Steam Turbine and Deposits Problems and Solutions

Otakar J onas is a Consultant with J onas, Inc.
, in Wilmington,
Delaware. Heworks inthefieldof industrial andutilitysteamcycle
corrosion, water andsteamchemistry, reliability, andfailureanalysis.
After periods of R&D at Lehigh University and engineering
practiceatWestinghouseSteamTurbineDivision, Dr. J onasstarted
hiscompanyin1983. Thecompanyisinvolvedintroubleshooting,
R&D (EPRI, GE, Alstom), failureanalysis, andintheproduction
of special instrumentsandsamplingsystems.
Dr. J onas has a Ph.D. degree (Power Engineering) fromthe
Czech Technical University. He is a registered Professional
Engineer intheStatesof DelawareandCalifornia.
LeeMachemer isaSenior Engineer atJ onas, Inc., inWilmington,
Delaware. Hehas13yearsof experiencewithindustrial andutility
steam cycle corrosion, steam cycle and water chemistry, and
failureanalysis.
Mr. Machemer received a B.S. degree(Chemical Engineering)
fromtheUniversity of Delawareand is a registered Professional
Engineer intheStateof Delaware.
ABSTRACT
This tutorial paper discusses the basics of corrosion, steam
and deposit chemistry, and turbineand steamcycledesign and
operationas they relate to steam turbine problems and
problemsolutions.
Major steam turbine problems, such as stress corrosion
crackingof rotorsanddiscs, corrosionfatigueof blades, pitting,
and flow accelerated corrosion are analyzed, and their root
causesandsolutionsdiscussed. Alsocoveredare: lifeprediction,
inspection, andturbinemonitoring. Casehistories aredescribed
for utilityandindustrial turbines, withdescriptionsof rootcauses
andengineeringsolutions.
INTRODUCTION
This tutorial paper discusses steamturbinecorrosionanddepo-
sition problems, their root causes, and solutions. It also reviews
designandoperation, materials, andsteamanddeposit chemistry.
Referencesareprovidedat theendof thepaper.
Withanincreaseof generatingcapacityandpressureof individ-
ual utilityunitsinthe1960sand70s, theimportanceof largesteam
turbinereliability andefficiency increased. Theassociatedturbine
sizeincreaseanddesignchanges (i.e., larger rotors anddiscs and
longer blades) resulted in increased stresses and vibration
problems and in the use of higher strength materials (Scegljajev,
1983; McCloskey, 2002; Sanders, 2001). Unacceptable failure
rates of mostly blades anddiscs resultedininitiationof numerous
projectstoinvestigatetheroot causesof theproblems(McCloskey,
2002; Sanders, 2001; Cotton, 1993; J onas, 1977, 1985a, 1985c,
1987; EPRI, 1981, 1983, 1995, 1997d, 1998a, 2000a, 2000b, 2001,
2002b, 2002c; J onasandDooley, 1996, 1997; ASME, 1982, 1989;
Speidel and Atrens, 1984; Atrens, et al., 1984). Some of these
problems persist today. Cost of corrosion studies (EPRI, 2001a,
Syrett, et al., 2002; Syrett andGorman, 2003) andstatistics(EPRI,
1985b, 1997d; NERC, 2002) determined that amelioration of
turbine corrosion is urgently needed. Same problems exist in
smaller industrial turbines and the same solutions apply
(Scegljajev, 1983; McCloskey, 2002; Sanders, 2001; Cotton, 1993;
J onas, 1985a, 1987; EPRI, 1987a, 1998a; J onasandDooley, 1997).
The corrosion mechanisms active in turbines (stress corrosion
cracking, corrosion fatigue, pitting, flow-accelerated corrosion)
areshowninFigure1.
Figure1. CorrosionMechanismsActiveinSteamTurbines.
Purpose, Design, andOperationof SteamTurbines
Thesteamturbineis thesimplest andmost efficient enginefor
convertinglargeamountsof heat energyintomechanical work. As
thesteamexpands, it acquireshighvelocityandexertsforceonthe
turbineblades. Turbinesrangeinsizefromafewkilowattsfor one
stage units to 1300 MW for multiple-stage multiple-component
units comprising high-pressure, intermediate-pressure, and up to
three low-pressure turbines. For mechanical drives, single- and
double-stage turbines are generally used. Most larger modern
turbines are multiple-stage axial flow units. Figure 2 shows a
typical tandem-compound turbinewith acombined high pressure
(HP), intermediatepressure(IP) turbine, andatwo-flowlow-pressure
(LP) turbine. Table1(EPRI, 1998a) providesalternateterminology
for several turbinecomponents.
211
STEAMTURBINE CORROSION
ANDDEPOSITSPROBLEMSANDSOLUTIONS
by
Otakar J onas
Consultant
and
LeeMachemer
Senior Engineer
J onas, Inc.
Wilmington, Delaware
Figure2. Typical TandemCompound, SingleReheat, Condensing
Turbine. (Courtesyof EPRI, 1998a)
Table1. AlternateTerminologyfor TurbineComponents.
Steamentersfromthemainsteamlinesthroughstopandcontrol
valvesintotheHPsection. Thefirst(control) stageisspacedslightly
apart fromsubsequent stages to allowfor stabilization of theflow.
After passingthroughtheHP turbine, coldreheat pipingcarriesthe
steamtothereheater (if present) andreturnsinthehot reheat piping
to theintegratedHP andIP cylinder to pass throughtheIP turbine
section. Theflowexits theIP turbinethrough theIP exhaust hood
andthenpassesthroughcrossover pipingtotheLP turbineandexits
tothecondenser throughtheLP exhaust. Thetypical modernsteam
turbine has a number of extraction points throughout all sections
wherethesteamisusedtosupply heat tothefeedwater heaters.
Duringits expansionthroughtheLP turbine, thesteamcrosses
thesaturationline. Theregionwherecondensationbegins, termed
the phase transition zone (PTZ) or Wilson line (Cotton, 1993;
EPRI, 1997c, 1998a, 2001b), is the location where corrosion
damagehas been observed. In singlereheat turbines at full load,
thiszoneisusually at theL-1stage, whichisalsointhetransonic
flowregion where, at thesonic velocity (Mach =1), sonic shock
waves can be a source of blade excitation and cyclic stresses
causing fatigue or corrosion fatigue (EPRI, 1997c; J onas, 1994,
1997; Stastny, et al., 1997; Petr, et al., 1997).
Design
Because of their long design life, steamturbines go through
limited prototype testing where the long-termeffects of material
degradation, such as corrosion, creep, and low-cycle fatigue,
cannotbefullysimulated. Inthepast, whendevelopmentwasslow,
relativelylong-termexperiencewastransferredintonewproducts.
Withnewturbinetypes, larger sizes, newpower cycles, andwater
treatmentpracticescomingfastinthelast25years, experiencewas
short and limited, and problems developed, which need to be
correctedandconsideredinnewdesignsandredesigns. Whilethe
turbineseemstobeasimplemachine, itsdesign, includingdesign
against corrosion, iscomplex.
Therearefiveareasof designthat affect turbinecorrosion:
Mechanical design (stresses, vibration, stress concentrations,

stress intensity factor, frictional damping, benefits of overspeed
andheater box testing)
Physical shape(stressconcentration, crevices, obstaclestoflow,

surfacefinish, crevices)
Material selection(maximumyieldstrength, corrosionproperties,

material damping, galvanic effects, etc.)
Flowandthermodynamics(flowexcitationof blades, incidence

angle, boundary layer, condensation and moisture, velocity,
location of the salt zone, stagnation temperature, interaction of
shock wavewithcondensation)
Heat transfer (surface temperature, evaporation of moisture,

expansionversusstress, heatedcrevices)
Recognitionof theseeffectsledtoaformulationof rudimentary
designrules. Whilethemechanical designiswell advancedandthe
material behavior is understood, theflowexcitationof blades and
the effects of flow and heat transfer on chemical impurities at
surfacesarenot fully includedindesignpractices.
Selectionof somecombinations of thesedesignparameterscan
lead to undesirable stresses and impurity concentrations that
stimulatecorrosion. In addition, somecombinations of dissimilar
materialsincontact canproducegalvanic corrosion.
Design and material improvements and considerations that
reduceturbinecorrosioninclude:
Welded rotors, large integral rotors, and discs without

keywayseliminateshighstressesindisc keyways.
Replacement of higher strength NiCrMoV discs with lower

(yieldstrength<130ksi (896MPa) strengthdiscs.
Repair welding of discs and rotors; also with 12%Cr stainless

steel weldmetal.
Mixedtunedbladerowstoreducerandomexcitation.
Freestanding and integrally shrouded LP blades without tenon

crevicesandwithlower stresses.
TitaniumLP bladescorrosionresistant inturbineenvironments

except for NaOH.
Lower stressandstressconcentrationsincreasingresistanceto
SCC andCF.
Flowpathdesignusingcomputerizedflowdynamicsandviscous
flowlower flow induced vibration, which reduces susceptibility
toCF.
Curved (banana) stationary blades that reduce nozzle passing

excitation.
Newmaterialsfor bladepinsandboltingresistantagainstSCC.
Flow guides and double-ply expansion bellowsreduces

impurity concentration, better SCC resistance.
Moisture extraction to improve efficiency and reduce flow-

acceleratedcorrosion(FAC) andwater droplet erosionanduseof
alloy steelstoreduceFAC.
LP Rotor andDiscs
Therearethreetypesof constructioninusefor LP rotors:
Built-up(shrunk-ondesign) withforgedshaft onto whichdiscs

areshrunk andkeyed,
PROCEEDINGSOFTHETHIRTY-SEVENTHTURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM2008 212
Machinedfromonesolidpiece(most common), or
Thediscsweldedtogether toformtherotor (Figure3).

The rotor and disc construction is governed by the practices of
individual manufacturers, capabilities of steel mills, cost, and,
duringthelast fewdecades, by their resistanceto SCC. Thesolid
andweldedrotorsdonot haveaproblemwithdisc boreSCC. The
threetypes, showninFigure3, havelittleeffectontheSCCandCF
susceptibilitiesof thebladeattachments.
Figure3.ThreeTypesof Rotor Construction. (Courtesyof EPRI, 1998a)
LP Blades
Blade and blade path design and material selection influence
bladeCF, SCC, pitting, andother forms of damageinmany ways
(Sanders, 2001; EPRI, 1981, 1997c, 1998a, 2001b; BLADE-ST,
2000). Themaineffectsof thebladedesignoncorrosion, corrosion
fatiguestrength, stresscorrosioncrackingsusceptibility, andpitting
resistanceinclude:
Vibratory stressesandtheir frequencies.
Maximumservicesteady stressesandstressconcentrations.
Flowinducedvibrationanddeposition.
Mechanical, frictional, andaerodynamic damping.

Rotating LP turbine blades may be free standing (not
connectedtoeachother), connectedingroups, or all bladesinthe
row may be continuously connected by a shroud. Connections
made at the blade tip are termed shrouds or shrouding. Shrouds
may be inserted over tenons protruding above the blade tips and
thesetenons thenriveteddowntosecuretheshrouds, or they may
consist of integrally forged or machined stubs, which, during
operation, provide frictional damping of vibration because they
touch (Figure 4). This design also eliminates the tenon-shroud
crevices where corrosive impurities could concentrate. In some
cases, long 180 degree shrouds are used or smaller shroud
segmentsareweldedtogether.
Figure4. Typical TurbineShrouds. (Courtesyof EPRI, 1998a)
Blades are connected at the root to the rotor discs by several
configurations (Figure 5). There are several types of serrated
attachments: the fir tree configuration, which is inserted into
individual axial slotsinthedisc; andtheT-shape, whichisinserted
intoacontinuouscircumferential slotinthedisc. Thefingertype
attachment is fitted into circumferential slots in the disc and
securedbyaxiallyinsertedpins. All of thebladeroot designshave
geometries that result in higher local stresses at radii and stress
concentrations that promoteSCC and CF. Thegoal of thedesign
shouldbetominimizetheselocal tensilestresses.
Figure5.Typesof BladeRootAttachments. (Courtesyof EPRI, 1998a)
Theairfoil of blades may beof constant cross-sectionfor short
blades, andtwistedfor longer ones. Thelongest bladesfor thelast
few rows of the LP are twisted to match the aerodynamics at
different radii and improve aerodynamic efficiency. The longer
blades are usually connected at the point of highest vibration
amplitude to each other by a tie or lashing wire, which reduces
vibrationof theairfoil. Toreducerandomexcitation, mixedtuning
of longrotatingbladeshasbeenusedinwhichadjacentbladeshave
different resonant frequencies(EPRI, 1998a).
Stationary blades in LP stages are typically arranged in
diaphragms of cast or welded construction. In wet stages,
diaphragmsmay bemadewithhollowbladevanesor other design
features as ameans of drawingoff moisturethat wouldotherwise
lead to liquid droplet erosion (EPRI, 2001b). Recently, some
stationary blade designs have also been leaned or bowed,
improving flow and efficiency and lowering theexcitation forces
onthedownstreamrotatingblades.
Casings
Turbine casings must contain the steampressure and maintain
support and alignment for the internal stationary components.
They aredesigned to withstand temperatures and pressures up to
themaximumsteamconditions. Their designhasevolvedover the
years andcasings arenowmultiplepressurevessels (for example,
an inner and outer casing in the HP and IP cylinder, or a triple
casing) allowingsmaller pressuredropsandthinner wall thickness.
Thesethinner cross-sectionsallowfor alower temperaturegradient
across thecasingsectionandthus lower thermal stresses. TheLP
casing may also be a multiple part design with the inner casing
containing the supports for the diaphragms and the outer casing
directingtheexhaust tothecondensers.
DesignRecommendationsfor CorrosionControl
New designs, redesigns, and failed components should be
checked to determine if they meet allowable corrosion-related
design specifications and other corrosion related requirements
(J onas, 1985c).
213
Innewdesignsandredesignsof turbinecomponents, useshould
be made of the new design tools, including 3D finite element
stress and vibration analysis and 3D viscous flow analysis, and
consideration of condensation and impurity behavior. Blade
resonancefrequenciesshouldbeverifiedbytelemetry. Toensurea
corrosion-freedesign, acorrosion engineer and achemist should
beconsultedduringthedesignactivity.
Thefollowingshouldbeconsideredindesignof steamturbines:
Stresses (J onas, 1985c)The mechanical design concepts for

avoidanceof SCCandCF shouldincludeanevaluationof thematerial
corrosionpropertiesanddefectsthat influencesusceptibility toSCC
and CF, i.e., threshold stress (
SCC
), threshold stress intensity
(K
ISCC
andK
thCF
), crackgrowthrate((da/dt)
SCC
and(da/dN)
CF
),
corrosion fatigue limit, pitting rate, and pit depth limit. True
residual stresses (micro and macro) should also be considered.
Because SCC and CF initiate at surfaces, the maximumsurface
stresses must becontrolled, usually by control of theelastic stress
concentration factor, k
t
. The stresses should be the lowest in the
salt zone regionwherecorrosionismost likely.
Vibratory stresses are rarely accurately known, except when

telemetryonoperatingturbinesisperformed. Thedesignapproach
should be to minimize flow excitation, tune the blades, provide
maximumdamping, and performlaboratory and shop stationary
frequency testing. Heater box overspeed and overspeed testing
during operation are generally beneficial in reducing operating
stressesby local plastic deformation.
Heat transfer and flow (EPRI, 1997c)Surface temperature

resultingfromheattransfer andflowstagnationshouldbeconsidered
alongwithitseffect onthermodynamicconditionsof theimpurities
and water filmat surfaces (i.e., evaporation of moisture). Flow
effects onbladevibrationanddeposit formationarecomplex, and
thereareover 15flowbladeexcitationmechanismstobeconsidered.
Flowof moistureTo avoid flow-accelerated corrosion (EPRI,

1996; Kleitz, 1994; J onas, 1985b; Svobodaand Faber, 1984) and
water droplet erosion (Ryzenkov, 2000; Pryakhin, et al., 1984;
Rezinskikh, et al., 1993; Sakamoto, et al., 1992; Povarov, et al.,
1985; Heyman, 1970, 1979, 1992), theflowvelocity of wet steam
shouldnot exceedtheallowablevelocity specific to thematerials
and moisture chemistry. Regions of high turbulence should be
avoided or higher chromium steels should be used. Blade path
moisturecanbeextracted.
CrevicesCrevicescanact asimpuritytrapsandconcentrators,
facilitate formation of oxygen concentration cells, and may
generatehighstresses by theoxidegrowthmechanism. Theworst
crevicesarethosewithcorrosiveimpuritiesandmetal temperature
within the salt zone. Some disc bore and keyway and blade
tenon-shroudcrevicesfall intothiscategory.
GalvaniceffectsWhendissimilar materialsarecoupledtogether,
corrosionof bothmaterialscanbeaffectedbytheassociatedshift in
corrosion potentials into the stress corrosion cracking (SCC) or
pitting regions. The more active of the two materials may suffer
galvanic corrosion. In addition, in some environments, the
potential shift could beinto theregion whereoneof thecoupled
materialsissusceptibletostresscorrosioncrackingor pitting.
InspectabilityIn designing turbine components, the question

of inspectability should be addressed. In particular, crevice
and high stress regions should be reachable using available
inspectiontechniques.
Chemical compounds used during machining, cleaning,

nondestructivetesting (NDT), and other activitiesMany different
chemical compoundsareusedduringmanufacture, storage, erection,
and inspection of turbine components. Some of them contain
chlorineand sulfur as impurities or as apart of theorganic matrix.
Duringthermal decomposition of theresidues of thesecompounds,
hydrochloric, sulfuric, carbonic, andorganic acids canform(J onas,
1982). It isrecommendedthat their compositionandusebecarefully
controlled to minimize the risk of residual contamination and
subsequent corrosion. For thecompoundsthat canremainonturbine
surfaces during operation, chlorine and sulfur levels should be
restricted to lowppmlevels in that compound. Of specific concern
are: MoS
2
(Molylube) (Turner, 1974; Newman, 1974), Loctite,
threadcompounds(Cu, Ni, graphite), andchlorinatedsolvents.
MaterialsandCorrosionData
Thereislittlevariationinthematerialsusedfor blades, discs, rotors,
and turbine cylinders, and only a few major changes have been
introducedinthelast decade. Titaniumalloy blades arebeingslowly
introduced for the last LP stages, and better melting practices to
providecontrol of inclusions and traceelements arebeing evaluated
for discsandrotors.Table2(Jonas, 1985a) listscommonmaterialsand
thetypical corrosionmechanismsfor thevariousturbinecomponents.
Table 2. LP Turbine Components, Materials, and Related
CorrosionMechanisms.
LP rotors are typically constructed of forgings conforming
to ASTM A293 (Class 2 to 5) or ASTM A470 (Class 2 to 7),
particularly 3.5NiCrMoV. Shrunk-on discs, when used, are made
fromforgingsof similar NiCrMoV materialsconformingtoASTM
A294(GradeB or C), or ASTM 471(Classes1to3). Thestrength
and hardness of turbinecomponents must belimited becausethe
stronger andharder materialsbecomeverysusceptibletoSCC and
CF (EPRI, 1998a); particularly turbine rotors, discs, and blades
cannot bemadefromhighstrengthmaterials.
The crack propagation rate increases exponentially with yield
strengthat highyieldstrengthvaluesandSCCstartsbeinginfluenced
byhydrogenembrittlement. Becauseof thissensitivitytohighyield
strength, practically all turbinediscs, fossil andnuclear, withyield
strength higher than ~140 ksi (965 MPa) have been replaced with
lower strengthmaterials. Figure6isacorrelationof crackpropagation
ratesversusyieldstrengthfor several operatingtemperatures(Clark,
etal., 1981). Thistypeof datahasbeenusedtopredicttheremaining
lifeandsafeinspectioninterval. Thereisalsoanupper temperature
limit for LP rotor anddiscsteels, ~650F (345C) aimedat avoiding
temper embrittlement (EPRI, 1998a).
Figure 6. Average Crack Growth Rates Versus Yield Strength
for Several Operating Temperatures for NiCrMoV Disc Steel.
(Courtesyof Clark, et al., 1981)
Sincethe1930s, mostLP turbinebladeshavebeenmanufactured
froma12%Cr stainlesssteeltypicallytypesAISI 403, 403-Cb, 410,
410-Cb, and422, dependingonthestrengthrequired. Types403and
410havebetter SCC andCF resistancethanType422, animportant
characteristic for usein thewet stages of theLP turbine. Thereare
numerousspecificallycustomizedversionsof thesegenericmaterials
(Carpenter H-46, J etheteM152(modified403), etc.).
Theprecipitationhardenedstainlesssteelsdesignated17-4PH,
15-5PH, and PH13-8Mo have been used for some fossil and
nuclear LP turbine blades. The composition of 17-4PH is 17
percent Cr, 4 percent Ni, and 4 percent Cu. These steels may be
difficult toweldandrequirepost-weldheat treatment. Thecopper
richzonesinthecopper bearingstainlesssteelsareoftensubject to
selectivedissolution, forming pits filled with corrosion products.
Thesepitscanbecrack initiationsites.
Titaniumalloys, primarilyTi-6Al-4V, havebeenusedfor turbine
blades sincetheearly 1960s (EPRI, 1984d, 1984e, 1985c). There
arenumerousbenefitstousingtitaniumalloyblades, includingthe
ability to use longer lasting stage blades, favorable mechanical
propertiesinapplicationsinvolvinghighstressesat lowtemperatures,
excellent corrosionresistance, andresistanceto impact andwater
droplet erosion damage. Drawbacks to titanium include higher
cost, difficult machining, andlowmaterial damping.
LP turbinecasings aretypically constructedof weldedandcast
components. Materials acceptablefor lower temperatures, suchas
carbonsteel plate, areused.
Considering the typical steamturbine design life of 25 to 40
years and the relatively high stresses, these materials have been
performingremarkablywell. TurbinesteelsaresusceptibletoSCC
and CF in environments such as caustic, chlorides, acids,
hydrogen, carbonate-bicarbonate, carbonate-CO
2
, and, at higher
stressesandstrengthlevels, inpurewater andsteam.
CorrosionData
Corrosion data should provide allowable steady and vibratory
stresses andstress intensities for defineddesignlifeor inspection
intervals. It is suggested that SCC data include threshold stress
(
SCC
), threshold stress intensity (K
ISCC
), crack growth rate
(da/dt), and crack incubation and initiation times. Corrosion
fatiguedatashouldincludefatiguelimits for smoothandnotched
surfacesandproper stressratios, crack growthdata, andcorrosion
fatiguethresholdstressintensities.
Examplesof thetypeof dataneededareshowninFigures7to9
for theNiCrMoV disc material andinFigure10for 12%Cr blade
steel. Properly heat treated12%Cr bladesteel (yieldstrength 85
ksi, 600 MPa) is not susceptibleto stress corrosion cracking and
stress corrosiondataarenot needed. ThedatashowninFigures 7
to 10 can be used in turbine disc and blade design in which the
allowable stresses and stress intensities should be below the
thresholdvaluesfor SCC andCF. Theuseof thesedataisoutlined
in(J onas, 1985c).
Figure7. StressCorrosionBehavior of NiCrMoVDiscSteel Versus
Yield Strength for Good Water and Steam (Compiled from
Published Data); K
ISCC
Threshold Stress Intensity,
SCC
Threshold Stress, and da/dtqStage 2 Crack Growth Rate.

(Courtesyof J onas, 1985a)
Figure 8. Corrosion Fatigue (Goodman) Diagramfor NiCrMoV
Disc Steel; Testedto10
8
Cycles. (Courtesyof Haas, 1977)
Figure9. Air FatigueStrength Reduction of NiCrMoV Disc Steel
Caused by Pitting (Courtesy of McIntyre, 1979)Effects of Pit
DensityWereNot Investigated.
Figure 10. Corrosion Fatigue (Goodman) Diagram for Three
StainlessSteel BladingAlloys. (Courtesyof Atrens, et al., 1984)
215
Theneededdataaredifficult to obtainbecauseof thelongtime
neededfor testingandbecauseof thegreatrangeof possibleservice
environments and temperatures. There does not seem to be any
universallyacceptedacceleratedtestor environment. TheK
ISCC
test
in hydrogen sulfide gives a reasonable approximation of K
ISCC
for lowalloy steels, andultrasonic fatiguetests giveusabledatato
ahighnumber of cyclesthat may beusablefor turbinedesign.
As aruleof thumb, theelasticity limit at temperature(usually
between 0.4 and 0.6 of the 0.2 percent yield strength) can be
used as a good estimateof theSCC threshold stress for low and
mediumstrengthmaterialsinmildly corrosiveenvironments. This
isconsistent withtheoxidefilmruptureor straininducedcracking
theory of stresscorrosioncracking.
Shot peening (EPRI, 2001b)has been used as a means of
reducing high surfacetensilestresses. At asufficiently high shot
peeningintensity, asurfacelayer of residual compressivestresses
is produced. One turbine vendor uses shot peening and other
surface treatments extensively and they have almost no SCC of
discs and corrosion fatigue (CF) of turbine blades. There is a
concernthat incorrosiveenvironments, pits cangrowthroughthe
compressive stress layer into the subsurface region with much
higher tensilestresses.
Other surfacetreatments for protection against corrosion, such
as coatings andelectroplating, havebeenevaluated(EPRI, 1987a,
1993a, 2001b; J onas, 1989) and sometimes used. There are now
several suppliers of steamturbinecoatings (EPRI, 1987a, 1993a;
J onas, 1989).
EnvironmentStressMaterial
Turbinestresscorrosioncrackingandhigh- andlow-cyclecorrosion
fatigue mechanisms are typically governed by a combination of
environmental effects (steamchemistry, temperature, etc.), steady
and vibratory stresses, and material strength, composition, and
defects(Figure11). Itshouldbenotedthatevenpurewater andwet
steamcan causecracking of turbinematerials, particularly in the
lowalloy rotor anddisc steels, andthat mediumandhighstrength
materialsareverysusceptibletoenvironmentallyinducedcracking
inany environment, includingpurewater andsteam.
Figure 11. Three Components of Turbine Stress Corrosion and
CorrosionFatigueCrackinginTurbines.
Turbine environment plays a major role in corrosion during
operationandlayup. Theuniqueness of this environment is caused
bythephasechangesof theworkingfluidandtheimpuritiescarried
by thesteam(steam, moisture, liquid films, and deposits). Within
the steamflow path and on the turbine component surfaces, the
parameterscontrollingcorrosion, suchaspH, concentrationof salts
andhydroxides, andtemperature, canchangewithinabroadrange.
Even though steamimpurity concentrations are controlled in the
lowparts per billion(ppb) range, theseimpurities canconcentrate
by precipitation, deposition, and by evaporation of moisture to
percent concentrations, becoming very corrosive (Figures 12 and
13) (EPRI, 1994a, 1997b, 1997c, 1999; J onas, et al., 1993).
Figure12. Physical-Chemical ProcessesinLP Turbines.
Figure13. CrossSectionof anLPTurbinewiththeLocationsof the
ProcessesListedinFigure15-11.
SteamChemistry
Steamchemistry or purity, together with the thermodynamics
and flow design, determines corrosiveness of the deposits and
liquid films on turbine component surfaces (J onas, 1982, 1985a,
1985d; J onasandDooley, 1996, 1997; EPRI, 1984b, 1994a, 1997b,
1997c, 1999; J onas, et al., 1993; J onas and Syrett, 1987;
Schleithoff, 1984). Infossil units, theLPturbinerequiresthelowest
concentrationof impuritiesinthecycle, thatis, lowpartsper billion
concentrations (1 ppb is 1 g/liter). Steampurity is controlled by
the purity of makeup, condensate, and feedwater and in drum
boilersbyboiler water chemistry, boiler pressure, andcarryover. As
a minimum, steam purity should be monitored by isokinetic
samplingandbyanalysisof sodiumandcationconductivity(EPRI,
1986, 1994c, 1998b, 1998c, 2002a; J onas, 2000).
Thecorrosivenessof thesteamturbineenvironmentiscausedby
oneor moreof thefollowing:
Concentration of impurities fromlow ppb levels in steamto

percent levels insteamcondensates (andother deposits) resulting
intheformationof concentratedaqueoussolutions
Insufficient pH control and buffering of impurities by water

treatment additivessuchasammonia
High velocity and high turbulence flow of low-pH moisture

droplets(FAC)
ThesituationisgeneralizedinFigure14, whichisaMollierdiagram
showingtheLP turbinesteamexpansionlineandthermodynamic
regions of impurity concentrations (NaOH, salts, etc.) and
resultingcorrosion. Lowvolatilityimpuritiesinthesalt zone are
presentasconcentratedaqueoussolutions. TheNaCl concentration
can beas high as 28 percent. Notethat theconditions at thehot
turbine surfaces (in relation to the steamsaturation temperature)
can shift fromthewet steamregion into thesalt zoneandabove.
This can be the reason why disc stress corrosion cracking often
occurs inthewet steamregions. Thesurfaces may behot because
of heat transfer through the metal or because of the stagnation
temperatureeffect (zeroflowvelocityat thesurfaceandchangeof
kinetic energy of steamintoheat).
Figure 14. Mollier Diagramwith LP SteamExpansion Line and
Thermodynamic Regions for Impurity Concentration and
CorrosionMechanisms.
Theimpurity concentrationmechanismsinclude:
Precipitationfromsuperheatedsteamanddeposition.
Evaporationanddryingof moistureonhot surfaces.
Concentrationonoxidesby sorption.
Nonhomogeneousnucleationof concentrateddropletsandcrystals
onsurfaces.
Dissolvedimpuritiesdeposit fromsuperheatedsteamwhentheir
concentrationexceedstheir solubilities, whichsharplydecreasesas
thesteamexpands. Dependingontheir vapor pressure, theycanbe
present as a dry salt or an aqueous solution. In the wet steam
region, they areeither dilutedby moistureor couldconcentrateby
evaporationonhot surfaces.
Theregionof passivity for ironandlowalloy andcarbonsteels
isnarrow, fallingwithinthepH rangeof 6to10. SincepH control
inapower plant ismostly for theprotectionof thepreboiler cycle
and the boiler, it often does not match the needs of the turbine
surfaces. ThepHintheturbinedependsontemperature, mechanical
and vaporous carryover of impurities, and water treatment
chemicalsfromtheboiler andtheir volatility(distributionbetween
thevapor andthesurfacefilm).
Whenhydrochloricacidformsincycleswithammoniaall-volatile
treatment (by decompositionof chlorinatedorganics, Cl
leakage
frompolishers, or seawater or other cooling water leakagein the
condenser), ammoniumchlorideforms in thewater, and theacid
may beneutralized. However, becauseof itsvolatility, ammonium
chloride is transported with steam into the turbine where it
hydrolyzes, formingNH
3
gasandHCl.
Deposits on turbine surfaces in units with sodium phosphate
boiler water treatment (most drumboilers) areless corrosive(J onas
andSyrett, 1987; EPRI, 1984b; J onas, 1985d). Sodiumphosphateis
a better neutralizing agent through the cycle; fewer acids are
transported into the turbine and phosphate frequently codeposits
with harmful impurities, providing in-situ neutralization and
passivation. This is most likely the reason for lower frequency of
turbine corrosion in systems with phosphate water treatments.
Measurementsof pittingpotential of discandbladingalloysconfirm
thebeneficial effectsof sodiumphosphateinthepresenceof NaCl.
Besides the corrosion during operation, turbines can corrode
during manufacture (corrosive products from machining fluids,
exposure to tool tip temperatures), storage (airborne corrosive
impurities, preservatives containing Cl and S), erection (airborne
impurities, preservatives, cleaning fluids), chemical cleaning
(storage of acid in hotwells), nondestructive testing (chlorinated
cleaning and NDT fluids), and layup (deposits plus humid air).
Manyof thesecorrosivesubstancesmaycontainhighconcentrations
of sulfur andchloridethat couldformacids upondecomposition.
Decomposition of typical organics, such as carbon tetrachloride
occursat about 300F (150C). Thecompositionof all of theabove
compounds should becontrolled (maximumof 50 to 100 ppmS
andCl eachhasbeenrecommended), andmost of themshouldbe
removedbeforeoperation.
Molybdenum disulfide, MoS
2
, has been implicated as a
corrodent in power systemapplications (Turner, 1974; Newman,
1974). It can cause stress corrosion cracking of superalloys and
steels by producingan acidic environment. Its oxidation products
form low pH solutions of molybdic acid and even ammonium
molybdate, whichcanformduringoperation, causingrapidattack
of turbinesteels. MoS
2
has beenusedas athreadlubricant andin
theprocess of disc-rotor assemblingwhenthediscs arepreheated
and shrunk on the rotors. Analysis of disc bore and keyway
surfaces oftenreveals thepresenceof molybdenumandsulfur. In
steam, MoS
2
reduces thenotchstrengthof disc steel, to about 30
percent of itsstrengthinair. It hasalsobeenimplicatedinbolt and
rotor shaft failures.
Layupcorrosionof unprotectedturbinesincreasesrapidlywhenthe
relativehumidity of air reachesabout 60percent. Whensalt deposits
arepresent, pitting during unprotected layup is rapid. Pit growth in
turbinebladeandrotor alloysinchloride-metal oxidemixturesinwet
air isabout asfast asinaboilingdeaerated28percent NaCl solution.
Turbinelayupprotectionbycleandryair isrecommended.
Progress incontrollingturbinecorrosionthroughbetter control
of thesteamchemistry includes(J onas, 1982, 1985d, 1994; EPRI,
1984b, 1986, 1994a, 1994c, 1997b, 1997c, 1998b, 1998c, 1999,
2002a; J onas, et al., 1993, 2000; J onas and Syrett, 1987;
Schleithoff, 1984, Progressin..., 1981):
Decreasingconcentrationof corrosiveimpuritiesinmakeupand
feedwater, lower air inleakageandcondenser leakage, etc.
Oxygenated water treatment for once-through fossil units for

excellent feedwater chemistry andcleanboilers.
Layupprotection.
Turbine washing after chemical upsets to remove deposited

impurities.
Reduction or elimination of copper and its oxides and their

synergistic corrosion effects by reducing oxygen concentration,
operating with a reducing (negativeoxidation-reduction potential
[ORP]) environment and a low ammonia concentration, or by
replacingcopper alloyswithsteel or titanium.
PROBLEMS, THEIR
ROOT CAUSES, ANDSOLUTIONS
Steam turbine corrosion damage, particularly of blades and
discs, has long been recognized as a leading cause of reduced
availability (Scegljajev, 1983; McCloskey, 2002; Sanders, 2001;
Cotton, 1993; J onas, 1985a, 1987; EPRI, 1981, 1998a, 2001b; J onas
and Dooley, 1996, 1997; NERC, 2002). It has been estimated that
turbinecorrosionproblemscost theU.S. utility industry asmuchas
one billion dollars per year (EPRI, 1985b, 2001a; Syrett, et al.,
2002; Syrett andGorman, 2003; J onas, 1986) andthat thecost for
industrial turbines, whichsuffer similar problems, isevenhigher.
In this section, themain corrosion problems found in LP turbines
and their root causes are summarized, and solutions to reduce or
eliminateeachproblemarediscussed. Thefieldmonitoringequipment
showninFigure15canbeusedtodiagnoseandpreventmanycommon
LP turbinecorrosion and deposition problems (EPRI, 1997c, 2001b;
Jonas, 1994; Jonas, et al., 2007). Inaddition, therearealso monitors
availabletodetect vibration, bladeandrotor cracking, steamleaks, air
inleakage, rotor position, andwear of bearings(Jonas, et al., 2007).
217
Figure 15. LP Turbine Troubleshooting Instrumentation Can
IdentifySpecificCorrosiveConditions. (Courtesyof EPRI, 1997c)
An overview of the low-pressure turbine corrosion problems
together with erosion and other problems is given inTable 3. The
problems arelistedaccordingto their priority andimpact withdisc
rimblade attachment stress corrosion cracking being the highest
impact problemtoday because of the long time required for weld
repair or procurement of anewdiscor newrotor (uptosixmonths).
Crackingof discs, corrosionfatigueof therotor shaft, andfatigueor
corrosionfatigueof longblades canbecomeasafety issuebecause
they can lead to perforation of the casing and other destructive
events(EPRI, 1981, 1982a, 1998a; J onas, 1977; Turner, 1974). It is
estimated that inadequate mechanical design (high steady and
vibratorystresses, stressconcentration, andvibration) isresponsible
for about 50 percent of the problems, inadequate steamchemistry
for about 20 percent, and nonoptimumflow and thermodynamic
design for about 20 percent. Poor manufacturing and maintenance
practicesaccount for theremaining10percent of theproblems.
Table3. LP TurbineCorrosion, Erosion, andDepositionProblems.
Whenacorrosionproblemisdiscoveredduringinspectionor by
equipment malfunction, thefailuremechanismandtheroot causes
arenot alwaysknown. Evenwhenthedamagefitsadescriptionof
awell-knownproblem(disc or bladecracking), replacement parts
maynot bereadilyavailableandthedecisionfor what todohasto
be made quickly. The main objectives in handling identified and
potential problems are maintaining safety and avoiding forced
outages. Thequestionsshouldbeasked: canweoperatesafelyuntil
the next planned inspection or overhaul? If not, what is the safe
inspectioninterval? If repeatedfailuresarelikelyandrepair would
takealongtimeandleadtoalargelossof production, sparerotors
may beagoodeconomical solution.
Data collected by the North American Electric Reliability
Council (NERC) for 1476 fossil units between 1996 and 2000
shows that LP turbines were responsible for 818 forced and
scheduled outages and deratings, causing the utilities a 39,574
GWh production loss. The outages are often characterized as
low frequency high impact events. (NERC, 2002) shows the
components that were responsible for the failures as well as the
MWh losses associated with the failures. Many of these outages
arecausedby corrosion(except for bearings).
Table4. Forced and ScheduleOutages and Deratings Caused by
LP TurbineComponents for theYears 1996 to 2000 (1476 Units,
168Utilities).
LifePredictionandInspectionInterval
Experience shows that pits and ground-out stress corrosion
crackscanremainin-servicefor several years, dependingonstress
and environment. However, components containing high-cycle
corrosion fatiguecracks should not beleft in-service. Procedures
for predictionof residual lifeanddeterminationof asafeinspection
interval have been developed for all major failure mechanisms
including SCC, CF, fatigue, FAC, and creep. The procedures for
SCC of turbinediscs (Clark, et al., 1981; EPRI, 1989; Rosario, et
al., 2002), lowcyclecorrosionfatigue, andFAC(EPRI, 1996) have
been successfully applied because all variables influencing these
mechanisms can be reasonably predicted or measured. However,
life prediction for high cycle corrosion fatigue and fatigue has
not been so successful because the vibratory stresses and the
corrosivenessof theenvironmentareusuallynotaccuratelyknown.
Life prediction is based on results of inspection, fracture
mechanicsanalysisof componentswithdefects, andapplicationof
SCC andCF crack growthdata. Timeor number of loadcyclesto
reach ductileor brittlefractureis predicted and asafety factor is
applied to determine the time for the next inspection. In the
procedure used by OEMs and Nuclear Regulatory Commission
(NRC) for nuclear turbinesfor determiningtheinspectioninterval
for turbine discs under SCC conditions, the safety factor of two
wasappliedtothepredictedtime-to-failure.
StressCorrosionCrackingof Discs
Stress corrosion cracking of LP turbine disc keyways and blade
attachments havebeen thetwo most expensivegeneric problems in
largesteamturbines(CheruvuandSeth, 1993; EPRI, 1982a, 1982b,
1984a, 1984c, 1985a, 1985d, 1987b, 1989, 1991a, 1997a, 1998d;
J onas, 1978; Speidel and Bertilsson, 1984; Clark, et al., 1981;
Rosario, et al., 2002; Nowak, 1997; Kilroy, et al., 1997; Amos, et al.,
1997; Turner, 1974; Newman, 1974; Parkins, 1972; Holdsworth,
2002). The keyway cracking problem has been resolved by
redesigns of theshrunk-onor bolted-ondiscs, material replacement
withlower strengthmaterial, andbyeliminationof thecorrosivedisc
bore lubricants, based on molybdenumdisulfide (MoS
2
), used in
assemblingtherotor. SCC of bladeattachmentsof variousdesignsis
still aproblem(EPRI, 1997d, 1998a, 2002c; Nowak, 1997).
There are several corrosion damage mechanisms and many
factorsaffectingdiscs(Figure16). Typical locationsandorientations
of SCC cracks inLP discs areshowninFigures 17and18. There
has also been SCC in pressure balance holes. Most incidents of
disc rimattachment cracking have been found in nuclear units,
however, there have also been problems in fossil units. In an
independent survey, 13 of 38 (35 percent) boiling water reactors
(BWRs) and 28 of 72 (39 percent) pressurized water reactors
(PWRs) reporteddiscrimattachment crackingwhile29of 110(26
percent) supercritical fossil units and only 20 of 647 (3 percent)
subcritical units reportedcracking(EPRI, 1997d). Disc rimblade
attachment cracking occurred in multiple-hook (steeple), fir tree
attachment designs (typically occurs inthecorners of thehooks),
in straddlemount dovetail and pinned-finger attachments, and in
T-roots. It isalwaysassociatedwithstressconcentrations.
Figure16. CrackLocations inTurbineDiscs withProbableImpurity
ConcentrationandCorrosionMechanismsandCorrodents. (Courtesy
of J onas, 1985a)
Figure17. Typical LocationsandOrientationsof SCCFoundinLP
TurbineDiscs. (Courtesyof EPRI, 1982a)
Figure18. Typical Locations of Disc RimCracking. (Courtesy of
EPRI, 1982a)
MaterialsAll low alloy steels used for LP turbine rotors
and discs are susceptible to SCC and CF in numerous turbine
environments including pure water and wet steam. The strongest
material factor influencing SCC is yield strength. At higher yield
strength, SCCcrackgrowthratecanbeseveral ordersof magnitude
higher than for lower yield strength materials. The purity of the
material and the steel melting practices mostly influence the
fracturetoughness, whichdeterminesthemaximumtolerablecrack
sizebeforeadisc brittlefractureandburst.
FractographySCC cracks of low alloy steels often initiate
frompitsandpropagateintergranularlywithbranching. Theinitial
part of thecrack canbecorrodedandfilledwithmagnetite. There
couldbebeachmarksor stretchmarks, causedby overloadingthe
crackduringoverspeedtesting. Another typeof beachmarkcanbe
causedbychangesof theenvironment or byfatigue. Dependingon
theratioof thesteady andcyclic stresses, thedisc crackscanbea
mixture of intergranular and transgranular cracking. Figure 19
shows anSCC crack initiatingat theradius of theupper serration
of L-1bladesteeple. Theintergranular crack initiatedfromapit.
Figure 19. SCC Crack in the Upper Steeple Serration-L-1 Blade
Attachment.
The factors that determine the SCC crack initiation time and
propagation rate include material yield strength, surface stress,
temperature, and the local chemical environment. Some of these
relationships are shown in Figures 6 and 7. At yield strengths
above~135ksi (930MPa), theselow-alloy steels showhighSCC
growthrates.
PittingofteninitiatesSCC. Whencorrosivedepositsarepresent,
pitting during unprotected layup can befaster than pitting during
operation. This is because during the layup, there can be 100
percent relative humidity and there is oxygen present. At high
stresses, above the elasticity limit of the material, pitting is
enhanced through the mechanism identified as stress induced
pitting(Parkins, 1972). In somecases, bladeattachment cracking
isacombinationof stresscorrosioncrackingandcorrosionfatigue
becauseof theeffectsof bladevibration.
Root Causes
SCC of discs (at keyways, bores, and blade attachments) is
caused by a combination of high surface stresses, a susceptible
material, andoperational andshutdownenvironments. Design-related
root causes are the most important and prevalent. They include
high surfacetensilestresses and stress concentrations, and useof
highstrengthmaterials.
Sourcesof stressesthat contributetoSCC of discsinclude:
Basic centrifugal load caused by rotor rotation. Locally high

concentrationof centrifugal loads causedby variationinthegaps
(gauging) betweenbladeanddisc rimattachment.
Residual machiningstresses.
Vibratorystressesinteractionof SCCandcorrosionfatigue. Also,

vibratory stresses reducethelifeof thecracked disc when theflaws
reachasufficient sizethat fatiguebecomesadominant mechanism.
Steamchemistry root causesof SCC andCF crackinginclude:
Operating outside of recommended steam purity limits for

long periods of time; sometimes caused by organic acids from
decompositionof organic water treatment chemicals.
219
Condenser leaksminor butoccurringover alongperiodof time.
Condenser leaksmajor ingress, generally one serious event,

andthesystemandturbinenot subsequently cleaned.
Water treatment plant or condensate polisher regeneration

chemicals(NaOH or H
2
SO
4
) leak downstream.
Improperly operated condensate polisher (operating beyond

ammoniabreakthrough, poor rinse, etc.).
Shutdownenvironment: poor layuppracticespluscorrosivedeposits.

Sodium hydroxide is the most severe SCC environment
encountered in steam turbines. The sources of NaOH include
malfunctioning condensate polishers and makeup systems and
improper control of phosphate boiler water chemistry combined
withhighcarryover. Many other chemicalscanalsocauseSCC of
low alloy steels. The chemicals used in turbine assembly and
testing, such as molybdenumdisulfide (lubricant) and Loctite
(sealant containing high sulfur), can accelerate SCC initiation
(Turner, 1974; Newman, 1974).
Solutions
In most cases where material yield strength is <130 ksi (895
MPa), the solution to disc SCC is a design change to reduce
stressesat critical locations. Thishasbeenachievedbyeliminating
keyways or even disc bores (weldedrotors) andby larger radii in
thebladeattachments. Higher yieldstrength(>130ksi, 895MPa)
low alloy steel discs should be replaced with lower strength
materials. Thegoal istokeeptheratioof thelocal operatingstress
toyieldstressaslowaspossible, ideallyaimingfor theratiostobe
less than 0.6. Minimizing applied stresses in this manner is most
beneficial inpreventinginitiationof stresscorrosioncracks. Once
cracks begin to propagate, a reduction in stress may be only
marginally effectiveunless thestress intensity can bekept below
~10 to 20 ksi-in
1/2
(11 to 22 MPa-m
1/2
). This is because of the
relativeindependenceof thecrack growthrateover abroadrange
of stressintensities. For many rimattachment designs, suchlevels
of appliedstressintensity areimpossibletoachieveonceaninitial
pit or stress concentration has formed. An emerging solution to
disc rimstress corrosion cracking is a weld repair with 12%Cr
stainless steel. Another solution has been to shot peen the blade
attachmentstoplacethehook fit regionintocompression.
Goodcontrol of thesteampurityof theenvironment canhelpto
prevent or delay theSCC. Maintainingtherecommendedlevelsof
impurities during operation and providing adequate protection
duringshutdowncanhelpminimizetheformationof depositsand
corrosive liquid films, and lengthen the period before stress
corrosion cracks initiate. The operating period(s), events, or
transients that are causing excursions in water and steam
chemistry shouldbeidentifiedusingthemonitoringlocationsand
instrumentationrecommendedintheindependent water chemistry
guidelines(EPRI, 1986, 1994c, 1998b, 1998c, 2002a; J onas, et al.,
2000) andspecial monitoringasshowninFigure15andelsewhere
(EPRI, 1997c, 2001b; J onas, et al., 2007).
CorrosionFatigueand
StressCorrosionCrackingof Blades
LP turbine blades are subject to CF, SCC, and pitting of the
airfoils, roots, tenonsandshrouds, andtiewires(Holdsworth, 2002;
EPRI, 1984c, 1984d, 1985c, 1985d, 1987c, 1991b, 1993b, 1994b,
1998d; J affe, 1983; Evans, 1993; Singh, et al.; BLADE-ST,
2000). Figure 20 depicts the typical locations on an LP turbine
rotatingbladethatareaffectedbylocalizedcorrosionandcracking.
Inaddition, thebladesurfacesarealsosubjecttofatigue, deposition,
water dropleterosion, andforeignobjectdamage. CF istheleading
mechanismof damage. It is aresult of thecombination of cyclic
stressesandenvironmental effects. Therearealwaysenvironmental
effectsinfatiguecrackinginLPturbines(EPRI, 1984d, 1984e) and
all fatigue cracking should be considered corrosion fatigue. The
fatigue limit of all turbine materials in turbine environments
includingpuresteamis lower thantheair fatiguelimit. Corrosion
fatiguecracksoftenoriginatefrompits.
Figure20. Typical Locationsof CrackingandLocalizedCorrosion
onLP TurbineRotatingBlades. ThereHasAlsoBeenSCC andCF
CrackingintheTiewireHoles. (Courtesyof EPRI, 1998a)
Figures 21 and 22 show corrosion fatigue cracks of L-1 blade
root and airfoil, respectively. Figure 23 illustrates pitting in the
blade tenon-shroud area, which sometimes initiates corrosion
fatiguecracking. Fractographyshowsthat CF bladecrackingoften
initiates fromapit, continuingfor 50to150mils (1.3to3.8mm)
by intergranular cracking and then proceeding as a flat fatigue
fracturewithbeachmarksandstriations.
Figure21. CorrosionFatigueof L-1BladeAttachment. (Courtesy
of EPRI, 1998a)
Figure 22. Corrosion Fatigue of L-1 BladeAirfoil. (Courtesy of
EPRI, 1981)
Figure23. PittingintheL-1BladeTenon-ShroudArea. (Courtesy

of EPRI, 1981)
Damageby corrosionfatigueoccurs inthelast fewrows of LP
turbines, mostly in the phase transition zone (PTZ) (salt zone
shown in Figure14). ThePTZ moves according to load changes,
but istypicallynear theL-1rowinmost LP fossil turbines(Figure
24). Units that increasecycling duty may besubject to worsened
corrosion fatigue problems. As the unit is ramped up and shut
down, theblades pass throughresonancemorefrequently andthe
phasetransitionzoneshifts, potentiallyaffectingmorestagesduring
the transients. In addition, the steam purity can be significantly
worseduring transients than during steady-stateoperation, and if
theunit is shut down as part of thecycling operation, significant
degradation of the local environment can occur (deposits and
humidair).
Figure24. Distributionof BladeFailuresinU.S. Fossil Turbinesby
Row. (Courtesyof Power, 1981)
Causesof bladeandbladeattachment failuresarelistedinTable5
(J onas, 1985a). Tofindthetruecausesof corrosion, it isessential to
analyzethelocal temperature, pressure, chemistry, moisturedroplet
flow, andstressconditions. Theseanalysesareoftenneglected.
Table5. Causesof BladeFailuresinLP, IP, andHP SteamTurbines.
Root Causes
Highstressesandmarginal steamchemistryactingtogether arethe
most frequent root causes. Corrosion fatigue cracks are driven by
cyclic stresses withhighmeanstress playingalargerole. Figure10
shows how fatiguestrength is reduced at high mean stresses. It has
been estimated that the corrosion fatigue limit for long LP turbine
bladesintheareaof highmeanstressisaslowas1ksi (7MPa). Rough
surfacefinishandpittingoftenshortenthetimetocrack initiation.
Cyclic stresses are caused by turbine startups and shutdowns
(low number of cycles, high cyclic stresses), by the turbine and
bladesrampingthroughcritical speedsat whichsomecomponents
areinresonance(highamplitude, highfrequency), andby over 15
causes of flow induced blade excitation during normal operation
that include:
Synchronous resonanceof theblades at aharmonic of theunit

runningspeed.
Nonuniformflows.
Bladevibrationinducedfromavibratingrotor or disc.
Self-excitationsuchasflutter.
Randomexcitation-resonancewithadjacent blades.
Shock waves in the transonic flow region and shock wave-

condensationinteraction.
Bad blade design with wrong incidence flow angle and flow
separation.
Elevated concentrations of steam impurities (particularly of
chloride, sodium, and sulfate) and the resulting deposition and
concentrationby evaporationof moistureareunderlyingcausesof
corrosion fatigue. When feedwater, boiler water, and steam
impurity levels exceed recommended limits, cycle chemistry can
beacontributor or eventheroot cause. Poor shutdownandlayup
procedures are primary contributors to aggressive environments
that canleadto pittingandcorrosionfatigue. Highsteamsodium
or cation conductivity may indicate conditions that can lead to
rapid accumulation of deposits and concentrated liquid films on
bladesurfaces.
Solutions
Thesolutionstobladecorrosionfatigueproblemsinclude:
Design of blades that arenot in resonancewith running speed

anditsharmonic frequenciesor withany of theexcitationsources
listedabove.
Designwithfrictiondamping.
Eliminationof thesourcesof excitation.
Reductionof meanandalternatingstressesbydesign(lower stress

concentrations, etc.).
Better materials, suchasby avoidinghighstrengthalloys, using

materialswithhighmaterial damping, or usingtitaniumalloys.
Improvement of steamchemistry.
Long-termactionsfor dealingwithcorrosionfatiguebeginwith
economic and remaining life assessments. Depending upon the
severityof theproblemandthecoststoeliminateit, somesolutions
maynotbepractical for all circumstances. Theavailableprevention
strategies fall into four main categories: redesigning thebladeto
reduce resonance, redesigning the blade or attachment to reduce
stresslevels, improvingsteampurity, and/or changingthematerial
or surface(better surfacefinish, shot peening) of theblade.
Stressreductionoptionsinclude:
Changing the vibration resonance response of the blade by

design modification (adding or reducing weight of the blade,
221
changing to free standing, grouped or fully connected shrouded
blades, moving tiewires or tenons, shroud segment integrally
machinedwiththebladenotenons, etc.).
Changingtheresponseof thebladesby mixedtuning.
Increasingthedampingof theblades.
Changingoperatingprocedures; for example, avoidingoff-design

operation such as very low load, high backpressure operation
(which can cause stall flutter), and changing rotational speed
duringstartups.
Optionstoimprovetheturbineenvironment include:
Controllingimpurityingress(reduceair inleakage, plugleaking

condenser tubes, etc.).
Changingunit operatingprocedures, particularly for shutdowns

andstartups.
Control of boiler carryover bydrumdesignandwater chemistry.
Optimizingor changingfeedwater andboiler water treatment to

reduceconcentrationof impuritiesinsteam.
Another option to improve the environment at surfaces is to
improvethesurfacefinishof blading. Depositionandsubsequent
concentration of impurities areafunction of bladesurfacefinish
(EPRI, 2001b), andthisimprovementmayhelpslowtheaccumulation
of impurities. Improving the continuous monitoring of steam
chemistry (sodium, cation conductivity) will help to verify
improvementsintheenvironment.
If such changes are not sufficient, then changing to a more
corrosion resistant material, such as a material with a higher
chromiumcontent or atitaniumalloy, isgenerally recommended.
It shouldbenotedthat higher strengthmaterials areoftenmore
susceptible to stress corrosion cracking. It has been shown that
403SS, with yield strength above ~90 ksi (620 MPa), becomes
susceptibletoSCC.
Pitting
Pittingcanbeaprecursor tomoreextensivedamagefromCF and
SCC, althoughextensivepittingof bladescanalsocausesignificant
loss of stageefficiency by deteriorating thesurfacefinish (EPRI,
2001b). Pitting is found in awiderangeof components. It occurs
most prevalently during shutdown when moisture condenses on
equipment surfacesandasaresult, it canbefoundinstagesof the
turbine that are dry during operation. However, it can also occur
duringoperation, particularly increvices(crevicecorrosion).
In LP turbines, pitting is primarily found on theturbineblades
andblade-disc attachments, particularly inthesalt zone (Figure
14). Thereislittlepittingonwetstagesbecausecorrosionimpurities
arewashedawaybythesteammoisture. Pittingisfrequentlyfound
inthebladetenon-shroudcrevicesbecause, oncecorrosiveimpurities
enter, they cannot be removed. Titanium alloys are the most
resistant topittingcorrosion, followedbyduplexferritic-austenitic
stainless steels (Fe-26Cr-2Mo), precipitation hardened stainless
steels(Fe-14Cr-1.6Mo) and12%Cr steels.
Root Causes
Steamand deposit chemistries are the main causes of pitting,
withchloridesandsulfatesbeingthemaincorrodents. Copper and
iron oxides acceleratepitting by providing thematrix that retains
salts. Copper oxides also transport oxygen to thecorrosion sites.
Dissolvedoxygendoesnot concentrateintheliquidfilmsforming
onbladesurfaces duringoperationbut does, however, accumulate
in the liquid films and wet deposits that can form during unit
shutdown if proper layuppractices arenot used. Therehavebeen
casesof severebladepittingrequiringbladereplacement onbrand
new rotors fromwhich preservatives were stripped leaving them
exposedtoseasalt duringprolongederectionperiods.
Solutions
The first line of defense against pitting is controlling steam
purity. This will improve the local environment produced during
operation and decrease the amount of deposition. The chemistry
guidelinesestablishedbyanindependent researchanddevelopment
firm(EPRI, 1986, 1994c, 1998b, 1998c, 2002a; J onas, etal., 2000)
particularlyfor cationconductivity, chloride, andsulfate, shouldbe
followed. Thereshouldbealayupprotectionof theLP turbinesby
dehumidifiedair, vapor phaseinhibitors, or nitrogen.
After asteamchemistry upset, such as alargecondenser leak,
theturbineshouldbewashedonlineor after adisassembly. Doing
nothing may result in multimillion dollar corrosion damage
requiringrotor replacement.
Flow-AcceleratedCorrosion
Flow-acceleratedcorrosionof carbonandlow-alloysteelsinthe
steam path two-phase flow has been less widespread in fossil
plants than in nuclear plants; however, it has occurred at some
locations (EPRI, 1996; 1998a; Kleitz, 1994; J onas, 1985b;
SvobodaandFaber, 1984) suchas:
Wet steamextractionpipesandextractionslots.
Exhaust hoodandcondenser neck structure.
Casings.
Rotor glandandother seal areas.
Disc pressurebalanceholes.
Rimandsteeplesof last rowdisc.
Rotor shaftlast disc transition.
Leakinghorizontal joint.
Transitionbetweenthestationary bladesandthebladering.
Whilemostcasesof flow-acceleratedcorrosiondamageareslow
to develop and are found during scheduled inspections, FAC of
piping and turbine casing horizontal joints can lead to leaks and
FAC of rotorsanddiscscaninitiatecracking.
Root Causes
Root causes of FAC in theturbine(EPRI, 1996, 1998a; J onas,
1985b) include:
Susceptiblematerial: carbonsteel or low-chromiumsteel.
Locally highflowvelocitiesandturbulence.
Highmoisturecontent of thesteam.
Lowlevelsof dissolvedoxygen, excessoxygenscavenger.
LowpH of moisturedroplets.
Water/steamimpurities.
Solutions
It is recommended that acomprehensiveFAC control program
be implemented, including an evaluation of the most susceptible
pipingandother components(EPRI, 1996). Areasof local thinning
need to be periodically inspected and repaired. Approaches to
piping repair include replacement with low alloy steels, weld
overlay, and plasmaarc and flamespraying to protect susceptible
surfaces. Thematerial appliedshouldhavehighchromiumcontent.
If a component is replaced, the material of the new component
should contain some chromium. For example, carbon steel pipe
should be replaced with 1.25 percent or higher chromiumsteel.
Little can be done about changing the moisture concentration in
fossil turbines. Steam chemistry improvements through better
control of feedwater andboiler water chemistry, suchasreduction
of organic acids, could result in increase of pH of the early
condensateandlessFAC (EPRI, 1997b, 1997c, 1999).
Treatment of feedwater, such as maintaining high pH levels
(above 9.6) and elevated oxygen concentrations, can also reduce
FAC intheturbine.
Other Phenomena(Noncorrosion)
Although not specifically corrosion related, there are other
problems that occur in steam turbines including: deposition on
bladesurfaces; water dropleterosionof wetstageblades; lowcycle
thermal fatigueof heavyhightemperaturesectionsof rotor, casing,
and pipes; solid particleerosion of turbineinlets and valves; and
water inductionandwater hammer.
DepositiononBladeSurfaces
Deposits are the result of impurities in the feedwater, boiler
water, andattemperatingwater beingcarriedover into theturbine
(J onasandDooley, 1997; EPRI, 1997b, 2001b; J onas, et al., 1993;
J onas, 1985d). All impurities are soluble in superheated and wet
steamand their solubility depends on pressure and temperature.
The steam leaving the steam generator is at the highest steam
pressure and temperature in the cycle. As it passes through the
turbine, the pressure and temperature decrease, the steamloses
its ability to hold the impurities in solution, and the impurities
precipitateanddeposit ontheturbinebladesandelsewhere.
The main impurities found in turbine deposits are magnetite,
sodiumchloride, andsilica. It takesonlyafewhoursof achemical
upset, suchas amajor condenser leak or aboiler carryover event,
to build up deposits, but it takes thousands of hours of operation
withpuresteamtoremovethem.
The impact of deposits on turbine performance is the most
pronounced in the HP section. Performance loss depends on
deposit thickness, their location(steampressure), andtheresulting
surface roughness (EPRI 2001b). Deposits will change the basic
profile of the nozzle partitions resulting in losses caused by
changes inflow, energy distribution, andaerodynamic profiles, as
well as by surfaceroughness effects. Thesechanges can result in
large megawatt and efficiency losses. With replacement power
typicallyover $100/MWhandcostingasmuchas$7000per MWh
inthesummer of 1998, thesavings fromreducingthis deposition
canbevery high.
IntheLP turbine, deposits areoftencorrosive, they canchange
theresonant frequency of blades, increasethecentrifugal loadon
blade shrouds and tenons and, in the transonic stages, they can
influencethegenerationof shock waves.
SolutionsOptimization of cycle chemistry (J onas, 1982,
Progress in..., 1981; EPRI, 1986, 1994c, 1998b, 1998c; 1985d,
2002a; J onas, etal., 2000, 2007; ASME, 2002) istheeasiestmethod
for reducing impurity transport and deposition. Theoptimal cycle
chemistry will result inreducedcorrosionandminimizedimpurity
transport. Thisisespeciallyimportantif copper alloysarepresentin
thesystembecausetheoptimal feedwater pH for copper alloysand
ferrousmaterialsarenotthesameandtheincorrectpHcanresultin
highlevelsof ironor copper transport. Other methodsfor managing
depositiononbladesurfacesinclude:
Specify goodsurfacefinishes (polishedblades) onall newand

replacement blades.
Determine the effect of erosion and deposition on maximum

MWandefficiencywithavalveswideopen(VWO) test. Thedata
fromseveral VWOtests canbecomparedtodeterminetherateof
MW loss and MW versus chemistry and operation. This can be
usedtooptimizethesystem.
Turbine washing to reduce deposition and MW losses and

improveefficiency. Both, aturbinewash of an assembledturbine
andawashof adisassembledrotor canbeusedtoremovesoluble
deposits. To remove corrosive salt deposits, several days of
washing may be needed. A wash is usually completed when the
concentrationof corrosiveimpurities, suchassodiumandchloride,
inthewashwater islessthan50ppb.
Water Droplet Erosion
In thelast stages of theLP turbine, thesteamexpands to well
belowsaturation conditions andaportionof thevapor condenses
intoliquid(EPRI, 2001b; Ryzenkov, 2000; Oryakhin, et al., 1984;
Rezinskikh, et al., 1993; Sakamoto, et al., 1992; Povarov, et al.,
1985; Heyman, 1970, 1979, 1992). Although the condensed
dropletsarevery small (0.05to1m, 2to40indiameter), some
of themaredepositedontosurfacesof thestationary bladeswhere
theycoalesceintofilmsandmigratetothetrailingedge. Herethey
aretornoff bythesteamflowintheformof largedroplets(5to20
microns, 0.2 to 0.8 mils). These droplets accelerate under the
forcesof thesteamactingonthemand, whenthey arecarriedinto
theplaneof rotationof therotatingblades, theyhavereachedonly
afractionof thesteamvelocity.Asaresult, thebladeshitthemwith
avelocitythat isalmost equal tothecircumferential velocityof the
blades, whichcanbeas highas 640m/s (2100ft/s) inafossil LP
turbine. Water droplet erosion typically occurs in the last two to
threerows of theLP turbines in fossil fired units. Thedamageis
most commonontheleadingedgeandtipof thebladesandalong
theshroud.
In turbines operating at low load for long periods, such as
cycling and peaking units, reversed flow of steam caused by
windageandactivationof hoodspray canerodethetrailingedges
of blades. Thin trailing edges with erosion grooves can become
fatigue or corrosion fatigue crack initiation sites. Less frequent
erosion damage locations include LP turbine glands and seals,
stationary blades, blade attachment sections of discs, disc flow
holes(impulsedesign), andtheLP rotor at thegland.
The effects of steamand early condensate chemistry on water
droplet erosionarenot known, but studieshavefoundthat NaCl in
thedropletssignificantlyreducestheincubationperiodfor erosion.
In addition, pH was found to have a strong impact on both the
incubation period and the erosion rate. At higher pH, both the
maximumandsteadystateerosionratesdecreasewhiletheincubation
periodincreases(Ryzenkov, 2000; Povarov, et al., 1985).
SolutionsThere are several options available for reducing the
amountof damagefromliquiddropletimpact. Therearetwoprincipal
options: protection of the leading edge by a hard material and
collectionanddrainageof moisture. Table6outlinestheseoptions.
Table6. Long-TermActionsfor ReducingMoistureErosiononLP
TurbineBlades.
TurbineInspectionandMonitoring
Adequate turbine inspection methods are available to detect
corrosion and deposition. These NDT methods include visual,
magnetic particle, ultrasonic, dye penetrant, eddy current, and
radiographic techniques. Modern turbine designs consider the
accessibility of individual componentsby inspectionprobes.
Monitoring techniques include stress and vibration monitoring
(i.e., vibrationsignature), temperatureandflowmeasurement, and
water and steamchemistry sampling and analysis. (J onas, 1982,
1985d, 1986, 1994; EPRI, 1984b, 1994a, 1994c, 1997b, 1997c,
1998c, 1999, 2002a; J onas, et al., 1993, 2000; J onas and Syrett,
1987; Schleithoff, 1984; Progress in..., 1981). An advanced
expert systemhas been developed (EPRI, 1994c) for the use by
stationoperatorsandchemists, whichautomaticallydeterminesthe
223
problems and recommends corrective actions. There are also
monitoring methods for online diagnosis of the environments on
turbinesurfaces andcorrosion(J onas, 1994; EPRI, 1994a, 1997b,
1997c, 1999; J onas, et al., 1993).
MISSINGKNOWLEDGE
It is estimated by the author that 70 percent of knowledge to
solve and prevent corrosion problems in steam turbines is
available. Thepercentageof availableknowledgefor understanding
theeffects of stress and environment is much lower than that for
solving the problems, about 40 percent. The knowledge that is
missingor needsimprovement includes:
ThresholdstressrequiredtoinitiateSCC inbladeattachments.
Effects of steeplegeometry (stress concentrations and size) on

SCC andCF.
Effects of overloads during heater box and overspeed tests

onstress redistributionandSCC insteeples, bladeroots, anddisc
keyways.
Effectivenessof grindingout SCC andCF cracksasacorrective

measure.
Effectsof organicwater treatmentchemicals, andorganicimpurities

onSCC, CF, andpittingandcompositionof water droplets.
Effectsof electrical chargescarriedbywater dropletsoncorrosion.
Effectsof galvanic couplingof dissimilar materials, suchasthe

blade-steeple, oncorrosion.
Effects of residues of preservatives andLoctite on SCC, CF,

andpittingof bladeattachments.
Effectsof bladetrailingedgeerosiononcracking.
Acceleratedstresscorrosiontesting.
Effects of variable amplitude loading on CF crack initiation

andpropagation.
Effectsof water dropletpHandcompositiononerosionandhow

topredict erosion.
Effectsof shotpeeningtoreducestressesandSCCof bladeroots

anddisc steeples.
Understanding of the basic mechanisms of stress corrosion,

corrosionfatigue, fatigue, andstressinducedpitting.
CASE HISTORIES
StressCorrosionCrackinginFinger-StyleDovetails
Unit: Thestationconsistsof three805MW, once-throughboiler,
supercritical, coal-fired units that went into operation between
1974and1976. Eachof thethreeunits has two LP turbines (LPA
andLPB).
Problem: In 1995, in Unit 1, abladefailedin theL-1rowat a
tiewire hole of the leading blade of a four-blade group (Nowak,
1997; Kilroy, et al., 1997). Threedamagedgroups of blades were
removed for replacement. A wet fluorescent magnetic particle
examinationof thefinger-stylediscattachmentsfoundhundredsof
crack-likeindications, whichwerelater identifiedasSCC. Cracks
ranbothaxially andradially, andweredeep(Figure25).
Figure 25. Locations in Finger and PinAttachments Where SCC
HasBeenFound. (Courtesyof EPRI, 1997)
Inspection: Inspection procedures and the acceptance criteria
that would be applied were developed before the outage.
Eventually NDE inspectionfoundsomedamageineachof the12
ends of all six rotors. Severecrackingwas foundinall four-rotor
endsinUnit 2andinUnit 3onbothendsof LPB. Next inseverity
werebothendsof Unit1LPB andUnit3LPA; withafewindications
in Unit 1 LPA. In the heavily cracked rotors, damage was most
severeinFingers3, 4, and5withlittleor nocrackinginFingers1
or 6. Cracking was evenly distributed between admission and
dischargesides in Fingers 3 and 4 with somewhat morecracking
ontheadmissionsideinFinger 5.
Results of metallurgical analysis: A metallurgical evaluation
confirmedthepresenceof extensivepitting. Crackswerefoundtobe
intergranular, highly branched, and oxide-filled. The metallurgical
examinationwasunabletodetectthepresenceof specificcontaminants
on the fracture surface. Sampling of deposits, which had occurred
elsewhere in the cycle (crossover piping, bucket pins, and bucket
fingers) duringprior outages, hadfoundindicationsof sodium, sulfur,
andchlorideandsodiumhydroxidewasfoundby x-raydiffractionin
crossover piping.
Analysis of samples fromtwo rotors showed that thechemical
compositionwaswithinthespecificationfor ASTMA470Class7
material. Tensilestrengthaveraged126.5ksi (870MPa) for thetwo
specimens; yieldaveraged112.5ksi (775MPa).
Review of cycle chemistry: Several cycle chemistry changes
had been madeover timein responseto events such as improved
technology andinformation, andupsets causedby condenser tube
leaks, demineralizer breaks, andvariationsinboiler water makeup.
Themainwater chemistryproblemwasoperationwithmorpholine,
whichresultedinpoor condensatepolisher performanceandhigh
concentrations of sodium hydroxide in feedwater and steam. A
heavy deposit of sodiumhydroxide was found in the crossover
piping. Theunit hadbeenchangedto oxygenatedtreatment about
thetimeof thediscovery of thestresscorrosioncracks, whichhas
sinceresultedinbetter water andsteampurity.
Resultsof stressanalysis: A finiteelement stressanalysisshowed
that Fingers 3, 4, and5of thegroupwerethemost highly stressed.
Themaximumequivalent elastic stresses aroundthepinholes were
~222ksi (1530MPa), ~114ksi (786MPa) at theinner land, and~89
ksi (614MPa) at theouter land(closer todiscouter diameter [OD]).
Thedifferencesbetweeninner andouter landstressesagreedwiththe
observation that field cracking was more severe at the inner land.
However, no SCC was discovered in the flat portion of the disc
fingersaroundtheholes, wherethestresswasnearly twiceashigh.
Closer examinationfoundthat theflat surfacenear thepinholes
did not show cracks nucleating from the bottom of the pits,
whereas intergranular cracks appeared in thepits along theledge
wherethepitswerelinkedtoformcontinual flaws.
Root causes: There were two root causes of this massive
problem: high design stresses and improper feedwater chemistry
using morpholine, which resulted in the presence of NaOH and
other impurities in steam. One can also speculate about the
contributionsof thelocal stressconcentration, poor surfacefinish,
andresidual machiningstresses.
Economic analysis: An economic analysis was performed and
the costs considered included: replacement of rotors in-kind,
replacementwithanimprovedrotor steampaththatwouldimprove
unit heat rate by 1.2 percent, rotor weld repair, outage duration
costs, performance changes, reduced generation capacity from
pressureplates, fuel pricing, andreplacement energy costs.
Actions: As a temporary fix, the affected blade rows were
removed and nine pressure plates were installed out of the 12
possible locations. A pressure plate is a temporary device that
provides a pressure drop when installed as a replacement for a
removedbladerow. A decisionwasmadetopurchasetwonewfully
bladed rotors and to refurbish theexisting rotors. For Unit 1, new
rotors were purchased fromthe original equipment manufacturer
(OEM). ThetwoLP rotorsremovedfromUnit 1wereweldrepaired
using12percent chromiummaterial appliedwithasubmergedarc
weldprocess, andinstalledinUnit 3. Material testingandanalysis
were used to determine the expected lifetime of the refurbished
partsagainstdamagebySCC, andbothhigh- andlow-cyclefatigue.
Turbineandcrossover pipeswerecleanedtoremovedeposits.
MassiveSCC of Disc RimSupercritical
Once-ThroughUnit after OnlyFiveYearsof Service
Problem: Stress corrosion cracking of the L-1 stage disc was
discoveredduringroutineinspection(Figure26).
Figure 26. Massive SCC of L-1 Disc Caused by High
Concentrationof NaOH inSteam.
Root cause: The SCC was caused by poor performanceof the
condensate polishers that operated in H-OH form through
ammonia breakthrough when they released Na
+
. The sodium
reactedwithwater formingNaOH anddepositedintheturbine.
Actions: Rotor replaced and operation of condensate polishers
andmonitoringwasimproved.
StressCorrosionCrackingof
Bolted-onDiscsinOneTypeof LP Turbine
Problem: In theeffort to accommodatelonger L-0 blades, one
typeof LP turbinewas originally designedwiththebolted-onlast
disc madeof NiCrMoV low-alloy steel andheat treatedto ayield
strengthof upto 175ksi (1200MPa). This steel was foundto be
susceptibletoSCC.
Root cause: Theroot causeof this problemwas design with a
highstrengthmaterial that isvery susceptibletoSCC.
Solution: All of these discs in many power plants had to be
replaced with a lower strength material because of the danger of
SCC failuresinall typesof steamenvironments.
CorrosionFatigueof aBladeAirfoil
Unit: A 400 MW reheat unit with a once-through boiler,
seawater cooling, andmixedbedcondensatepolishers.
Problem: During a three-month period, condenser cooling
water leakage occurred periodically. Cation conductivity in the
condensateandfeedwater increasedupto2S/cmfor about 30to
60minutesper day. At theendof thethree-monthperiod, vibration
wasdetectedintheLP turbine(EPRI, 1998a)
Damage: Theturbinewas openedandfivebrokenfreestanding
L-2 rotating blades were found. According to the turbine design
data, the broken blades were in the phase transition zone. The
bladeswerebrokenatthetransitionbetweenreddishdepositsatthe
bladefoot and clean metal in theupper part of theblades (phase
transitionontheblade). A laboratory investigationfoundchloride
andsodiumatthecracksiteandconfirmedcorrosionfatigueasthe
underlyingmechanism. A calculationof vibrationfrequencies did
not showabnormal conditions.
Root cause: Improper water chemistry conditionscausedby the
condenser tubeleak.
Actions: The broken blades were replaced, the condenser leak
was repaired, and adampening (lacing) wirewas introduced into
thebladedesign. By doing so, both theenvironmental and stress
contributorswerereduced.
CorrosionFatigueof NumerousModificationsof L-1Blades
Problem: Onetypeof LP turbineexperiencedcorrosionfatigue
failures of the L-1 blade airfoil, which was modified and
redesigned over 10 times. Fatigue failures occurred in periods
rangingfromsixweekstoover 10yearsof operation. Thepresence
of chloride in the blade deposits at concentrations above 0.25
percent caused pitting, which accelerated crack initiation. In one
case, new16inch(40cm) bladeswereforgedintwodiesandmost
of thebladesforgedinoneof thedies(butnonefromtheother die)
failedwithinabout six weeks.
Rootcause: Therootcauseof thisfastCF failurewasanoff-design
blade geometry caused by wrong die dimensions, which brought
thesebladesintoresonance. Thefailureaccelerationwascausedby
corrosiveimpuritiesinsteam, mainly chloride.
Actions: Redesigned, better tuned blades were installed and
improvedcontrol of water andsteamchemistry wasinitiated.
MassivePittingof aTurbine(HP, IP,
andLP) after BrackishWater Ingress
Problem: A separation of the welded end of the condensate
sparger caused breakage of condenser tubes and ingress of
brackish water into a once-through boiler cycle. Because of
the poor reliability of the water chemistry instrumentation, the
instrument readingswereignoredandthetroublewasnoticedafter
therewasalmost noflowthroughthesuperheater becauseof heavy
deposits. Theturbinewith seasalt deposits was left assembled in
thehighhumidity environment andwasonly opened11daysafter
thecondenser tubefailure. It wasfoundthat thewholeturbinewas
severely rustedandpittedandit waseventually replaced.
Mixed bed condensate polishers were not able to protect the
cycle against the massive ingress of brackish water. They were
exhaustedwithinafewminutes.
Root cause: Theroot causeof theimpurityingresswasafailureof
thecondensatesparger. Poor water chemistrymonitoringandcontrol
and the long delay in beginning turbine damage assessment and
cleaningsignificantly contributedtotheamount of damagecaused.
Actions: Therotorswerereplacedandnewchemistrymonitoring
instrumentationwasinstalled.
L-0BladeCorrosionFatigue
CrackingCausedbyTrailingEdgeErosion
Problem: After 14to18yearsof serviceof onetypeof 400MW
turbine, there were five cases of L-0 33.5 inch (85 cm) long
shroudedbladefailuresabout 5inches(12.7cm) belowthetip. The
CF cracksoriginatedat theerodedandthinnedtrailingedge. When
thebladetipsseparated, thebladefragmentshadsuchkineticenergy
that they penetratedover 2inches (5cm) of carbonsteel condenser
struts. Thebladematerial wasmartensitic12%Cr stainlesssteel with
a Brinell hardness of ~345. All affected units were similar drum
boiler units, some on all volatile treatment (AVT) and some on
phosphatetreatment. Steamchemistryintheaffectedunitswasgood
anddidnot play aroleintherateof erosionor cracking.
Root cause: Erosion caused by frequent operation at low load
with the hood sprays on and reversed steamflow, lack of proper
early inspection, andbladedesignwiththintrailingedge.
Actions: Heavily eroded and cracked blades were replaced,
shallow erosion damage was polished, and similar turbines were
inspectedfor damage.
StressCorrosionCrackingof Dovetail Pins
Problem: A dovetail pin, which penetrates both the rotating
bladeandthewheel dovetails, holdsabucket inplaceonthewheel
of arotor. Inmanyplantsduringthe1970sandearlier, dovetail pins
hadsufferedstresscorrosioncracking, althoughnolost bladeshad
resulted. The material originally used for the dovetail pins was
similar toASTMA681GradeH-11tool steel, withachemistry of
Fe-5.0Cr-1.Mo-0.5V-0.4C at a strength level of 250 to 280 ksi
225
(1715to1920MPa). Thismaterial isstill usedinrarecaseswhere
thehighest strengthisrequired.
Root cause: Useof highstrengthmaterial, whichis susceptible
toSCC, combinedwithhighbendingstresses.
Actions: The approach to solving the cracking problem was
twofold: changing the material chemistry and strength and using
steel ball shot peeningtoimpart acompressivelayer tothesurface
of the finished pins. The new high strength material is 5CrMoV
lowalloy steel at astrengthlevel of 240to 270ksi (1645to 1850
MPa). For lower stressapplications, anew1CrMoV lowalloysteel
withastrengthof (170to200ksi) isused.
Results: Nocrackinghasbeenobservedindovetail pinssincethe
changeinmaterialsandtheintroductionof theshot peeningpractice.
TurbineDestructionStickingValves
Problem: After only16hoursof operationof anew6MWsteam
turbineinstalledinafertilizer plant, anaccidental disconnectof the
electrical loadonthegenerator ledtoadestructiveoverspeed. The
overspeed occurred becausehigh boiler carryover of boiler water
treatment chemicals, including polymeric dispersant, introduced
these chemicals into the bushings of all turbine control valves,
gluingthevalvesstuck intheopenposition.
Root cause: Poor control of boiler operation (drum level)
together with the use of the polymeric dispersant that, after
evaporation of water, becomes astrong adhesive. Controls of the
electric generator allowedaccidental disconnect.
Actions: New turbine generator installed, boiler and generator
controls fixed, turbine valves reused after dissolution of the
bushingdepositsinhot water.
CONCLUSIONS
Steamturbines can be a very reliable equipment with life over

30 years and overhaul approximately every 10 years. However,
about 5 percent of the industrial and utility turbines experience
corrosionanddepositionproblems. MostlyduetoLPbladeandblade
attachment (disc rim) corrosionfatigueor stresscorrosionfailures.
Theroot causes of thebladeanddisc failures includedesignwith

highstresses, badsteamchemistry, anduseof highstrengthmaterials.
Other steam turbine problems include: low cycle thermal

fatigue, pitting during unprotected layup and operation, loss of
MW/HPandefficiencyduetodeposits, water dropleterosion, flow
acceleratedcorrosion, solidparticleerosionbymagnetiteparticles
exfoliatedfromsuperheater, turbinedestructiveover speedcaused
by the control valves stuck open because of deposits in the
bushings, andwater induction-water hammer.
All theproblemsarewell understood, detectable, andpreventable.

Monitoring, inspection, anddefectsevaluationmethodsareavailable.
Thesemethods includedesign reviews and audits of operation and
maintenance, NDT, life prediction, vibration monitoring, vibration
signature analysis, water, steam, and deposit chemistry monitoring
andanalysis, valveexercise, andcontrol of superheater temperatures.
Steamcycle design and operation influences turbine problems

by causinghighsteady andvibratory stresses, by thermal stresses
related to load and temperature control, and by water and steam
purity andboiler carryover.
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Steam Turbine and Deposits Problems and Solutions

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Otakar J onas is a Consultant with J onas, Inc.

Mechanical design (stresses, vibration, stress concentrations,

Physical shape(stressconcentration, crevices, obstaclestoflow,

Material selection(maximumyieldstrength, corrosionproperties,

Flowandthermodynamics(flowexcitationof blades, incidence

Heat transfer (surface temperature, evaporation of moisture,

Welded rotors, large integral rotors, and discs without

Replacement of higher strength NiCrMoV discs with lower

Repair welding of discs and rotors; also with 12%Cr stainless

Freestanding and integrally shrouded LP blades without tenon

TitaniumLP bladescorrosionresistant inturbineenvironments

Curved (banana) stationary blades that reduce nozzle passing

Flow guides and double-ply expansion bellowsreduces

Moisture extraction to improve efficiency and reduce flow-

Built-up(shrunk-ondesign) withforgedshaft onto whichdiscs

Thediscsweldedtogether toformtherotor (Figure3).

Vibratory stressesandtheir frequencies.

Mechanical, frictional, andaerodynamic damping.

Stresses (J onas, 1985c)The mechanical design concepts for

Vibratory stresses are rarely accurately known, except when

Heat transfer and flow (EPRI, 1997c)Surface temperature

Flowof moistureTo avoid flow-accelerated corrosion (EPRI,

InspectabilityIn designing turbine components, the question

Chemical compounds used during machining, cleaning,

Threshold Stress, and da/dtqStage 2 Crack Growth Rate.

Concentration of impurities fromlow ppb levels in steamto

Insufficient pH control and buffering of impurities by water

High velocity and high turbulence flow of low-pH moisture

Evaporationanddryingof moistureonhot surfaces.

Oxygenated water treatment for once-through fossil units for

Turbine washing after chemical upsets to remove deposited

Reduction or elimination of copper and its oxides and their

Basic centrifugal load caused by rotor rotation. Locally high

Vibratorystressesinteractionof SCCandcorrosionfatigue. Also,

Operating outside of recommended steam purity limits for

Condenser leaksmajor ingress, generally one serious event,

Water treatment plant or condensate polisher regeneration

Improperly operated condensate polisher (operating beyond

Shutdownenvironment: poor layuppracticespluscorrosivedeposits.

Figure23. PittingintheL-1BladeTenon-ShroudArea. (Courtesy

Synchronous resonanceof theblades at aharmonic of theunit

Shock waves in the transonic flow region and shock wave-

Design of blades that arenot in resonancewith running speed

Eliminationof thesourcesof excitation.

Reductionof meanandalternatingstressesbydesign(lower stress

Better materials, suchasby avoidinghighstrengthalloys, using

Changing the vibration resonance response of the blade by

Changingtheresponseof thebladesby mixedtuning.

Changingoperatingprocedures; for example, avoidingoff-design

Controllingimpurityingress(reduceair inleakage, plugleaking

Changingunit operatingprocedures, particularly for shutdowns

Control of boiler carryover bydrumdesignandwater chemistry.

Optimizingor changingfeedwater andboiler water treatment to

Exhaust hoodandcondenser neck structure.

Rotor glandandother seal areas.

Rimandsteeplesof last rowdisc.

Rotor shaftlast disc transition.

Susceptiblematerial: carbonsteel or low-chromiumsteel.

Lowlevelsof dissolvedoxygen, excessoxygenscavenger.

Specify goodsurfacefinishes (polishedblades) onall newand

Determine the effect of erosion and deposition on maximum

Turbine washing to reduce deposition and MW losses and

Effects of steeplegeometry (stress concentrations and size) on