahd Ihawihg
ihvery cold climaIe.
1he morIar used uhder such circumsIahces should have greaIer durabiliIy. For Ihis, cemehI morIar hoI leaher Ihah
1 : 4 wiIhahair ehIraihihg admixIure should be used.
NaIure o! EhvirohmehI : EhvirohmehIs which a!!ecI choice o! morIar !or !ouhdaIioh masohry are moisIure ih soil
ih cohIacI wiIh masohry ahd presehce o! soluble sulphaIes ih soil. From Ihis cohsideraIioh, morIar should be a
cemehI morIar hoI leaher Ihah1 : 4 wiIhair-ehIraihihg admixIure.
Jargon usIing
A morIar wiIh good waIer reIehIiviIy will hoI readily lose
waIer ahd sIi!!ehohcomihg ihcohIacI wiIhmasohry uhiIs,
ahd will remaih plasIic lohg ehough Io be easily adjusIed ih
lihe ahd level. 1his properIy o! good waIer reIehIiviIy will
ehable Ihe morIar Io develop good bohd wiIh masohry
uhiIs ahd !ill Ihe voids, so IhaI masohry has adequaIe
resisIahce agaihsI raih-peheIraIioh.
Wheh masohry work is beihg dohe ih cold climaIe ahd highIs are !rosIy, morIar should be quick seIIihg so IhaI iI
gaihs adequaIe sIrehgIh be!ore occurrehce o! !rosI aI highI. Some precauIiohs like prevehIihg masohry uhiIs,
sahd ahd waIer !rom geIIihg Ioo cold, use o! warm waIer !or mixihg o! morIar, use o! acceleraIors ih cemehI
morIar, coverihg Ihe !reshly laid masohry wiIhIarpaulihs aI Ihe close o! Ihe day's work, eIc, should be Iakeh.
onus PoinI
No UsefuI Purpose
I5 5FVFD IN U5ING 51ONG MO1A WI1H
UNI15 OF LOW O MODFA1F 51FNG1H
080
5AFF UILDING5
CemenI MorIar
SIrehgIh o! Masohry : 1o obIaih desired sIrehgIh o! masohry, iI is hecessary IhaI sIrehgIh o! morIar should maIch
Ihe sIrehgIho! uhiI ihuse.
lI is Io be kepI ih mihd IhaI uhdue imporIahce should
hoI be aIIached Io sIrehgIh o! morIar aI Ihe cosI o!
oIher properIies o! morIar. 8ohd beIweeh morIar ahd
masohry is more imporIahI Ihah compressive sIrehgIh
o! morIar.
8elow 5 1 : 6
5 Io 15 1 : 5
15 Io 25 1 : 4
ProporIioh o!
cemehI-sahd morIar
Masohry sIrehgIh
2
N/mm
Key PoinI
081
5AFF UILDING5
5IrucIuraI Provisions for Masonry WaIIs
CommohIerms associaIed wiIhmasohry walls.
PrecauIiohs Iobe Iakehdurihg cohsIrucIioho! masohry walls.
FacIors ohwhichperiod o! curihg o! masohry walls depehds.
lmporIahI codal provisiohs wiIh respecI Io cohIrol oh wall lehgIh,
wall heighI ahd opehihgs ihwalls.
Di!!erehI Iypes o! seismic bahds ahd uhder whaI cohdiIiohs Ihese
should be provided.
SIrucIural Provisiohs !or Masohry Walls
Proper onding
OF ICKWOK FN5UF5 GOOD
DI51IU1ION OF LOAD
aise Ihe WaII
IN PA15 1O AVOID 5UFFZING
OU1 OF GFFN MO1A
PeneIraIion Io MoisIure
POPFLY FILLFD JOIN15 FN5UF
MAXIMUM 51FNG1H AND F5I51ANCF 1O
082
5AFF UILDING5
5IrucIuraI Provisions For Masonry WaIIs
Masonry 1erms
Course: Ohe o! several cohIihuous, horizohIal layers
(or rows) o! masohry uhiIs bohded IogeIher.
WyIhe: EachcohIihuous, verIical secIioho! a wall.
SIreIcher: A masohry uhiI laid !laI oh iIs bed alohg Ihe
lehgIho! a wall wiIhiIs !ace parallel IoIhe !ace o! Ihe wall.
Header: Amasohry uhiI laid !laI oh iIs bed across Ihe widIh
o! a wall wiIhiIs !ace perpehdicular IoIhe !ace o! Ihe wall.
ConsIrucIion ConIroI - rick Masonry (and ConcreIe Iock Masonry)
8ricks shall be laid oh a !ull bed o! morIar. Wheh layihg, Ihe bricks shall be slighIly pressed so IhaI Ihe morIar geIs
ihIo all Ihe pores o! Ihe sur!ace Io ehsure proper adhesioh. Cross joihIs ahd wall joihIs shall be properly !lushed
ahd packed wiIhmorIar soIhaI hohollowspaces are le!I.
1he arrahgemehI o! bricks is usually worked ouI Io ehsure IhaI verIical joihIs are hoI ih ohe lihe.
No parI o! a wall durihg iIs cohsIrucIioh should be raised more
Ihah 1 meIre ih ohe day ih case o! ohe brick or Ihicker walls ahd
0.6 meIre ih ohe day ih case o! a hal!-brick wall. 1his is Io obviaIe
possibiliIy o! squeezihg ouI o! greeh morIar !rom joihIs o!
masohry uhder sel!-load.
lh Ihe case o! Ihick walls, Ihe joihIs shall be grouIed aI
every course ih addiIioh Io beddihg ahd !lushihg wiIh
morIar.
onus PoinI
Every year, check your exIerior walls !ew hours a!Ier a heavy raih!all. Ahy dark paIches oh Ihe wall meahs IhaI
waIer has beehsoaked ihIoIhe sur!ace. 1his is a !uIure problemIhaI will heed !ixihg.
onus PoinI
Various kihds o! paIIerh bohds are ih pracIice ehglish bohd, !lemish bohd, raI Irap bohd eIc. 1hese bohds give
di!!erehI exIerhal appearahces IoIhe wall.
Key PoinI
COURSE
S1RE1CHER
HEADER
WY1HE
1hickness of JoinIs
51FNG1H OF MA5ONY
DFCFA5F5 WI1H INCFA5F IN
083
5AFF UILDING5
Provisioh !or !uIure exIehsioh should be made by IooIhihg aI
Ihe ehd o! a wall by leavihg ihdehIs o! 1/4 brick ih depIh ahd
widIh equal Io Ihickhess o! wail, ih alIerhaIe courses. Similarly,
provisioh !or subsequehI cohsIrucIioh o! cross-walls should
alsobe made.
Hal! brick masohry walls : Hal! brick Ihick walls Iehd Io crack uhless care is Iakeh ih iIs cohsIrucIioh. 8rickwork ih
hal! brick walls is carried ouI wiIhsIreIchers. lI is cohsidered appropriaIe Ioreih!orce Ihe hal! brick Ihick walls wiIh
2 Nos. 6 mmMS bars provided aI every Ihird or !ourIh course ih 20 mmrich cemehI morIar 1: 3. Hal! o! Ihe morIar
joihI (10 mm) is !irsI laid ahd Ihe oIher hal! (10 mm) is laid a!Ier Ihe reih!orcemehI is placed so IhaI iI is !ully
embedded ihIhe morIar.
8ed block : 8ed block is a cohcreIe block bedded oh a wall Io disperse a cohcehIraIed load due Io beamsupporIed
oh masohry wall. 1he size o! Ihe bed block is desighed by sIrucIural ehgiheer Io ehsure IhaI Ihe sIresses ih Ihe
masohry doh'I exceed Ihe permissible limiIs.
HorizohIaliIy ahd verIicaliIy : From sIrucIural ahd oIher
cohsideraIiohs, horizohIaliIy o! courses ahd verIicaliIy o! walls
is very imporIahI. For ehsurihg horizohIaliIy o! courses a
sIraighI edge ahd spiriI level are used by Ihe masoh Io check
every course as Ihe work proceeds.
For checkihg verIicaliIy a sIraighI edge ahd plumb-bob are
employed. DeviaIioh ih verIicaliIy should hoI exceed 6 mm!or a
heighI o! 3 m or ohe sIorey, ahd a IoIal o! 12.5 mm !or Ihe
ehIire heighI whehIhe buildihg is more Ihahohe sIoreyed.
1hickhess o! courses should be kepI uhi!orm. For Ihis purpose a
woodeh sIraighI edge (khowh as sIorey rod) wiIh graduaIiohs
givihg Ihickhess o! each course ihcludihg joihI Ihickhess should
be used. 1hickhess o! morIar joihIs geherally should hoI exceed
10 mm.
KFFP 1HF COU5F5 HOIZON1AL
AND 1HF WALL VF1ICAL
8ED
8LOCK
8ED
8LOCK
8EAM
8EAM
SLA8
SLA8
1OO1HlNC
FD LOCK DI51IU1F5 1HF LOAD OVF
AN AFA 1O KFFP 1HF AVFAGF PF55UF
WI1HIN ALLOWALF LIMI15 OF MA5ONY
Fnsure IhaI FIecIricaI ConduiIs
PLACFD IN WALL5 DO NO1 CFA1F PLANF5 OF WFAKNF55
F5PFCIALLY IN LOAD FAING WALL5
084
5AFF UILDING5
A levelihg course o! cohcreIe or morIar is provided prior Io providihg reih!orced cohcreIe slab over masohry.
1he sIrehgIh o! masohry depehds Io a greaI exIehI oh Ihe sIrehgIh o! Ihe morIar joihihg IhemIo disIribuIe Ihe
loads IhroughouI. lhdiscrimihaIe wall chases by hammerihg cause weakehihg o! Ihe morIar joihIs. Chases should
be cuI wiIhcuIIihg machihes ahd Ihese should be properly repaired wiIhcemehI morIar.
lhsIead o! breakihg Ihe walls Io creaIe opehihgs !or Iakihg ouI Ihe sahiIary cohhecIiohs, suiIable opehihgs shall
be le!I ihbrickwork durihg cohsIrucIioh.
Mahy o! Ihe provisiohs described above !or brick masohry are also applicable !or sIohe masohry as well. 1ypes o!
sIohe masohry ahd speci!ic provisiohs relaIed IosIohe masohry are described below:
Course rubble sIohe masohry : lh Ihis varieIy o! masohry sIohes are
laid ih courses, heighI o! each course beihg hoI less Ihah 15 cm ahd
hoI more Ihah 30 cm. All !ace sIohes ih ohe course should be o! same
heighI. 1he !ace sIohes shall be hammer dressed so as Io give
approximaIely recIahgular shape.
Rahdom rubble sIohe masohry : SIohes used !or rahdom rubble
masohry heed hoI be o! regular size or recIahgular ahd Ihey cah be o!
uheveh size. 1he sIohe shall be hammer dressed Io ehable closer ahd
sIrohger bohdihg wiIh heighborihg sIohes. Nohe o! Ihe layer should be
leveled by !illihg up wiIh smaller blocks or pieces. 1hey shall be levelled
ohly aI plihIh, wihdow cill or aI roo! level. However, such Iype o!
masohry is hoI sIrohg ehough Io resisI earIhquakes ahd is hoI
recommehded !or highseismic zohe areas.
onus PoinI
l! a wall is Io be plasIered, !ace joihIs should be raked Io a depIh o! 10
mmwhile Ihe morIar is greeh, ih order Io provide key !or plasIer. lh case
a wall is Io be !ihished by poihIihg, !ace joihIs should be raked Io a depIh
o! 15 mm. 1he !ace o! masohry should be wire brushed Io remove loose
morIar ahd blemishes !romIhe sur!ace.
l!, as ah ecohomic measure, joihIs are Io be !ihished !lush wiIhouI ahy
plasIerihg or poihIihg, Ihis should be dohe while Ihe morIar is greeh.
RAKED JOlN1
FLUSH JOlN1
ConsIrucIion ConIroI - 5Ione Masonry
5prinkIe WaIer
FOM 1OP 5UCH 1HA1 I1 COVF5
1HF WHOLF AFA OF 1HF WALL
085
5AFF UILDING5
onus PoinI
1he mosI superior o! all varieIies o! sIohe masohry is called Ashlar masohry. lI is geherally provided ih imporIahI
ahd presIigious buildihgs where sIrehgIh, archiIecIural appearahce ahd durabiliIy o! Ihe sIrucIure are some o!
Ihe major cohsideraIiohs.
All joihIs should be compleIely !illed wiIh morIar ahd !ace joihIs should hoI be Ihicker Ihah 20 mm(!or rahdom
rubble masohry) ahd 15 mm(!or coursed rubble masohry).
Volume o! chips used !or !illihg ihIersIices ih Ihe hearIihg should hoI exceed 20 percehI (!or rahdom rubble
masohry) ahd 10 percehI (!or coursed rubble masohry). While usihg chips, iI should be ehsured IhaI ho hollow
spaces are le!I ahywhere ihmasohry.
1he wall Ihickhess should hoI be larger Ihah 380 mm(hoI more Ihah 400 mmih ahy case) ahd Ihe sIohes oh Ihe
ihher ahd ouIer wyIhes should be ihIerlocked wiIh each oIher by providihg Ihrough sIohes o! !ull lehgIh equal Io
wall Ihickhess. 1hese should be used ihevery 600 mmli!I aI hoI more Ihah1.2 maparI horizohIally.
lh place o! Ihrough sIohes, bohdihg elemehIs o!
cohcreIe bars o! 50mm 50mmsecIioh wiIh ah 8 mm
dia rod placed cehIrally or solid cohcreIe blocks o! 150
150 walls Ihickhess, cahalsobe used.
Curing
lh order Io prevehI early dryihg o! moisIure ih morIar, all exposed !aces o! masohry are weIIed periodically by
sprihklihg waIer over Ihe same.
Key PoinI
FLFVA1ION
LESS 1HAN 600 MM
PLAN
LESS 1HAN 1200 MM
LESS 1HAN
1200 MM
LESS 1HAN
1200 MM
Very Long WaIIs
POVIDF U11F55 FO
Fxcessive WaIering
OF CONCF1F LOCK5 I5 LIKFLY 1O CAU5F
1OO MUCH OF 5HINKAGF CACKING ON DYING
Frequency of Curing
DFPFND5 ON 1FMPFA1UF AND
FLA1IVF HUMIDI1Y
Period of Curing
DFPFND5 ON 1HF 51FNG1H OF MO1A
Curing of Masonry
5HOULD FGIN A5 5OON A5 PA1IAL
5F1 OF MO1A HA5 1AKFN PLACF
086
5AFF UILDING5
lh hoI weaIher, seIIihg acIioh o! cemehI is rapid, while ih
cold weaIher, iI is slow. 8roadly speakihg, ih hoI weaIher,
curihg o! masohry should be commehced wiIhih12 hours.
Curihg should be cohIihued up Io a mihimum period o! 7
days !rom daIe o! layihg o! masohry. However, ih case o!
masohry usihg rich cemehI morIar (1 : 4 or richer) wheh
sIrehgIh o! masohry is a special cohsideraIioh, period o!
curihg should be exIehded Io 10 days ih dry weaIher
(humidiIy less Ihah50 percehI).
lh hoI ahd dry weaIher waIer should be sprihkled 3 Iimes a
day, IhaI is, early morhihg, mid day ahd evehihg. lh hoI ahd
humid weaIher, waIerihg should be dohe Iwice (morhihg
ahd evehihg) ahd ihcold weaIher, ohce a day.
lh case o! masohry uhiIs havihg high shrihkage co-e!!iciehI, as !or example, cohcreIe blocks, sprihklihg o! waIer
should be dohe sparihgly soIhaI waIer a!!ecIs ohly Ihe sur!ace o! Ihe masohry.
ConIroI on WaII LengIh and uiIding HeighI
lhload bearihg wall cohsIrucIiohwiIhbricks ahd cohcreIe blocks,
Wall Ihickhess should hoI be kepI less Ihah200 mm
Wall heighI should hoI be more Ihah20 Iimes wall Ihickhess
LehgIho! wall beIweehcross walls should hoI be more Ihah40 Iimes wall Ihickhess
l! lehgIh o! wall is lohger Ihah 40 Iimes wall Ihickhess,
eiIher Ihe wall Ihickhess should be ihcreased or buIIress o!
!ull heighI should be provided aI 20 Iimes wall Ihickhess or
less aparI.
WALL
8U11RESS
087
5AFF UILDING5
1he lehgIh o! coursed-rubble masohry walls beIweeh cross walls should be limiIed Io 7 m. l! rooms lohger Ihah
7 mare heeded, a buIIress has Iobe provided aI ihIermediaIe poihIs hoI !arIher aparI Ihah5 m.
1he overall heighI o! load bearihg masohry buildihgs (usihg bricks ahd cohcreIe blocks) should be limiIed Io 4
sIoreys !or caIegory 8 IoDahd 3 sIoreys !or caIegory E. 1he sIorey heighI shall be resIricIed Io3.5 m. 1he Ihickhess
o! wall is Iobe desighed a!Ier rigorous ahalysis by sIrucIural ehgiheer.
Wheh buildihg wiIh sIohe as masohry uhiI ih courses, mihimumIhickhess o! walls !rompracIical cohsideraIiohs is
30 Io 40 cmdepehdihg upoh Iype ahd qualiIy o! sIohe used. 1he heighI o! Ihe coursed-rubble masohry walls ih
cemehI morIar should be resIricIed Io Iwo sIorey plus aIIic !or caIegory 8 Io Dahd Iwo sIorey wiIh !laI roo! or ohe
sIorey plus aIIic !or piIched roo! !or caIegory E. 1he sIorey heighI shall be resIricIed Io3.2 m.
onus PoinI
lh case o! simple buildihgs havihg ohe brick Ihick walls ahd rooms o! medium size, !ollowihg relaIioh geherally
holds well beIweehsIrehgIho! bricks ahd maximumhumber o! sIoreys:
1
2
3
1 sIorey + aIIic
3
4
3.5
7
10
Max ho. o! sIoreys
!or imporIahI bldgs
Max ho. o! sIoreys
!or oIher bldgs
8rick sIrehgIh
2
N/mm
Jargon usIing
Ah aIIic is space or room aI Iop o! Ihe buildihg, o!Ieh used !or sIorihg Ihihgs.
For halls exceedihg 8.0 mih lehgIh, sa!eIy ahd adequacy o! laIeral supporIs shall always
be checked by sIrucIural ahalysis.
1he size o! Ihe buIIress may be kepI o! uhi!orm
Ihickhess (equal Io Ihe Ihickhess o! wall) wiIh Iop
widIh equal Io Ihe Ihickhess o! wall ahd Ihe base
widIhequal Ioohe sixIho! wall heighI.
Key PoinI
CauIion
Openings in WaIIs
DOO5 AND WINDOW
FDUCF 1HFI LA1FAL LOAD F5I51ANCF
088
5AFF UILDING5
ConIroI Of Openings In earing WaIIs
1he guidelihes oh Ihe size ahd posiIioh o! opehihg are giveh below:
MihimumdisIahce !romIhe ihside corher o! ouIside wall (C) should be 230 mm!or caIegory 8 &Cahd 450 mm!or
caIegory D&E buildihgs
MaximumraIio o! IoIal lehgIh o! opehihg ahd lehgIh o! wall depehds oh Ihe humber o! sIoreys ahd caIegory o!
buildihg.
lh !ig,
IoIal lehgIh o! opehihgs ih wall o! lehgIh L1 = O1 + O2 + O3 ,
IoIal lehgIh o! opehihgs ih wall o! lehgIh L2 = O4 + O5
Mihimumpier widIh beIweeh Iwo cohsecuIive opehihgs (P) should be 450 mm!or caIegory 8 &Cahd 600 mm!or
caIegory D&E buildihgs
Mihimum verIical disIahce beIweeh Iwo opehihgs (H)
should be 600 mm!or all caIegories o! buildihgs
Maximum widIh o! opehihg o! vehIilaIor (V) should be
900 mm!or all caIegories o! buildihgs
0.55
0.46
0.37
0.50
0.37
0.33
1
2
3 or 4
8uildihg caIegory
8 & C D & E
No. o!
sIoreys
WALL LENC1H L1 WALL LENC1H L2
C
H
V
C
P
P P P
O1 O2 O3 O4 O5
ox Ihe Openings
1HA1 DO NO1 COMPLY WI1H
CODAL POVI5ION5
AII Openings
1OP OF
5HOULD F A1 1HF 5AMF LFVFL
089
5AFF UILDING5
Where opehihgs do hoI comply wiIh Ihe above guidelihes, Ihese should be boxed ih reih!orced cohcreIe wiIh
mihimum75 mmIhickhess ahd IwohighsIrehgIhde!ormed bars o! 10 mmdia as showhbelow.
All door ahd wihdowopehihgs wider Ihah 600 mmshould be provided wiIh verIical reih!orcemehI ih jambs. Re!er
NDMAguidelihes aIIached ihAppehdix !or deIails.
l! ah opehihg is exIehdihg !rom boIIom Io almosI Iop o! a sIorey, Ihus dividihg Ihe wall ihIo Iwo porIiohs, Ihe
porIioh oh eiIher side should be reih!orced wiIh horizohIal reih!orcemehI o! 2 Nos. 6 mm MS bars aI hoI more
Ihah 450 mm ihIervals ih 20 mm rich cemehI morIar 1: 3 ahd properly Iied Io verIical sIeel aI jambs, corhers or
juhcIioho! walls, where used.
Opehihgs ih ahy sIorey shall pre!erably have Iheir Iop aI Ihe
same level so IhaI a cohIihuous bahd could be provided over
Ihem, ihcludihg Ihe lihIels IhroughouI Ihe buildihg.
Where sIeel reih!orcihg bars are provided ih masohry Ihe bars shall be embedded
wiIh adequaIe cover ih cemehI sahd morIar hoI leaher Ihah 1 : 3 (mihimum clear
cover 10 mm) or ih cemehI cohcreIe o! grade M15 (mihimumclear cover 15 mmor
bar diameIer whichever more), soas Ioachieve good bohd ahd corrosiohresisIahce.
5eismic ands
DucIiliIy is Ihe abiliIy o! Ihe buildihg Io behd away ahd de!orm by large amouhIs wiIhouI serious damage or
collapse. 1he addiIioho! sIeel reih!orcemehI adds ducIiliIy IoIhe masohry, whichoIherwise is a briIIle maIerial.
POVIDING FINFOCING 51FFL IN MA5ONY A1
CI1ICAL 5FC1ION5 WILL NO1 ONLY INCFA5F I15
51FNG1H AND 51AILI1Y U1 AL5O DUC1ILI1Y
LlN1EL / LlN1EL 8AND
MlNlMUM 75 MM
RElNFORCEMEN1 ALL
AROUND OPENlNC
A A
OPENlNC
A = 40 DlA OF S1EEL 8AR
Key PoinI
un ConIinuousIy
HOIZON1AL AND5
ON ALL FX1FNAL AND IN1FNAL
WALL5 INCLUDING PA1I1ION WALL5
1ie a Masonry uiIding
HOIZON1AL AND5
A5 A CLO5FD FL1 1IF A CADOAD OX
090
5AFF UILDING5
Reih!orced cohcreIe horizohIal bahds are Ihe mosI imporIahI earIhquake-resisIahI !eaIures ihmasohry buildihgs.
1he bahds are provided ih walls aI criIical levels Io hold a masohry buildihg as a sihgle uhiI by Iyihg all Ihe walls
IogeIher.
Overall arrahgemehI o! provisioh o! seismic bahds ih !laI-roo! cohsIrucIioh is showh below:
LihIel bahd is a bahd provided aI lihIel level oh all load bearihg ihIerhal, exIerhal lohgiIudihal ahd cross walls.
Roo! bahd heed hoI be provided uhderheaIh reih!orced cohcreIe slabs resIihg oh load bearihg walls. For piIched
roo!s, ih addiIioh Io roo! bahd (also called eaves bahd), Ihe Iriahgular porIioh o! Ihe masohry aI Ihe ehds should
alsobe ehclosed iha bahd. 1his is called gable bahd.
Jargon usIing
8ahd is a reih!orced cohcreIe ruhher provided ih Ihe walls
Io Iie Ihem IogeIher ahd Io imparI horizohIal behdihg
sIrehgIhihIhem.
ROOF 8AND
LlN1EL 8AND
ClLL 8AND
PLlN1H 8AND
D D
W
D = DOOR , W = WlNDOW
LihIel bahd should be provided ih pahel or
parIiIioh walls also Io improve Iheir sIabiliIy
durihg severe earIhquake.
CA8LE 8AND
onus PoinI
l! Ihe wall heighI up Io eaves level is less Ihah or
equal Io 2.5 m, Ihe lihIel level bahd may be
omiIIed ahd Ihickhess o! lihIel is ihcreased Io
ihIegraIe wiIheaves level bahd.
EAVES 8AND
HElCH1 OF WALL
LESS 1HAN OR EQUAL
1O 2.5 M
LlN1EL
W = WlNDOW
Key PoinI
ConIinuiIy
OF FINFOCFMFN1 IN
AND5 I5 F55FN1IAL
5Iirrups in ands
AL5O HFLP 1O HOLD 1HF LONGI1UDINAL
A5 IN PO5I1ION
5AFF UILDING5
PlihIh bahd is a bahd provided aI plihIh level o! walls oh
Iop o! Ihe !ouhdaIioh wall. 1his bahd serves as damp proo!
course as well.
1he size ahd Ihe reih!orcemehI ih bahds depehd oh Ihe
lehgIh o! Ihe wall, imporIahce o! Ihe buildihg ahd
caIegory o! buildihg. Re!er NDMA guidelihes giveh ih
Appehdix !or deIails.
1he bahds should be made o! reih!orced cohcreIe o! grade hoI leaher Ihah M15. lh coasIal areas, Ihe cohcreIe
grade shall be M20. 1he bahds shall be o! Ihe !ull widIh o! Ihe wall, hoI less Ihah 75 mmih depIh. A clear cover o!
20 mm!rom!ace o! Ihe wall should be provided.
For !ull e!!ecIivehess o! bahds aI corhers ahd juhcIiohs o! walls cohIihuiIy o! reih!orcemehI is essehIial.
U-shaped blocks as showh beloware used !or cohsIrucIioh
o! horizohIal bahds aI various levels ih hollow block
masohry. Four bars shall be provided ahd amouhI o!
reih!orcemehI is ihcreased by 25 % as speci!ied !or oIher
masohry walls.
CROUND LEVEL
PLlN1H 8AND
FLOOR / PLlN1H
LEVEL
150 MM 1HlCK 8AND 75 MM 1HlCK 8AND
CORNER JUNC1lON 1- JUNC1lON
091
HorizohIal bahds as speci!ied above heed hoI be
provided !or masohry sIrucIures locaIed ih seismic
zohe ll ahd !or all RCC!ramed sIrucIures.
Key PoinI
092
5AFF UILDING5
VerIicaI einforcemenI In WaIIs
VerIical reih!orcemehI should be provided aI corhers ahd juhcIiohs o! walls. 1hese verIical bars should sIarI !rom
Ihe !ouhdaIioh cohcreIe, pass Ihrough all seismic bahds where Ihese should be Iied Io Ihe bahd reih!orcemehIs
O
usihg bihdihg wire ahd embedded IoIhe roo! bahd/roo! slab as Ihe case may be usihg a 300 mm90 behd.
1he area o! verIical reih!orcemehI ih walls depehds oh Ihe seismic zohe, imporIahce o! buildihg ahd humber o!
sIoreys. Re!er NDMAguidelihes givehihAppehdix !or deIails.
Wheh Ihe verIical reih!orcemehI heed Io be overlapped, ah overlap o! mihimumo!
50 Iimes Ihe bar diameIer should be provided. 1he Iwo overlapped reih!orcemehI
bars should be Iied IogeIher by usihg Ihe bihdihg wires.
For ihsIallaIioh o! verIical bars ih sIohe masohry, use o! PVC casihg pipe o! 100 mm
exIerhal dia, 600-750 mmlohg is recommehded arouhd which masohry be builI Io
heighI 450-600 mm ahd Ihe pipe made loose by gehIly roIaIihg. As Ihe masohry
hardehs, Ihe pipe is raised ahd Ihe caviIy !illed wiIh M20 cohcreIe ahd !ully
compacIed usihg sIeel bar.
VER1lCAL S1EEL 8AR
A1 CORNER
VER1lCAL S1EEL 8AR
A1 1-JUNC1lON
Providihg Ihe verIical bars ih Ihe brickwork ahd cohcreIe
blocks requires special Iechhiques which could be easily
learhI by Ihe supervisihg ehgiheers ahd Ihe masohs.
VER1lCAL S1EEL 8AR
lN S1ONE MASONRY
PVC CASlNC PlPE
CauIion
Loose Fnded
NFVF LFAVF VF1ICAL FINFOCFMFN1
093
5AFF UILDING5
lh hollowblock masohry, verIical reih!orcemehI bars shall be locaIed ihside Ihe caviIies o! Ihe hollowblocks, ohe
bar ih each caviIy. Where more Ihah ohe bar is plahhed Ihese cah be locaIed ih Iwo or Ihree cohsecuIive caviIies.
1he caviIies cohIaihihg bars are Iobe !illed by usihg cohcreIe mix 1 : 2 : 3 ahd properly rodded !or compacIioh.
For cohvehiehce o! providihg verIical reih!orcemehI ih
hollow ahd solid cohcreIe blocks, Ihese should be
made o! special shapes as showh.
1he size o! Ihe aggregaIes ih cohcreIe used !or !illihg
caviIies shall hoI be more Ihah 10 mm. Also, ehsure
IhaI cohcreIe has adequaIe workabiliIy.
HorizohIal bahds as speci!ied above heed hoI be
provided !or masohry sIrucIures locaIed ih seismic
zohe ll ahd !or all RCC!ramed sIrucIures.
CauIion
Key PoinI
094
5AFF UILDING5
5IrucIuraI Provisions for eams
Di!!erehI Iype o! supporIs ih beams? ahd classi!icaIioh o! beams
based ohIhe supporI cohdiIiohs.
Zohes o! Iehsiohahd compressiohihdi!!erehI Iype o! beams.
Codal provisiohs !or widIhahd depIho! beams.
Ceheral deIailihg requiremehIs IhaI heed Io !ollowed while
providihg Ihe reih!orcemehI ihbeams.
lmporIahI Iips !or deIailihg reih!orcemehI ih seismic zohes lll, lV
ahd V.
PermiIIed regiohs o! overlappihg ih beams !or Iop ahd boIIom
bars.
SIrucIural Provisiohs !or 8eams
095
5AFF UILDING5
1ype of 5upporIs
1here are maihly Iwo Iypes o! supporI - !ixed ahd
simple. AI a !ixed supporI, Ihe beamis held rigidly ahd
is resIraihed !rom roIaIioh. Whereas aI a simple
supporI Ihere is ho !ixiIy ahd beamis !ree Io roIaIe like
a hihge. lh pracIical siIuaIiohs, Ihe acIual supporI
cohdiIiohmay lie somewhere beIweehIhe Iwo.
FlXED SUPPOR1 SlMPLE SUPPOR1
Zones of 1ension and Compression
Simply SupporIed 8eams : Wheh a simply-supporIed
beamis loaded, iI Iehds Io sag or de!lecI. 1his causes
Iop o! Ihe beam Io compress ahd Ihe boIIom o! Ihe
beam Io sIreIch. 1his resulIs ih Iehsioh ih Ihe boIIom
!ibres ahd compressiohihIhe Iop !ibres o! Ihe beam.
Example: Sihgle spah beams wiIh boIh iIs ehds
supporIed ohbrick walls
Simple CahIilevers : Wheh a simple cahIilever beamis
loaded, iI Iehds Io droop or de!lecI. 1ehsioh occurs ih
Ihe Iop o! Ihe beam ahd compressioh ih Ihe boIIom.
CahIilever beams heed Iohave !ixed supporI.
Fixed-Ehd 8eams : lh !ixed-ehd beams, Iehsioh occurs aI boIIomo! Ihe beamih Ihe cehIral porIiohs ahd aI Iop o!
Ihe beamihIhe porIiohs close IoIhe supporIs.
Example: 8eams wiIhboIhiIs ehds moholiIhically casI wiIhcolumhs as ihRCC!rames
MulIi-spah beams (cohIihuous beams): lh a mulIi-spah beams, Iehsioh occurs aI boIIomih Ihe cehIral porIiohs o!
Ihe beamahd aI Iop ihIhe porIiohs closer IoIhe ihIerhal supporIs.
1ENSlON
COMPRESSlON
lN1ERNAL SUPPOR1
ImporIanI ParameIer
DFP1H OF FAM I5 AN
FOM FCONOMIC CON5IDFA1ION5 A5 WFLL
096
5AFF UILDING5
1ehsioh regiohs hear Ihe exIerhal supporIs ih mulIi-
spahbeams depehd ohIhe ehd cohdiIiohs.
Jargon usIing
Ehd cohdiIiohs meah Iype o! exIerhal supporIs simple or !ixed.
WidIh and DepIh of Ihe eam
1he widIh o! Ihe beam should hever be less Ihah 200 mm. From archiIecIural cohsideraIiohs, Ihe widIh o! Ihe
beamis geherally kepI equal IoIhe Ihickhess o! Ihe wall. For larger spahbeams, Ihe widIho! Ihe beamheeds Iobe
more Ioavoid cohgesIioho! reih!orcemehI.
Codes provide rigorous provisiohs !or calculaIihg Ihe depIh o! Ihe beam. PracIically, iI varies !rom spah/12 Io
spah/10. 1he beamshould pre!erably have a widIh-Io-depIhraIioo! more Ihah0.3.
Jargon usIing
Where beams are casI alohg wiIh a reih!orced
cohcreIe slab, Ihe overall depIh o! Ihe beam is
measured !romIop o! Ihe slab IoboIIomo! Ihe beam.
DepIh o! Ihe beam is decided by sIrucIural desigher
a!Ier Iakihg ihIo accouhI !acIors like loads ahd spah o!
Ihe beam. 1he amouhI o! reih!orcemehI ih beam is
direcIly relaIed IodepIho! beam.
SLA8
8EAM
OVERALL
DEP1H
D
WlD1H
einforcemenI in eams
8eams have Iwo seIs o! sIeel reih!orcemehI, hamely: (a) lohg sIraighI bars (called lohgiIudihal bars) placed alohg
iIs lehgIh, ahd (b) closed loops o! small diameIer sIeel bars (called sIirrups) placed verIically aI regular ihIervals
alohg iIs !ull lehgIh.
1RANSVERSE
RElNFORCEMEN1
LONCl1UDlNAL
RElNFORCEMEN1
FAM
LONGI1UDINAL FINFOCFMFN1 IN 1FN5ION
ZONF I5 CALLFD 1FN5ION FINFOCFMFN1
AND IN COMPF55ION ZONF I5 CALLFD
COMPF55ION FINFOCFMFN1
Key PoinI
Spah o! Ihe beam is Ihe disIahce beIweeh Ihe supporIs.
As ImporIanI As
DF1AILING OF FINFOCFMFN1 I5
ANALY5I5 AND DF5IGN OF CC MFMFF5
097
5AFF UILDING5
LohgiIudihal reih!orcemehI is provided ih Ihe Iehsioh zohes Io resisI Ihe Iehsile !orces. lI is also provided ih Ihe
compressioh zohe Io ihcrease Ihe capaciIy o! beam, Io ihcrease Ihe ducIiliIy ahd Io supporI Ihe Irahsverse
reih!orcemehI. AI leasI Iwo bars should go Ihrough Ihe !ull lehgIh o! Ihe beamaI Ihe Iop as well as Ihe boIIomo!
Ihe beam.
1he area o! sIeel reih!orcemehI is calculaIed by sIrucIural
desigher a!Ier deIailed ahalysis ahd desigh. 8esides
proper desigh cohsideraIiohs, suiIable deIailihg !or sIeel
reih!orcemehI musI be adopIed so as Io obIaih adequaIe
ducIiliIy.
LohgiIudihal reih!orcemehI should hoI be IermihaIed
ih Iehsioh zohe.
onus PoinI
8esides lohgiIudihal ahd Irahsverse reih!orcemehI, side !ace
reih!orcemehI is also someIimes provided ih beams. 1he provisioh
o! side !ace reih!orcemehI is decided by sIrucIural desigher based
oh sIrucIural cohsideraIiohs. However, iI musI be provided ih
beams more Ihah750 mmIhick.
SlDE FACE
RElNFORCEMEN1
MisceIIaneous DeIaiIing 1ips
O
8oIh ehds o! Ihe verIical sIirrups should be behI ihIo a 135 hook
ahd exIehded a disIahce o! 10 Iimes diameIer o! bar beyohd Ihis
hook Io ehsure IhaI Ihe sIirrup does hoI opeh ouI ih ah earIhquake.
For seismic zohe ll, Ihe exIehsioh beyohd Ihe hook heeds Io be 6
Iimes Ihe bar diameIer.
1he spacihg o! verIical sIirrups ih ahy porIioh o! Ihe beamshould be
deIermihed !romcalculaIiohs.
1he maximum spacihg o! Irahsverse reih!orcemehI should hoI
exceed 0.75d, where d is Ihe e!!ecIive depIh o! Ihe secIioh uhder
cohsideraIioh. lhhocase should Ihe spacihg exceed 300 mm.
O
135
10 1lMES
DlAME1ER OF
S1lRRUP
>
Jargon usIing
E!!ecIive depIh is Ihe depIh o! beam as measured !rom exIreme
compressioh !ibre Io Ihe cehIre o! lohgiIudihal reih!orcemehI oh
Iehsioh !ace. lI is dehoIed as d. NoIe IhaI Ihe overall depIh o! Ihe
beamis dehoIed as D.
SLA8
8EAM
EFFEC1lVE
DEP1H
d
CauIion
98
5AFF UILDING5
FirsI verIical sIirrup should be provided aI a disIahce
hoI exceedihg 50 mm!romIhe columh!ace.
Codal requiremehIs wiIh regard Io spacihg o! verIical sIirrups
!or seismic zohes lll, lVahd Vare givehihIhe hexI secIioh.
lh ah exIerhal joihI boIh Ihe Iop ahd boIIombars o! Ihe beam
should be provided wiIh ahchorage lehgIh beyohd Ihe ihher
!ace o! columh equal Io developmehI lehgIh plus 10 Iimes Ihe
bar diameIer. For seismic zohe ll, ahchorage lehgIh heeds Io be
equal Io developmehI lehgIh ohly. AI Ihe ihIerhal joihI, Ihe
beam reih!orcemehI should be passed Ihrough wiIhouI
ahchorihg ihIhe joihI.
Ld + 10
= DlA OF 1HE 8AR
Ld + 10
1he !uhdamehIal requiremehI !or developmehI o!
reih!orcihg bars is IhaI a reih!orcihg bar musI be
embedded ih cohcreIe a su!!iciehI disIahce oh each
side o! Ihe criIical secIioh Io develop Ihe peak Iehsioh
or compressioh!orce ihIhe bar aI Ihe secIioh.
1he sIeel reih!orcemehI should also be provided aI Ihe boIIom !ace o! Ihe cahIilever Io Iake care o! reversal o!
sIresses IhaI may happeh durihg earIhquakes. 1he amouhI o! reih!orcemehI aI boIIom !ace should be aI leasI
50% o! IhaI aI Ihe Iop. For seismic zohe ll, Ihe amouhI o! reih!orcemehI aI boIIom!ace heeds Io be 25% o! IhaI aI
Ihe Iop.
WidIh o! Ihe beam should hoI exceed Ihe widIh o! Ihe
supporIihg columh.
Jargon usIing
Uhder hormal circumsIahces, Ihe Iehsioh zohe ih a cahIilever is
aI Iop. However, durihg earIhquakes Iehsioh may occur aI Ihe
boIIom!ace. 1his is called reversal o! sIresses.
Vl8RA1lONS lN CAN1lLEVER
DURlNC EAR1HQUAKE
CauIion
Key PoinI
COLUMN
8EAM
NoIe
NoI e FuIIy FffecIive
51FFL FINFOCFMFN1 WILL
UNLF55 I1 I5 FULLY DFVFLOPFD Y POVIDING
5UFFICIFN1 ANCHOAGF
Make 5ure 1haI
ALL FINFOCFMFN1 CAN F POPFLY
PLACFD A1 FAM IN1F5FC1ION5
99
5AFF UILDING5
Spacer bars are provided beIweeh Iwo layers o!
reih!orcemehI. Dia o! Ihe spacer bars is mehIiohed oh
sIrucIural drawihgs. lI should hever be less Ihah Ihe
diameIer o! Ihe lohgiIudihal bars.
PLAN
A Iypical arrahgemehI o! reih!orcemehI aI Ihe supporI
wheh Ihe beams oh eiIher side o! Ihe supporI are o!
di!!erehI depIhs is showhbelow.
Opehihgs ih Ihe beamare someIimes required !or crossihg Ihe service lihes. PrecauIiohs should be Iakeh agaihsI
ahy damage Io Ihe sIrucIural compohehIs while doihg sahiIary ahd plumbihg jobs. Shi!Iihg, IwisIihg or cuIIihg
Ihe Irahsverse rihgs IoaccommodaIe Ihese pipes is hoI desirable.
Opehihgs ih Ihe beam may ihIer!ere wiIh Ihe
sIrucIural behaviour o! Ihe beam. Where ever pipes
have Io cross sIrucIural elemehIs, advise o! Ihe
sIrucIural desigher should be Iakeh.
AddiIionaI DeIaiIing for DucIiIiIy
AddiIiohal ducIiliIy requiremehIs ih beams ih seismic zohes lll, lV ahd V will be deemed Io be saIis!ied i! Ihe
codal provisiohs !or lohgiIudihal ahd Irahsverse reih!orcemehI as givehbeloware achieved.
Near supporIs, Ihe amouhI o! lohgiIudihal sIeel provided aI Ihe boIIomshould be aI leasI hal! IhaI aI Iop.
lI is a good pracIice Io keep widIh o! Ihe beamharrower Ihah Ihe widIh o! Ihe columh by 50 mm. 1his helps ih
good deIailihg o! reih!orcemehI aI Ihe ihIersecIioho! beams.
COLUMN
8EAM
CohgesIioh o! bars should be avoided aI poihIs where
beams ihIersecI. lI is good pracIice Io make secohdary
beams shallower Ihahmaihbeams evehby 50 mm.
CauIion
SPACER 8AR
eIIer Io Avoid
A1 COLUMN-FAM IN1F5FC1ION, I1 I5
FAM A5 cIashingWI1H COLUMN A5
As ImporIanI As
5PACING OF 1AN5VF5F FINFOCFMFN1 I5
UAN1I1Y 1O F POVIDFD
100
5AFF UILDING5
1he code prescribes Ihe !ollowihg requiremehIs relaIed Io spacihg o! sIirrups ih reih!orced cohcreIe beams:
For a lehgIh o! Iwice Ihe depIh o! Ihe beam !rom Ihe !ace o! Ihe columh, Ihe spacihg o! Ihe sIirrups
should hoI exceed d/4 or 8 Iimes Ihe diameIer o! bar, where d is Ihe e!!ecIive depIh o! Ihe beam. However,
iI heed hoI be less Ihah100 mm.
1he maximumspacihg o! sIirrups ihIhe balahce porIiohshould hoI exceed d/2
DeIailihg o! reih!orcemehI as described above Io
achieve ducIiliIy is hoI required ih case o! beams
supporIed oh brick walls ahd !or RCC !ramed
sIrucIures ihseismic zohe ll.
OverIapping egions in eams
SIeel reih!orcemehI bars are available usually ih lehgIhs o! 12-14m. However, aI Iimes, iI become hecessary Io
overlap bars. AI Ihe locaIioho! Ihe lap, Ihe bars Irahs!er large !orces !romohe IoahoIher. 1he code prescribes IhaI
laps should hoI be made aI locaIiohs where Ihey are likely IosIreIchby large amouhIs.
For lohgiIudihal reih!orcemehI aI boIIom !ace o! a mulIi-spah beam, lap splices should hoI be provided wiIhih
joihI, wiIhiha disIahce o! 2 d !romjoihI !ace, ahd hear Ihe cehIre o! Ihe beam
For lohgiIudihal reih!orcemehI aI Iop !ace o! a mulIi-spah beam, lap splices should hoI be provided wiIhih joihI
ahd wiIhiha disIahce o! 2 d !romjoihI !ace
Laps should be away !rom Ihe secIiohs o! maximum
sIresses.
2 d 2 d
d
COLUMN
FACE
COLUMN
FACE
Key PoinI
OVERLAPPlNC REClONS FOR 8O11OM 8ARS
OVERLAPPlNC REClON FOR 1OP 8ARS
2 d
2 d
2 d
2 d
8EAM
COLUMN
FACE
COLUMN
FACE
CauIion
5houId Never e
CON51UC1ION JOIN15 IN FAM5
A1 5UPPO15
5Iaggered
LengIh of Ihe Lap
5HALL F FUAL 1O 1HF DFVFLOPMFN1 LFNG1H O
3O 1IMF5 1HF DIA OF A, WHICHFVF I5 GFA1F
101
5AFF UILDING5
KlNK FOR
OVERLAPPlNC
Lap splice should hoI be provided Io lohgiIudihal reih!orcemehI aI Iop !ace o! a cahIilever beamwiIhih a disIahce
o! hal! Ihe lehgIho! Ihe cahIilever !romjoihI !ace.
NoI more Ihah 50 percehI o! bars should
be spliced aI ohe secIioh.
Jargon usIing
A joih beIweeh Iwo pieces o! sIeel bars so IhaI Ihey !orm ohe lohg piece is called splice.
1he spacihg o! Irahsverse reih!orcemehI ih Ihe overlappihg
zohe should hoI be more Ihah150 mm.
8ars Io be overlapped heed Io be !acihg each oIher
alohg ohe lihe ahd ohe o! Ihe bars should be kihked
over Ihe secohd bar. 1he slope o! Ihe kihk should hoI
be more Ihah 1 ih 10. For example, kihk !or a 20 mm
dia bar should be provided ih a disIahce o! 200 mm.
Sideways lappihg o! bars should hoI be dohe.
ConsIrucIion JoinIs In eams
All beams should be !illed !romIhe beamboIIomIo Ihe Iop o! slab ih ohe cohIihuous operaIioh. Work should be
so plahhed IhaI, as !ar as possible, Ihere is ho cohsIrucIioh joihI ih Ihe beam. However, i! absoluIely hecessary, Ihe
locaIioho! cohsIrucIiohjoihIs should be wiIhihIhe middle Ihird o! Ihe beam.
lh case Ihere is a cross beam ihIercepIihg Ihe maih beam,
Ihe cohsIrucIioh joihI ih Ihe maih beam is o!!seI by a
disIahce o! aI leasI Iwice Ihe widIho! Ihe cross beam.
Key PoinI
onus PoinI
LAP LENC1H
SPAClNC OF S1lRRUPS lN
OVERLAPPlNC REClON = 150 MM
102
5AFF UILDING5
5IrucIuraI Provisions for CoIumns
SIrucIural behaviour o! columhs.
Codal provisiohs wiIhrespecI Iodimehsiohs o! columhs.
lmporIahce o! Irahsverse reih!orcemehI ih columhs ahd codal
provisiohs !or Irahsverse reih!orcemehI.
lmporIahI Iips !or deIailihg reih!orcemehI ih seismic zohes lll, lV
ahd V.
PermiIIed regiohs o! overlappihg ihcolumhs.
Meahihg o! Ierm 'shorI columhs' ahd provisiohs o! Irahsverse
reih!orcemehI ihshorI columhs.
SIrucIural Provisiohs !or Columhs
CoIumn 5ize
I5 DIC1A1FD Y FOCF5 1HA1 MAY AC1
ON 1HF COLUMN DUING I15 5FVICF LIFF
More Prone Io uckIing
1ALL, 1HIN COLUMN5 AF
1HAN 5HO1, 51OCKY COLUMN5
103
5AFF UILDING5
5IrucIuraI ehaviour of CoIumns
Columh, Ihe verIical member ih reih!orced cohcreIe buildihgs
supporIs Ihe beams. Figure shows a columh supporIihg a series
o! beams. 1he load oh Ihe columh chahges quiIe sighi!icahIly
as Ihe loads oh Ihe beams chahge. Hehce Ihe columh could
behd ihahy direcIiohdepehdihg ohIhe loads ohbeams.
1he columhs Iehd Io buckle
because o! uheveh disIribuIioh o!
Ihe loads, Iheir slehderhess ahd
laIeral loads ohIhem.
Jargon usIing
1he Iehdehcy o! columh Io behd is Iermed as bucklihg. 1he
Ierm slehder is used Io ihdicaIe Ihih secIiohs. HeighI o! Ihe
columh divided by iIs shorIesI dimehsioh ihdicaIes Ihe
slehderhess o! Ihe columh.
8EAM
8EAM
8EAM
8EAM
COLUMN
8ENDlNC /
8UCKLlNC
OF COLUMN
8EAM FACE /
SUPPOR1
8EAM FACE
Dimensions of CoIumns
1he required size o! Ihe columh is calculaIed by sIrucIural
desigher a!Ier rigorous sIrucIural ahalysis. 1he mihimum
dimehsioh o! columh shall be 200 mm. However ih !rames
where spah o! supporIihg beam exceeds 5 m, or uhsupporIed
lehgIh o! columh exceeds 4 m, Ihe shorIesI dimehsioh shall hoI
be less Ihah300 mm.
RaIio o! shorIer dimehsioh Io Ihe
lohger dimehsioh shall pre!erably be
hoI less Ihah0.4.
einforcemenI in CoIumns
Columhs require lohgiIudihal reih!orcemehI Io carry axial !orces sa!ely wiIhouI bucklihg. Sihce, ih pracIice,
Ihe load disIribuIioh oh a columh may chahge durihg iIs service li!e, iI is hormal Io provide symmeIrical
lohgiIudihal reih!orcemehI ohopposiIe !aces o! a columhIoehsure IhaI iI is able Iocarry Ihe loads.
Key PoinI
A Minimum Number
OF 4 A5 5HALL F POVIDFD IN FC1ANGULA
COLUMN5 AND 6 A5 IN CICULA COLUMN5
5hear FaiIure
I5 I11LF AND MU51 F AVOIDFD IN COLUMN5
104
5AFF UILDING5
Columhs are also prohe Io shear !ailure ih horizohIal
direcIioh due Io laIeral loads caused by earIhquake or
wihd. 1rahsverse reih!orcemehI ih Ihe !orm o! sIirrups is
provided ihcolumhs Ioper!ormIhe !ollowihg !uhcIiohs:
LONCl1UDlNAL
RElNFORCEMEN1
1RANSVERSE
RElNFORCEMEN1
COLUMN
1rahsverse reih!orcemehI is provided ih Ihe !ormo! closed
Iies ahd opehIies.
O
8oIh ehds o! Ihe closed Iie should be behI ihIo a 135 hook
ahd exIehded a disIahce o! 10 Iimes diameIer o! bar
beyohd Ihis hook Io ehsure IhaI Ihe sIirrup does hoI opeh
ouI ih ah earIhquake. For seismic zohe ll, Ihe exIehsioh
beyohd Ihe hook heeds Iobe 6 Iimes Ihe bar diameIer.
Opeh Iie heed Io go arouhd boIh verIical bar ahd
horizohIal closed Iie as showhabove.
1he required reih!orcemehI ih columh is calculaIed by sIrucIural desigher a!Ier deIailed ahalysis o! Ihe sIrucIure
ahd Iakihg ihIoaccouhI Ihe mihimumahd maximumreih!orcemehI prescribed ihIhe codes.
MisceIIaneous DeIaiIing 1ips
LohgiIudihal bars shall hoI be less Ihah 12 mmih diameIer
ahd spacihg o! Ihe bars alohg Ihe periphery shall hoI
exceed 300 mm.
1he spacihg o! Irahsverse reih!orcemehI shall hoI be more Ihah Ihe leasI o! Ihe !ollowihg disIahces: Smaller
dimehsioh o! Ihe columh, 6 x smallesI diameIer o! lohgiIudihal reih!orcemehI, ahd 48 x diameIer o!
Irahsverse reih!orcemehI
1oresisI horizohIal shear,
ResIraih Ihe lohgiIudihal reih!orcemehI !rom
bucklihg,
CohIaih Ihe cohcreIe ih Ihe columh wiIhih Ihe closed
loops, ahd
Hold Ihe maih reih!orcemehI !irmly ih place durihg
cohcreIihg.
10d
OPEN 1lE
CLOSED 1lE
5peciaI Care is equired
1O IMPLFMFN1 POPF FNDING OF 1IF5 A1 5I1F
105
5AFF UILDING5
Codal requiremehIs !or spacihg o! verIical sIirrups !or seismic zohes lll, lV ahd V are giveh ih Ihe hexI secIioh.
ArrahgemehI o! Irahsverse reih!orcemehI : ArrahgemehI o! Irahsverse reih!orcemehI ih columhs is ohe o! Ihe
mosI imporIahI ahd mosI misuhdersIood parameIer. Proper arrahgemehI o! Irahsverse reih!orcemehI ehsures
IhaI all lohgiIudihal reih!orcemehI bars have ahe!!ecIive supporI agaihsI bucklihg. 1oachieve Ihis code prescribes
Ihe !ollowihg rules:
Wheh Ihe disIahce beIweeh Ihe ihdividual lohgiIudihal bars is less Ihah 75 mm, closed Iies heed Io be
provided arouhd corher ahd alIerhaIe lohgiIudihal bars ohly.
Wheh Ihe disIahce beIweeh Ihe ihdividual lohgiIudihal bars is more Ihah 75 mm, closed Iies heed Io be
provided arouhd all lohgiIudihal ohly.
However, i! Ihe disIahce beIweeh Ihe lohgiIudihal bars arouhd which closed Iie is provided is less Iheh 48
Iimes Ihe dia o! Irahsverse reih!orcemehI, Iheh opeh Iies heed Io be provided !or ahy addiIiohal
lohgiIudihal bars beIweehIhese bars.
Followihg siIuaIiohs happehvery o!IehaI siIe:
Wheha columhaI a parIicular !loor is smaller IhahIhe columhbelowiI, ahd
WhehIhe bar arrahgemehI chahges beIweehdi!!erehI !loors
Each o! Ihe above siIuaIiohs is uhique ahd requires iIs owh soluIioh. CohsulI your sIrucIural ehgiheer !or soluIioh
ihIhese siIuaIiohs, i! Ihe same are hoI adequaIely deIailed ihsIrucIural drawihgs.
AddiIionaI DeIaiIing for DucIiIiIy
AddiIiohal ducIiliIy requiremehIs ih columhs ih seismic zohes lll, lV ahd V will be deemed Io be saIis!ied i! Ihe
codal provisiohs !or Irahsverse reih!orcemehI as givehbeloware achieved.
DlS1ANCE 8E1WEEN 8ARS
LESS 1HAN 75 MM
Wl1H CLOSED LOOPS AROUND 1HEM
LESS 1HAN 48 1lMES DlA OF 1lE
MORE 1HAN 75 MM
NoIe
Confining egion
DI51ANCF OVF WHICH CLO5FLY 5PACFD
1IF5 AF POVIDFD I5 CALLFD
106
5AFF UILDING5
Closely spaced Iies have Io be provided aI Ihe boIh ehds o!
Ihe columh over a lehgIh IhaI shall hoI be less Ihah Ihe
maximum o! Ihe !ollowihg disIahces: larger dimehsioh o!
Ihe columh, ohe-sixIhIhe columhheighI, ahd 450 mm.
1he code prescribes Ihe !ollowihg requiremehIs relaIed Io
spacihg o! sIirrups ihreih!orced cohcreIe columhs:
1he verIical spacihg o! Iies ih Ihe coh!ihihg regiohs o!
columhs shall hoI exceed 0.25 x shorIer dimehsioh or
100 mm, whichever is less. 1his spacihg heed hoI be
less Ihah75 mm.
1he maximum spacihg o! sIirrups ih Ihe balahce
porIioh should hoI exceed hal! o! Ihe shorIer
dimehsioh.
CONFlNlNC
REClON
CONFlNlNC
REClON
8EAM FACE
8EAM FACE
Wheha columhIermihaIes ihIoa !ooIihg, special coh!ihihg
reih!orcemehI shall be exIehded aI leasI 300 mm ih Io Ihe
!ooIihg.
MlNlMUM
300 MM
Jargon usIing
Provisioh o! closely spaced Iies is called special coh!ihihg reih!orcemehI.
OverIapping egions
Due Io Ihe limiIaIiohs ih available lehgIh o! bars ahd
due Io cohsIraihIs ih cohsIrucIioh, Ihe columh bars
heed Io be overlapped. Lap splices shall be provided
ohly ihIhe cehIral hal! o! Ihe columhlehgIh.
AI Ihe locaIiohs o! laps, Iies shall be provided aI a closer spacihg over ehIire splice lehgIh aI spacihg hoI
exceedihg 150 mm.
ConsIrucIion Drawings
WI1H CLFA DF1AIL5 OF CLO5FD 1IF5 AF HFLPFUL
IN 1HF FFFFC1IVF IMPLFMFN1A1ION
A1 CON51UC1ION 5I1F
LengIh of Ihe Lap
5HALL F FUAL 1O 1HF DFVFLOPMFN1
LFNG1H O 3O 1IMF5 1HF DIA OF A,
WHICHFVF I5 GFA1F
107
5AFF UILDING5
NoI more Ihah 50 percehI o! bars shall be
spliced aI ohe secIioh.
lh columhs where lohgiIudihal bars are o!!seI
aI a splice, Ihe slope o! Ihe ihclihed porIioh o!
Ihe bar wiIh Ihe axis o! Ihe columh shall hoI
exceed 1 ih6.
KlNK FOR
OVERLAPPlNC
5horI CoIumn FffecI
Wheh ih!ill walls wiIh wide opehihgs are aIIached Io Ihe
columhs, Ihe ih!ill walls resIraih Ihe porIioh o! Ihe columh.
HeighI o! balahce porIioh o! Ihe columh becomes very
shorI as compared Io hormal heighI columhs. 1his shorIer
heighI columh IhaI will how de!orm uhder laIeral seismic
loads is called shorI columh.
SHOR1
COLUMN
OIher siIuaIiohs IhaI may resulI ih shorI columh are showh below.
lI was seeh durihg pasI earIhquakes IhaI i! a reih!orced cohcreIe (RC) !rame
buildihg had columhs o! di!!erehI heighIs wiIhih ohe sIorey, Iheh shorIer
columhs were damaged more IhahIaller columhs ihIhe same sIorey.
Key PoinI
Key PoinI
8UlLDlNC ON
SLOPED CROUND
8UlLDlNC Wl1H
MEZZANlNE FLOOR
5Iaggered
Provide 5peciaI
CONFINING FINFOCFMFN1 FO
5HO1 COLUMN5
5ignificanI Damage
5HO1 COLUMN5 5UFFF
DUING AN FA1HUAKF, IF NO1 ADFUA1FLY DF5IGNFD
108
5AFF UILDING5
8ehaviour o! shorI columh : Wheh laIeral !orce is applied Io move a shorIer ahd a Ialler
columhby Ihe same amouhI horizohIally, larger laIeral !orce is required !or shorIer columh.
Wheh Ihe buildihg shakes horizohIally durihg ah earIhquake, a
larger earIhquake !orce is required Io move shorIer columh. 1he
shorIer columh is said Io be aIIracIihg larger earIhquake !orce as
compared Io Ialler columh. 1his is called shorI-columh e!!ecI. l!
shorI ahd Iall columhs exisI wiIhih Ihe same sIorey level, Iheh Ihe
shorI columhs aIIracI several Iimes larger earIhquake !orce ahd geI
damaged more compared IoIaller ohes.
1he code prescribes IhaI special coh!ihihg reih!orcemehI (i.e.,
closely spaced Iies) shall be provided over Ihe !ull heighI o! columhs
IhaI are likely IosusIaihshorI columhe!!ecI.
Open Ground 5Iorey uiIdings
1he RC !ramed sIrucIures where Ihe grouhd sIorey is le!I opeh
wiIhouI ahy parIiIioh walls beIweeh Ihe columhs are called Opeh
Crouhd SIorey buildihgs or, buildihg ohsIilIs.
1he code speci!ies higher desigh !orces !or Ihe columhs o! opeh
grouhd sIorey as compared Io Ihe resI o! Ihe sIrucIure. AdequaIe
sIrucIural desighaspecIs are Iakehcare o! by sIrucIural desigher.
l! Ihe columhs ih Ihe opeh grouhd sIorey do hoI have Ihe required sIrehgIh Io
resisI high sIresses due Io earIhquake loads or i! Ihey do hoI have adequaIe
ducIiliIy, Ihey may geI severely damaged which may eveh lead Io collapse o! Ihe
buildihg.
Dahgerous e!!ecIs o! !lexible ahd weak grouhd sIoreys
cah be reduced by ehsurihg IhaI Ioo mahy walls are
hoI discohIihued ih Ihe grouhd sIorey, i.e., Ihe drop ih
sIi!!hess ahd sIrehgIh ih Ihe grouhd sIorey level is hoI
abrupI due IoIhe absehce o! ih!ill walls.
Key PoinI
109
5AFF UILDING5
5IrucIuraI Provisions For 5Iabs
CaIegorizaIioh o! slabs based oh Ihe spah ih lohger ahd shorIer
direcIioh.
1ehsiohregiohs ihohe-way, Iwo-way ahd cahIilever slabs.
Ceheral provisiohs !or Ihickhess o! slabs.
Ceheral reih!orcemehI deIailihg Iips ihdi!!erehI Iypes o! slabs.
Codal provisiohs wiIhrespecI Iospacihg o! bars ihslabs.
SIrucIural Provisiohs For Slabs
110
5AFF UILDING5
5IrucIuraI Provisions for 5Iabs
1he ih!ormaIioh giveh ih Ihis secIioh relaIes Io ohe-way ahd Iwo-way solid slabs ohly.
Zones Of 1ension In 5Iabs
A slab IhaI is supporIed ohly oh Iwo opposiIe sides by
eiIher walls or beams behds beIweeh Ihe supporIs. 1here is
ho behdihg ih Ihe oIher direcIioh. 1he slab is said Io be
spahhihg ihohe direcIiohahd is called ohe-way slab.
1he slab is cohsidered as spahhihg ih Iwo direcIiohs wheh
iI is supporIed oh all !our sides ahd lohger spah does hoI
exceed Iwo Iimes iIs shorIer spah. 1he slab behds alohg
boIh Ihe direcIiohs. 1he behdihg acIioh will be more
predomihahI alohg shorIer direcIioh.
1he slab is cohsidered as spahhihg ih ohe direcIioh eveh
wheh iI is supporIed oh all !our sides, i! lohger spah
exceeds Iwo Iimes iIs shorIer spah. 1he slab behds ih
shorIer direcIioh.
Due Io behdihg o! slab beIweeh Ihe supporIs, Iehsioh occurs ih Ihe boIIom !ibres o! cohcreIe ih Ihe cehIral
regiohs.
1ehsioh also occurs ih Ihe Iop !ibres o! cohcreIe aI ihIerhal supporIs ih mulIi-spah slabs ahd aI exIerhal supporIs,
whehIhe slab is resIraihed hear supporIs.
8ehdihg acIioh ih slabs is similar Io Ihe behdihg acIioh
ih beams wiIh Ihe di!!erehce IhaI behdihg occurs ih
boIhIhe direcIiohs ihIwo-way slabs.
Jargon usIing
Wheh Ihe slab is supporIed oh brick walls, Ihe supporIs correspohd Io simple supporIs. However, Ihe slab
supporIed ohRCbeams is parIially resIraihed aI supporIs.
CahIilever slabs like balcohies ahd chajjas, are supporIed ohly ohe side ahd Iehsioh occurs ih Ihe Iop !ibres o!
cohcreIe.
Key PoinI
NoIe
111
5AFF UILDING5
onus PoinI
Reih!orcemehI is provided ih Ihe Iehsioh regiohs o! Ihe slab. Ceherally, compressioh zohes aI Iop o! slab do hoI
require ahy reih!orcemehI. Compressive !orces are Iakehup by cohcreIe.
1hickness of 5Iabs
1he Ihickhess o! slab is calculaIed by sIrucIural desigher a!Ier Iakihg ihIo cohsideraIiohs !acIors like exposure
cohdiIiohs, ehd cohdiIiohs, spah o! slab ih boIh direcIiohs, loads, de!lecIioh limiIs eIc. 1he mihimumIhickhess o!
slabs !or various exposure cohdiIiohs is as per Ihe !ollowihg Iable:
Jargon usIing
Ehd cohdiIiohs meah Ihe Iype o! supporIs simple,
resIraihed, ho supporI, cohIihuous or dis-cohIihuous.
CohIihuous supporI meahs IhaI slab is cohIihuous over
Ihis supporI.
onus PoinI
Durihg cohcreIihg, Ihe correcI Ihickhess o! slab should be
checked usihg a depIh gauge as showh below. lI is made
ouI o! behI reih!orcemehI rod correspohdihg Io Ihe
Ihickhess o! slab.
DEP1H
CAUCE
einforcemenI DeIaiIing 1ips In 5Iabs
Reih!orcemehI ih ohe-way slab: Reih!orcemehI provided ih Ihe direcIioh o! behdihg is called Ihe maih
reih!orcemehI. 1he reih!orcemehI ih Ihe oIher direcIioh is called disIribuIioh reih!orcemehI. DisIribuIioh
reih!orcemehI assisIs ih disIribuIioh o! Ihe sIresses caused by Ihe loadihg ahd resisI IemperaIure chahges ahd
shrihkage.
Ceheral deIails o! Ihe slab spahhihg ih ohe direcIioh are
showh below. AlIerhaIe bars o! Ihe maih reih!orcemehI
are behI up hear supporIs aI a disIahce o! 0.1 Iimes spah as
showh. DisIribuIioh reih!orcemehI is also provided Io
supporI Ihe Iop reih!orcemehI hear supporIs.
MAlN
RElNFORCEMN1
DlS1Rl8U1lON
RElNFORCEMN1
SUPPOR1
SUPPOR1
0.1 X SPAN
Each bar o! Ihe mai h
reih!orcemehI is sIraighI aI
ohe edge ahd behI up aI Ihe
oIher edge.
110
110
120
Mild
ModeraIe
Severe
Mih Ihickhess o!
slab (mm)
Exposure
cohdiIioh
Key PoinI
5Iaggered
FN1 UP A5 FOM 1HF
ADJACFN1 5PAN5 5HOULD F
1ension einforcemenI
5HALL NO1 F 1FMINA1FD IN
A 1FN5ION ZONF
112
5AFF UILDING5
1he maih reih!orcemehI is provided ih Ihe boIIomlayer. DisIribuIioh reih!orcemehI
is Iied wiIhIhe maihsIeel bars Iokeep IhemihcorrecI posiIiohdurihg cohcreIihg.
Reih!orcemehI ih Iwo-way slab: 8ehdihg acIioh ih Iwo-way slabs occurs ih boIh Ihe direcIiohs. Reih!orcemehI
provided ih boIh Ihe direcIiohs is called Ihe maih reih!orcemehI. 8ehdihg o! slab ahd cohsequehI Iehsioh will be
more ihshorIer direcIiohIhahihlohger direcIiohihIwo-way slabs.
Ceheral deIails o! Ihe slab spahhihg ih Iwo direcIiohs are
showh below. AlIerhaIe bars o! Ihe maih reih!orcemehI
are behI up hear supporIs aI a disIahce o! 0.1 Iimes spah
as showh.
1he bars ih Ihe shorIer direcIioh are placed ih Ihe boIIom layer ahd Iied wiIh Ihe
bars ih Ihe lohger direcIioh placed above aI suiIable ihIervals Io keep Iheir relaIive
posiIiohs ihIacI durihg cohcreIihg.
Reih!orcemehI aI ihIerhal supporI: AI Ihe ihIerhal supporI, alIerhaIe bars o! Ihe maih spah are behI up hear
supporI aI a disIahce o! 0.25 x spahahd exIehd ihIoIhe hexI spahIoa disIahce o! 0.30 x spahas showh.
SPAN1 SPAN2
0.25 x SPAN1 0.25 x SPAN2
0.30 x SPAN2 0.30 x SPAN1
onus PoinI
AddiIiohal reih!orcemehI may be required aI Iop !or ihIerhal supporIs / resIraihed edges ahd is provided !or
by Ihe sIrucIural desigher. 1hese addiIiohal bars exIehd a disIahce o! 0.3 spah.
CauIion
CauIion
DiameIer of
FINFOCING A5 5HALL NO1
FXCFFD ONF-FIGH1H OF 1O1AL
1HICKNF55 OF 1HF 5LA
GeI DisIodged
FN5UF 1HA1 1OP 51FFL DOF5 NO1
DUF 1O FI1HF WFIGH1 OF CONCF1F
O CON51UC1ION OPFA1ION5
O LAOU
113
5AFF UILDING5
Reih!orcemehI ih cahIilever slab : 1he maih reih!orcemehI shall be placed ih Ihe Iop o! cahIilever slab exIehdihg Io
su!!iciehI lehgIh over Ihe supporI ahd back ihIo Ihe hormal spah. Wheh Ihe cahIilever slab is Iakeh ouI o! a beam,
required developmehI lehgIhis provided as showh.
1he de!lecIioh ih cahIilever slabs cahbe reduced by providihg reih!orcemehI aI boIIom. 1his would alsobe help!ul
ihcouhIeracIihg possible reversal o! sIresses due IoearIhquake loads.
SPAN
CREA1ER OF
0.5 x SPAN OR Ld
Ld
8RlCK
WALL
CAN1ILFVF 5LA FOM A ICK WALL
CAN1ILFVF 5LA FOM A FAM
Ld
8EAM
MlNlMUM
75 MM
Jargon usIing
Uhder hormal circumsIahces, Ihe Iehsioh zohe ih a cahIilever is aI Iop. However, durihg earIhquakes Iehsioh may
occur aI Ihe boIIom!ace. 1his is called reversal o! sIresses.
Wheh cahIilever slab is projecIihg ouI !rom Ihe beam, Ihe beam heeds Io be
desighed !or various sIrucIural cohsideraIiohs. CeI Ihe reih!orcemehI !or Ihe beam
!romyour sIrucIural desigher.
onus PoinI
1he dia ahd spacihg o! Ihe maih reih!orcemehI is desighed by Ihe sIrucIural ehgiheer. 1he requiremehI o!
addiIiohal Iop reih!orcemehI hear resIraihed supporI is also calculaIed. 1he amouhI o! disIribuIioh reih!orcemehI
is speci!ied ihIhe codal provisiohs.
Spacihg o! maih bars : As per codal provisiohs, spacihg o!
Ihe bars !or maih reih!orcemehI ih slab shall be hoI more
Ihah Ihrice Ihe e!!ecIive depIh o! such slab or 450 mm,
whichever is smaller.
CauIion
Provide a Maximum 5pacing
OF 200 MM FO MAIN A5 AND 250 MM FO DI51IU1ION
A5 1O CON1OL CACK5 IN 5LA5
114
5AFF UILDING5
Spacihg o! disIribuIioh bars : As per codal provisiohs, spacihg o! Ihe disIribuIioh bars provided agaihsI shrihkage
ahd IemperaIure should hoI be more Ihah 5 Iimes Ihe e!!ecIive depIh o! such slab or 450 mm, whichever is
smaller.
Re-ehIrahI Corhers : Diagohal reih!orcemehI shall be placed aI all re-ehIrahI corhers Io keep crack widIhs wiIhih
limiIs.
80
SLA8
WALL SUPPOR1
ADDl1lONAL 8ARS
80
SLA8
WALL SUPPOR1
ADDl1lONAL 8ARS
Opehihgs ih Slab : Special deIailihg !or opehihgs ih Ihe !loors shall be giveh ih Ihe drawihg by providihg addiIiohal
reih!orcemehI arouhd Ihe opehihgs. Where opehihgs are small ahd Ihe slab is hoI subjecIed Io ahy special Iype
loadihg or vibraIiohcohdiIiohs, Ihe !ollowihg geheral deIailihg may be !ollowed arouhd opehihgs.
Ld
80
= DlA OF 1HE 8AR
OPENlNC
Ld
80
OPENlNC
= DlA OF 1HE 8AR
1he addiIiohal bars shall be placed boIh aI Iop ahd boIIom i! Ihe Ihickhess o! slab exceeds 150 mm. 1he
diameIer o! Ihe addiIiohal bars shall be equal IoIhe largesI o! Ihe slab bars.
Avoid
LAP 5PLICF5 IN 5LA5
ConsIrucIion JoinIs
IN 5LA5 5HALL NFVF F
NFA 5UPPO15
PosiIioning of InserIs
IN 5LA VFY NFA 1HF 5UFACF
5HOULD F AVOIDFD
115
5AFF UILDING5
Jargon usIing
Circular opehihgs o! diameIer less Ihah 250 mmor recIahgular opehihgs o! size smaller Ihah 200 x 200 mmare
IreaIed as small opehihgs.
Large opehihgs shall be sIrehgIhehed by providihg
beams arouhd Ihem.
DeIailihg o! slab aI ridges : DeIailihg should be as showh below.
lhserIs ih slab : A humber o! !uhcIiohal ihserIs, such as
elecIrical cohduiIs, M.S. boxes ahd !ah hooks are
embedded ih Ihe slab. 1he ihserIs should be posiIiohed
hear Ihe mid-depIh o! Ihe slab so IhaI Ihey do hoI reduce
Ihe rigidiIy o! Ihe slab.
OverIapping egions
Splices ih slabs cah be avoided by proper deIailihg o!
reih!orcemehI. However, where splices are provided ih
bars, Ihey shall be as !ar as possible, away !rom Ihe
secIiohs o! maximumsIresses ahd shall be sIaggered.
ConsIrucIion JoinIs
Work shall be so plahhed IhaI, as !ar as possible, Ihere is ho cohsIrucIioh joihI ih Ihe slab. However, i! absoluIely
hecessary, Ihe locaIioho! cohsIrucIiohjoihIs shall be wiIhihIhe middle Ihird o! Ihe spah.
1he movemehI o! labour will depehd oh Ihe sequehce o!
cohcreIihg. Ohce Ihis is !ihalised, arrahgemehIs !or
woodeh plahks Io serve as bridge !or Ihe labour movemehI
wiIhouI a!!ecIihg Ihe reih!orcemehI musI be provided.
Labour should hever be allowed Io walk oh Ihe
reih!orcemehI direcIly.
CauIion
onus PoinI
Ld
116
5AFF UILDING5
5IrucIuraI Provisions for FoundaIions
8asic Iypes o! !ouhdaIiohs.
FacIors Io be cohsidered Io deIermihe Io decide Ihe depIh o!
!ooIihg.
FacIors IhaI heed Io be looked !or Ihe qualiIy o! soil supporIihg
Ihe sIrucIure.
Ceheral deIailihg Iips !or commohIypes o! !ouhdaIiohs.
Codal provisiohs !or !ouhdaIiohs oh slopihg grouhd ahd
!ouhdaIiohs aI di!!erehI levels.
SIrucIural Provisiohs !or FouhdaIiohs
FiIIed up Ground
FOUNDA1ION5 5HOULD F UIL1 ON
WI1HOU1 DF1AILFD ANALY5I5
117
5AFF UILDING5
FouhdaIiohs are desighed so IhaI Ihe loads o! a sIrucIure are sa!ely Irahs!erred Io Ihe soil ih such a way IhaI Ihe
soil is able IowiIhsIahd Ihem, i.e., bearihg capaciIy o! Ihe soil does hoI geI exceeded.
Jargon usIing
1he amouhI o! load IhaI Ihe soil cah bear wiIhouI uhdergoihg ahy !ailure or seIIlemehI is called iIs bearihg
capaciIy.
8ecause o! Ihe varieIy o! soil, rock, ahd waIer cohdiIiohs IhaI are ehcouhIered
belowIhe sur!ace o! Ihe grouhd ahd Ihe uhique demahds IhaI mahy buildihgs make
upoh Iheir !ouhdaIiohs, !ouhdaIioh desigh is a specialized !ield o! geoIechhical
ehgiheerihg, a brahcho! civil ehgiheerihg.
DepIh of FooIing
1he primary !acIor IhaI a!!ecIs Ihe depIh o! a !ouhdaIioh is
load bearihg capaciIy o! Ihe soil ahd availabiliIy o! !irm
sIraIa. However, all !ouhdaIiohs shall exIehd Io a depIh o!
aI leasI 50 cmbelowhaIural grouhd level.
Very shallow !ouhdaIiohs deIerioraIe because o! weaIherihg, parIicularly wheh
exposed Io !reezihg ahd Ihawihg ih regiohs o! cold climaIe or dryihg ahd weIIihg o!
black coIIoh(expahsive clay) soils.
Jargon usIing
Clay soils like black coIIoh soils are seasohally a!!ecIed by dryihg, shrihkage ahd crackihg ih dry ahd hoI weaIher,
ahd by swellihg ihIhe !ollowihg weI weaIher. Suchsoils are called expahsive soils.
1he depIh o! !ouhdaIioh is !ouhd ouI by doihg soil ihvesIigaIioh, which musI be carried ouI !or large or imporIahI
projecIs. However, iI may hoI be required !or dwellihg houses or oIher similar sIrucIures sihce Ihere is usually
adequaIe khowledge o! Ihe required !ouhdaIioh depIhs ahd bearihg capaciIy ih ahy parIicular localiIy based oh
per!ormahce o! similar Iype o! exisIihg sIrucIures ohsimilar soils.
1ype of FoundaIions
1here are Iwobasic Iypes o! !ouhdaIiohs: shallowahd deep.
Shallow !ouhdaIiohs are Ihose IhaI Irahs!er Ihe load Io Ihe earIh aI Ihe base o! Ihe columh or wall o! Ihe
subsIrucIure. Columh !ooIihgs (isolaIed, combihed or ra!I) ahd sIrip !ooIihgs !or walls are examples o!
shallow!ooIihgs.
Deep !ouhdaIiohs peheIraIe Ihrough upper layers o! ihcompeIehI soil ih order Io Irahs!er Ihe load Io
compeIehI bearihg soil or rock deeper wiIhihIhe earIh. Pile !ouhdaIiohis ahexample o! deep !ouhdaIioh.
Key PoinI
CauIion
118
5AFF UILDING5
Shallow FouhdaIiohs : A columh !ooIihg is a square or
recIahgular block o! cohcreIe IhaI Iakes Ihe load !rom a
buildihg columh ahd spreads Ihis load oh ah area o! soil
large ehough so IhaI Ihe bearihg capaciIy o! Ihe soil is hoI
exceeded.
Where Ihe exIerhal columhs o! Ihe sIrucIure are close Io
Ihe bouhdary o! ah exisIihg sIrucIure ahd also where Ihe
!ooIihgs o! ihdividual columhs overlap ohe ahoIher,
combihed !ooIihgs are provided.
lh siIuaIiohs where Ihe allowable bearihg capaciIy o! Ihe
soil is low, columh !ooIihgs may become large ehough IhaI
iI is more ecohomical Io merge IhemihIo a sihgle maI. 1his
is called ra!I !ouhdaIioh.
SIrip FouhdaIiohs cohsisI o! a cohIihuous sIrip, ahd is
made up o! brick masohry/sIohe masohry/cohcreIe !ormed
cehIrally uhder load bearihg walls. Su!!iciehI widIh o! Ihe
sIrip !ouhdaIioh is provided so IhaI bearihg capaciIy o! Ihe
soil is hoI exceeded. 8rick wall !ouhdaIiohs are a Iype o!
sIrip !ouhdaIiohs. Courses o! bricks are laid Io creaIe a
sIepped base IhaI would help ihdisIribuIihg Ihe load.
Pile FouhdaIiohs : Pile FouhdaIiohs are made wheh Ihe load Io be supporIed is large ahd Ihe hecessary kihd o! !irm
soil is hoI available aI shallowdepIhs. A pile !ouhdaIioh comprises Iwo basic sIrucIural elemehIs, Ihe pile ahd Ihe
pile cap.
Jargon usIing
A pile is a columh o! cohcreIe eiIher casI ih or driveh ihIo Ihe grouhd Io Irahs!er loads Ihrough Ihe poor bearihg
soil Io a more sIable sIraIum. A pile cap is a sIrucIural base over Ihe piles, similar Io a spread !ooIihg IhaI direcIly
supporIs a sIrucIural columhor a wall ahd Irahs!ers Ihe load Iopiles.
onus PoinI
l! a pile is driveh uhIil iIs Iip ehcouhIers !irm resisIahce
!rom rock, dehse sahds, or similar !irm soil, iI is ah ehd
bearihg pile. Such piles Irahs!er Ihe load direcIly Io Ihe
!irm sIraIa deep below Ihe grouhd oh which Ihey are
resIihg. l! iI is driveh ohly ihIo so!Ier maIerial, wiIhouI
ehcouhIerihg a !irm bearihg layer, iI will sIill develop a
cohsiderable load carryihg capaciIy Ihrough Ihe
!ricIiohal resisIahce beIweeh Ihe sides o! Ihe pile ahd
Ihe soil Ihrough which iI is driveh. lh Ihis case, iI is
khowhas a !ricIiohpile.
END 8EARlNC
PlLE
FRlC1lON
PlLE
DifficuII 5oiIs
LOO5F FINF 5AND, 5OF1 5IL1 AND
FXPAN5IVF CLAY5 AF
1O UILD ON
119
5AFF UILDING5
1he Iype o! !ouhdaIioh is decided by sIrucIural/geoIechhical ehgiheer depehdihg oh Ihe maghiIude ahd
disIribuIioho! Ihe sIrucIural loads, ahd Ihe bearihg capaciIy o! Ihe soil.
Advice o! sIrucIural / geoIechhical ehgiheer is Iakeh wheh
loose !ihe sahd, so!I silI or expahsive clays are ehcouhIered.
SuiIable !ouhdaIiohs !or Ihese soils are ra!I !ouhdaIioh or
pile !ouhdaIioh. However, !or lighI cohsIrucIiohs soil is
improved by usihg soil sIabilizaIioh Iechhiques so IhaI
!ouhdaIioho! Ihe buildihg may resI ohiI.
uaIiIy of 5oiI
1he qualiIy o! Ihe soil supporIihg Ihe sIrucIure plays ah
imporIahI role. 8uildihgs oh hard soil, ih geheral, are likely
IowiIhsIahd earIhquake !orces well.
lh load bearihg wall Iype o! sIrucIure, a series o! closely spaced shorI uhder reamed
casI ih siIu piles cohhecIed wiIh cappihg beams are opIed depehdihg upoh Ihe
haIure o! soil sIraIa belowwalls.
Crackihg ahd !ailure o! supersIrucIure may resulI !rom soil lique!acIioh ahd di!!erehIial seIIlemehI o! !ooIihgs.
Jargon usIing
l! a buildihg is cohsIrucIed oh loose ahd sahdy soil saIuraIed wiIh waIer, durihg ah earIhquake, such a soil
behaves like a jelly leadihg Iosihkihg, IilIihg or collapse o! sIrucIure. 1his is called lique!acIioho! soil.
Di!!erehIial seIIlemehI is di!!erehI seIIlemehIs ihdi!!erehI parIs o! Ihe sIrucIure.
For seismic zohe ll, lV ahd V: lh sahdy soils wiIh waIer Iable wiIhih 8 mdepIh below
grouhd level, soil may geI lique!ied durihg earIhquake ahd so pile !ouhdaIioh heed
Iobe used ihcohsulIaIiohwiIhIhe SIrucIural / CeoIechhical ehgiheer.
1he soil belowIhe ehIire area o! Ihe buildihg should pre!erably be o! Ihe same Iype wiIh similar bearihg capaciIy.
Wherever Ihis is hoI possible, suiIable precauIiohs heed Io be Iakeh ih cohsulIaIioh wiIh sIrucIural ehgiheer Io
avoid di!!erehIial seIIlemehI.
1o avoid di!!erehIial seIIlemehI ih so!I soils, ihdividual !ooIihgs or pile caps be cohhecIed by reih!orced
cohcreIe Iie beams aI or belowIhe plihIh level. 1he Iie beams are desighed Io carry Ihe load o! Ihe pahel walls
also.
UILDING5 WHICH AF 51UC1UALLY
51ONG 1O WI1H51AND FA1HUAKF5
5OMF1IMF5 FAIL DUF 1O
INADFUA1F FOUNDA1ION DF5IGN
Key PoinI
Key PoinI
ProperIy WeIIing
DON'1 PLACF 1HF CONCF1F ON
A DY FOUNDA1ION WI1HOU1
I1 WI1H WA1F
efore Laying FoundaIion
A5F CONCF1F OF 100 1O 150 MM 1HICK
I5 POVIDFD OVF COMPAC1FD FA1H
120
5AFF UILDING5
Where Ihe subsoil has poor or uhcerIaih bearihg capaciIy ahd Ihe !ouhdaIioh has Io be deeper Ihah say 3 m, iI is
o!Iehecohomical Iouse piles.
RCC !rame sIrucIures are geherally provided wiIh isolaIed !ooIihgs, combihed !ooIihg or a group o! piles
cohhecIed wiIhpile cap depehdihg ohIhe bearihg capaciIy o! soil.
lI is someIimes ecohomical Io cohsIrucI Iie beams Io supporI walls, raIher Ihah excavaIihg Irehches ahd raisihg
walls o!! sIrip !ouhdaIiohs.
DeIaiIing 1ips
Masohry sIrip !ouhdaIioh !or load-bearihg masohry walls : FouhdaIioh widIh 8 should be decided by Ihe load
comihg oh Ihe !ouhdaIioh ahd bearihg capaciIy o! soil. Masohry widIh is reduced by 0.5 x Ihickhess ih every sIep
o! 150 mmheighI.
Reih!orced cohcreIe sIrip !ouhdaIioh !or load-bearihg masohry walls :
WELL COMPAC1ED
SAND
PLlN1H LEVEL
CROUND LEVEL
PLlN1H 8AND
8
D
8RlCK WALL
CREA1ER
1HAN D
DeIailihg o! isolaIed columh !ooIihg : Levellihg course 150
mmIhick o! PPC 1:3:6 should be provided over compacIed
soil. FouhdaIioh bars may be behI up Io provide required
developmehI lehgIh.
LEVELLlNC COURSE
MlNlMUM
150 MM
Ld
Ld
MlNlMUM
300 MM
onus PoinI
ImporIanI and Heavier
CON5UL1 51UC1UAL AND
5OIL CON5UL1AN1 FO
51UC1UF5 ON 5LOPING GOUND
121
5AFF UILDING5
Columh oh edges o! !ooIihg : lh !ooIihg, where a columh is locaIed oh Ihe edge, iI is advisable Io provide
horizohIal U-Iype bars arouhd Ihe verIical bars o! Ihe columhs. 1hese bars shall be desighed !or every such columh
by sIrucIural desigher.
FouhdaIioh oh slopihg grouhd : Where a sIrucIure is Io be placed oh slopihg grouhd, addiIiohal complicaIiohs are
ihIroduced. Wheh grouhd sur!ace adjacehI Io a !ooIihg slopes dowhward, Ihe lihes drawh !rom Ihe boIIom
edges o! Ihe !ooIihg as showh should hoI ihIersecI wiIh Ihe slopihg sur!ace. Also, horizohIal disIahce !rom Ihe
lower edge o! Ihe !ooIihg IoIhe slopihg sur!ace should be aI leasI 60 cm!or rock ahd 90 cm!or soil.
Spacihg beIweeh exisIihg ahd hew !ouhdaIioh : 1he
mihimum horizohIal spacihg beIweeh exisIihg ahd hew
!ooIihgs should be equal Io Ihe widIh o! Ihe wider ohe.
While Ihe adopIioh o! such provisioh helps mihimizihg
damage Io adjacehI !ouhdaIioh, advice o! Ihe sIrucIural
cohsulIahI should be soughI as each such case may have a
di!!erehI soluIioh.
1HF DFFPF 1HF NFW FOUNDA1ION
AND 1HF NFAF 1O 1HF FXI51ING
I1 I5 LOCA1FD, 1HF GFA1F 1HF
DAMAGF I5 LIKFLY 1O F
COLUMN 8ARS
50 1O 75 MM
U 1YPE 8ARS
5FC1ION PLAN
U 1YPE 8ARS
Ld
1HESE SURFACES
SHOULD NO1
lN1ERSEC1
O
30
O
30
MlNlMUM
600 MM FOR ROCK
900 MM FOR SOlL
122
5AFF UILDING5
FouhdaIioh aI di!!erehI levels : 1he slope o! Ihe lihe drawh beIweeh Ihe adjacehI !ooIihgs shall hoI be sIeeper
Ihah 1 : 2, i.e., 1 verIical Io Iwo horizohIal. NoIe IhaI lh Ihe case o! !ooIihgs ih sahdy soil, a lihe is drawh beIweeh
Ihe lower adjacehI edges o! adjacehI !ooIihgs ahd ih case !ooIihg ih clayey soils Ihe lihe is drawh beIweeh Ihe
lower adjacehI edge o! Ihe upper !ooIihg ahd Ihe upper adjacehI edge o! lower !ooIihg.
UPPER
FOO1lNC
LOWER
FOO1lNC
SLOPE NO1 1O 8E
S1EEPER 1HAN 1 : 2
5ANDY 5OIL5
UPPER
FOO1lNC
LOWER
FOO1lNC
SLOPE NO1 1O 8E
S1EEPER 1HAN 1 : 2
CLAYFY 5OIL5
123
5AFF UILDING5
Appehdix
NDMA GUDFLINF5
FO MA5ONY UILDING5
EARTHQUAKE SAFE CONSTRUCTION OF MASONRYBUILDINGS
SimpliIied Guideline Ior All Aew Buildings in the

Seismic Zone III of India
Introduction:
As usual new construction oI buildings under IAY, Prime Minister Rojgar Yojana and buildings
under various other National and State schemes get started in the month oI May. The Ministry oI Home
AIIairs is keen that All New Buildings should be made earthquake resistant in the Iirst instant so that we do
not add to the stock oI existing unsaIe buildings. Since most oI the buildings are constructed using brickwork
or, solid hollow concrete blocks with Ilat rooIs, very simple illustrated guidance is provided in the attached
brochure Ior incorporating the earthquake resistant Ieatures suitable Ior seismic zone III.
Essential Elements for Earthquake Safety
1
:
The essential elements required to make a building earthquake saIe are as given in Figure 1. Some
additional requirements are detailed in the Iollowing paragraphs.

1.

GOOD CEMENT MORTAR:
The cement mortar should be used in the ratio oI 1 part oI cement with 6 parts oI sand (1 sack oI
cement mixed with 6 equal sacks oI sand).
2.

HORIZONTALSEISMIC BANDS:
A seismic band consists oI reinIorced concrete Ilat runner through all external and internal
masonry walls at the Iollowing levels in the building.
a.

at the plinth level oI the building
b.

at the levels oI lintels oI doors and windows
c.

at the ceiling level oI rooIs consisting oI wooden joists or, preIabricated reinIorced concrete beams
or, planks. (Such band will not be necessary if the roof consists of Reinforced Concrete or,
Reinforced Brick slabs cast on the walls covering a minimum of 2/3 of the thickness of the wall.)

The dimensions oI the band and the reinIorcement inside depend upon the length oI the walls
between the perpendicular cross walls. The table below (1able-1) shows the dimensions to be adopted Ior
the seismic bands and the internal reinIorcement details to be provided. The reinIorcement and bending
details oI seismic bands are given in the Figure-2. ReinIorcing bars will be oI Fe 415 type TOR or, High
Yield Strength DeIormed, i.e. HYSD bars]

1
The details given here are extracted Irom IS: 4326-1993 Code of Practice as applicable to buildings with Brick/ Concrete
block walls and R.C. Ilat slab rooIs. Details not given here may be seen in the Code.
1. LinteI Band
2. Roof/ FIoor Band
3. VerticaI reinforcing bar at corner
4. Door
5. Window
6. PIinth Band
Figure - 1: Essential Internal
Elements in Buildings
for Earthquake Safety
Zone III
2
1
2
1
5
4
3
6
2
1
b1
b
1
2
2
2
2
1
3
3
b
b2
30 40
75
6@150
1
2
30
40
150
6@150
1
2
b
b
(a) (b)
40
30
(c) (d)

(e) (f)
(a) Section of the Band with 2 longitudinal steel bars
(b) Section of the Band with 4 longitudinal steel bars
(c) Structural Plan at L- type wall junction
(d) Structural Plan at T- type wall junction
(e) 3 Dimensional view of the L - type wall junction
(f) 3 Dimensional view of the T - type wall junction
1. Longitudinal reinforcements
2. Lateral Ties
3. Vertical reinforcement at corners
b, b1, b2 Wall thickness

Figure-2: Reinforcement and Bending Details of Seismic Bands
1able-1: Recommended size and longitudinal steel in Seismic Bands (Zone III)
Residential buildings Important Public Buildings (Schools,
Hospitals, Meeting Halls, Anganwadis, etc.)
Internal
length oI
wall
Size oI the band No. oI Bars Dia (mm) Size oI the band No. oI Bars Dia (mm)
5 m or, less 10 cm x wall width 2 8 10 cm x wall width 2 8
6 m 10 cm x wall width 2 8 10 cm x wall width 2 10
3. VERTICALREINFORCEMENT IN THE BRICK WALLS :
For earthquake saIety in seismic zone III reinIorcing bars have to be embedded in brick masonry at
the corners oI all the rooms and the side oI the door openings. Window openings larger than 60 cm in
width will also need such reinIorcing bars (Figure - 4). The diameter oI the bar depends upon the
number oI storeys in the building. The recommendations are given in 1able-2.
Providing the vertical bars in the brickwork and concrete blocks requires special techniques which
could be easily learnt by the supervising engineers and masons will need to be trained.
3
1
2
3
1
2
These vertical bars have to be started Irom the Ioundation concrete, will pass through all seismic
bands where they will be tied to the band reinIorcements using binding wire and embedded to the ceiling
band/rooI slab as the case may be using a 300 mm 90 bend. Sometimes the vertical bars will not be
made in one Iull length. In that case the extension oI the vertical reinIorcement bars are required, an
overlap oI minimum oI 5 times the bar diameter should be provided. The two overlapped reinIorcement
bars should be tied together by using the binding wires.

1
1
1
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
3/4
1/2
3/4
1/2
1/2
3/4
3/4 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/4
1/4
1 1 1/2 1/2
(a) (b)
3
3
3
3
a & b : Alternate courses in one brick wall
1 : One brick length
: Half brick length
: Quarter of a brick length
: Three quarters of a brick length
3 : Vertical reinforcement bars with Concrete/ mortar filling in
pocket of M20 grade (1:1:3 nominal mix)
Figure-3: 1ypical Details of Providing Jertical Steel
Bars in Brick Masonry
1able-2: Recommended size of vertical
steel in Seismic Bands (Zone III)
Residential
buildings `
Important
Public
Buildings `
(Schools,
Hospitals,
Meeting
Halls,
Anganwadis,
etc.)
No. oI
storeys
Floor
Dia oI Single
HYSD (TOR)
Bar at corners
oI room(mm)
Dia oI Single
HYSD(TOR)
Bar at corners
oI room(mm)
One - - 10
Top - 10
Two
Bottom - 12
Top 10 10
Middle 12 12 Three
Bottom 12 12
Top 10 10
Third 10 12
Second 12 16
Four
Bottom 12 20
1able-3: Recommended joint details with the vertical reinforcement at corner for masonry walls
using different kind of materials
Type oI
Joint
Corner reinIorcement in
case oI Brick Masonry
Corner reinIorcement in case
oI Solid Concrete Block
Masonry
Corner reinIorcement in case oI
Hollow Concrete Block Masonry
(see the hole and slit made)
L- }oinl

T- }oinl

B
WELL COMPACTED SOL
2 T
P.C.C 1:4:8
2 TOR 12
6mm DA. @150 c/c
125
1
5
0
< 125
1.5 T
T
1
0
0
PIinth Band
Floor Finish
<
Ground Level
T - 230 for Brick Work
200 for Block Work
Plinth Level
1
5
0
Well compacted Sand
Masonry in C.M.1:6
Masonry in C.M.1:6
(a) Sectional Elevation of Door
(b) Sectional Elevation of Window
(c) Section 2-2
Figure-4: 1ypical Details of Providing Jertical Steel Bars around doors/windows
4. VERTICALREINFORCEMENTAT 1AMBS OF OPENINGS :
All door and window openings wider than 600 mm will have vertical reinIorcement in jambs as
shown in Figure-4 where required as per Table-2.

5. FOUNDATION
Foundation width 'B' should
be decided by the load coming
on the Ioundation and the
bearing capacity. Masonry width
may be reduced by times T in
every step oI 150 mm height.
NOTE:
In sandy soils with high water
table within 5 m depth below
ground level, which may get
liqueIied during earthquake oI
MSK intensity VII, pile
Ioundation need to be used in
consultation with the Structural/
Geotechnical Engineer.

National Disaster Management Division,
Ministry of Home Affairs,

North Block, New Delhi, India

Tel: 91 11 2309 3178; Tel/Fax: 2309 4019; Fax: 91 11 2309 3750;E-mail: ndmindia@nic.in; dsdm@nic.in; Website: www.ndmindia.nic.in
P r e a r e d b :
Professor Anand S. Ara

]nanan]an Panda
Tel: 91 11 5539 6386; Email: anand.s.arya@undp.org, jnananjan.panda@undp.org

Figure-5: Foundation Detail with
Plinth Band in Brick or,
Concrete Block Masonry
Prepared under the GoI - UNDP Disaster Risk Management Programme

SimpliIied Guideline Ior All Aew Buildings in the Seismic Zone IJ of India
Introduction:
brochure Ior incorporating the earthquake resistant Ieatures suitable Ior seismic zone IV.
1
:

1. GOOD CEMENT MORTAR:
2. HORIZONTALSEISMIC BANDS:
a. at the plinth level oI the building
b. at the levels oI lintels oI doors and windows
c. at the ceiling level oI rooIs consisting oI wooden joists or, preIabricated reinIorced concrete beams

1
1. LinteI Band
2. Roof/ FIoor Band
4. Door
5. Window
6. PIinth Band
7. Window SiII Bands (in all
Important Buildings only)
Zone IV
2
1
2
1
5
4
3
6
7
2
1
7
b1
b
1
2
2
2
2
1
3
3
b
b2
30 40
75
6@150
1
2
30
40
150
6@150
1
2
b
b
(a) (b)
40
30
(c) (d)

(e) (f)
2. Lateral Ties


1able-1: Recommended size and longitudinal steel in Seismic Bands (Zone IJ)
Residential buildings Important Public Buildings (Schools,
Internal
length oI
wall
Size oI the band No. oI Bars Dia (mm) Size oI the band No. oI Bars Dia (mm)
5 m or, less 10 cm x wall width 2 8 10 cm x wall width 2 10
For earthquake saIety in seismic zone IV reinIorcing bars have to be embedded in brick masonry at
3
1
2
3
1
2
1
1
1
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
3/4
1/2
3/4
1/2
1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/4
1/4
1 1 1/2 1/2
(a) (b)
3
3
3
3
3/4
3/4
: Half brick length
steel in Seismic Bands (Zone IJ)
Residential
buildings `
Important
Public
Buildings `
(Schools,
Hospitals,
Meeting
Halls,
Anganwadis,
etc.)
No. oI
storeys
Floor
Dia oI Single
HYSD (TOR)
Bar at corners
oI room(mm)
Dia oI Single
HYSD(TOR)
Bar at corners
oI room (mm)
One - 10 12
Top 10 12
Two
Bottom 12 16
Top 10 12
Middle 12 16 Three
Bottom 12 16
`Building of four storey though permitted in
Zone IJ, but not desirable.
Type oI
Joint
Corner reinIorcement in case
oI Solid Concrete Block
Masonry
L- }oinl

T- }oinl

B
WELL COMPACTED SOL
2 T
P.C.C 1:4:8
2 TOR 12
6mm DA. @150 c/c
125
1
5
0
< 125
1.5 T
T
1
0
0
PIinth Band
Floor Finish
<
Ground Level
200 for Block Work
Plinth Level
1
5
0
Well compacted Sand
Masonry in C.M.1:6
Masonry in C.M.1:6
(c) Section 2-2
shown in Figure-4.

5. FOUNDATION
NOTE:
MSK intensity VIII, pile



P r e a r e d b :

]nanan]an Panda


SimpliIied Guideline Ior All Aew Buildings in the Seismic Zone J of India
Introduction:
brochure Ior incorporating the earthquake resistant Ieatures suitable Ior seismic zone V.
1
:

1. GOOD CEMENT MORTAR:
2. HORIZONTALSEISMIC BANDS:
a. at the plinth level oI the building
b. at the levels oI lintels oI doors and windows
c. at the ceiling level oI rooIs consisting oI wooden joists or, preIabricated reinIorced concrete beams

1
1. LinteI Band
2. Roof/ FIoor Band
4. Door
5. Window
6. PIinth Band
7. Window SiII Bands
Zone V
2
1
2
1
5
4
3
6
7
2
1
7
b1
b
1
2
2
2
2
1
3
3
b
b2
30 40
75
6@150
1
2
30
40
150
6@150
1
2
b
b
(a) (b)
40
30
(c) (d)

(e) (f)
2. Lateral Ties


1able-1: Recommended size and longitudinal steel in Seismic Bands (Zone J)
Buildings of all types i.e., Residential buildings & Public Buildings (Schools, Hospitals,
Meeting Halls, Anganwadis, etc.)
Internal
length oI
wall
Size oI the band No. oI Bars Dia (mm)
5 m or, less 10 cm x wall width 2 10
6 m 10 cm x wall width 2 12
For earthquake saIety in seismic zone V reinIorcing bars have to be embedded in brick masonry at
3
1
2
3
1
2

1
1
1
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
3/4
1/2
3/4
1/2
1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/4
1/4
1 1 1/2 1/2
(a) (b)
3
3
3
3
3/4
3/4
: Half brick length
steel in Seismic Bands (Zone J)
Buildings of all types i.e., Residential
buildings & Public Buildings ` (Schools,
No. oI
storeys
Floor Dia oI Single
HYSD(TOR) Bar at
corners oI room (mm)
One - 12
Top 12
Two
Bottom 16
Top 12
Middle 16 Three
Bottom 16
` Building of four storey not permitted in Zone J.

Type oI
Joint
case oI Solid Concrete Block
Masonry
L- }oinl

T- }oinl

B
WELL COMPACTED SOL
2 T
P.C.C 1:4:8
2 TOR 12
125
1
5
0
< 125
1.5 T
T
1
0
0
PIinth Band
Floor Finish
<
Ground Level
200 for Block Work
Plinth Level
1
5
0
Well compacted Sand
Masonry in C.M.1:6
Masonry in C.M.1:4
6mm DA. @150 c/c
(c) Section 2-2
shown in Figure-4.

5. FOUNDATION
NOTE:
MSK intensity VIII to IX, pile



P r e a r e d b :

]nanan]an Panda


8l8LlOCRAPHY
1. Reih!orced cohcreIe cohsIrucIiohs !or 21sI cehIury by Er Kollegal K Meghashyam
2. Reih!orced cohcreIe cohsIrucIiohs !or mulIisIoreyed sIrucIures by Er Kollegal K
Meghashyam
3. 8uildihg MaIerials by PC Verghese
4. 8uildihg CohsIrucIioh by PC Verghese
5. Ambuja 1echhical LiIeraIure Series
6. 8uildihg CohsIrucIioh lllusIraIed by Frahcis DK Chihg ahd Cassahdra Adams
7. EarIhquake 1ips by CVR MurIhy
8. Cuidelihes !or lmprovihg EarIhquake ResisIahce o! 8uildihgs by Dr AS Arya
9. Cuidelihes !or EarIhquake ResisIahI Noh-ehgiheered CohsIrucIioh issued by
lhIerhaIiohal AssociaIioh !or EarIhquake Ehgiheerihg
10. Cuidelihes !or EarIhquake Sa!e CohsIrucIioh o! Masohry 8uildihgs issued by NaIiohal
DisasIer MahagemehI Divisioh (MihisIry o! Home A!!airs, New Delhi)
11. CohcreIe 8asics - A Cuide Io CohcreIe PracIice issued by CemehI CohcreIe & AggregaIes
AusIralia
12. CPWD Speci!icaIiohs
13. lS 456 - 2000 : Code o! pracIice !or plaih ahd reih!orced cohcreIe
14. lS 1904 - 1986 : Code o! pracIice !or desigh ahd cohsIrucIioh o! !ouhdaIiohs ih soils
15. lS 1893 (ParI 1) - 2002 : CriIeria !or earIhquake resisIahI desigh o! sIrucIures
16. lS 4326 - 1993 : CriIeria !or earIhquake resisIahI desigh ahd cohsIrucIioh o! buildihgs
17. lS 13920 - 1993 : Code o! pracIice !or ducIile deIailihg o! reih!orced cohcreIe sIrucIures
subjecIed Io seismic !orces
18. SP 34 - 1987 : Hahdbook oh cohcreIe reih!orcemehI ahd deIailihg
5AFF UILDING5

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